apes year in review
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APES year in review. 2012, The year everyone gets a 5!. Chapter 1: Introduction. Understand how natural world works Understand how human systems interact with natural system Accurately determine environmental problems Develop and follow a sustainable relationship with natural world. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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APES year in review
2012, The year everyone gets a 5!
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Chapter 1: Introduction
•Understand how natural world works
•Understand how human systems interact with natural system
•Accurately determine environmental problems
•Develop and follow a sustainable relationship with natural world
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Easter Island
Sustainability - A system/process can continue indefinitely without depleting resources used.*no sacrifice to future generations*StewardshipCaring for something that does not belong to youSound ScienceUse the scientific method
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A. Human population growth
• More than 6.3 billion people currently• last 25 yrs population grew by 2 billion• projected that population will be 10 billion by 2050• increase pop → increase need for resources
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B. Soil degradation
• Demand for food destroys the soil– erosion– minerals in soil are depleted– salinization– increased use of pesticides– Overuse of fresh water
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C. Global Atmospheric Changes
Global Warming
– CO2 produced from fossil fuel burning acts like a blanket around the earth.
– Plants take CO2 out of the atmosphere through photosynthesis
• 6CO2 +6H2O => 602 + C6H12O6
Ozone depletion– Chemicals released from the surface of the earth
destroy our ozone shield. – No stratospheric ozone, no protection from the UV
rays of the sun.
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•Rachel Carson was a scientist who wrote Silent Spring in 1962.•It addressed the growing use of pesticides (DDT) and their unpredicted effects on song birds.•Original users of pesticides did not know that the poisons used to kill insects would accumulate in other living things and kill them too. BIOACCUMULATION
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More Cool Environmentalist
• John Muir – Sierra Club
• Ansel Adams – Photography (Yosemite)
• Aldo Leopold – Sand County Almanac
• Henry David Thoreau – Walden
• Garrett Hardin – Tragedy of the Commons
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Earth’s Energy Budget
Figure 2.8
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Figure 2.9
• Tropics receive more concentrated insolation (2.5x more) than the poles due to the Earth’s curvature
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Varied Habitat calls for varied forms
Biomes determined by latitude and precipitation
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Notice, more precipitation bigger the plant life
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Habitats are dynamic… constantly changing.. Succession
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• Hydric succession• Mother nature is
always busy.• Wet moves to dry
• Notice replacement organisms
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Examples -after a lava flow and at the edge of a receding glacier.
Primary Succession
Where there was no life previously
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Secondary succession- from abandoned field to mature forest
Secondary Succession- re-colonization
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Succession and Chemical Cycling
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Basic Concepts of Biological Diversity
• Bio diversity refers to the variety of life forms in an area.– Expressed as # of species in an area – Or # of genetic types in an area
• Genetic diversity: – total # of genetic characteristics of a specific species, sub
species or group of species.
• Habitat diversity: – the different kinds of habitat in a given unit area.
• Species diversity:– Species richness- total # of sp– Species evenness- the relative abundance of sp– Species dominance- the most abundant sp
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Species Diversity
Merely counting the number of species is not enough to describe biological diversity.
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Questions?
Take a few minutes to look over the spread sheet
1. Write down 3 observations
2. Which ecosystems are more diverse; those with larger DI numbers or smaller ? Explain
3. Compare Ecosystems A and B- How do their indices compare? Each has 10 different species, Ecosystem A has only 29 organisms and Ecosystem B has over 300
Which has a healthier Diversity Index? Why
4. Compare the last two Ecosystem indices. What do you notice?
5. Why is it important to use a Diversity Index?
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a b c pop. DI pop. DI pop. DITotals 29 0.1058 311 0.1067 4400 0.1209Species 1 2 0.0048 23 0.0055 100 0.0005Species 2 3 0.0107 23 0.0055 200 0.0021Species 3 4 0.0190 34 0.0120 500 0.0129Species 4 3 0.0107 22 0.0050 600 0.0186Species 5 2 0.0048 33 0.0113 400 0.0083Species 6 3 0.0107 44 0.0200 700 0.0253Species 7 4 0.0190 33 0.0113 600 0.0186Species 8 2 0.0048 22 0.0050 300 0.0046Species 9 3 0.0107 33 0.0113 700 0.0253Species 10 3 0.0107 44 0.0200 300 0.0046
DISamp
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Species Richness (diversity)
• Species richness not very informative
• Each community has 5 spp & 50 individuals
Spp1
Spp 2
Spp 3
Spp 4
Spp 5
Comm
A
10 10 10 10 10
Comm
B
46 1 1 1 1
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Simpson Diversity Index (D)
Ds = (n1(n1 -1)/N(N-1))
Where:
Ds = Bias corrected form for Simpson Index
n1 = number of individuals of spp 1N = Total number of spp in community
In this form as diversity increases index value gets smaller
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D. Loss of Biodiversity
• Habitat destruction is the major cause of loss of Diversity
• exact # of species lost is unknown because not all species are identified
• strong ecosystems need biodiversity• 1959-1980 25% of all prescription drugs
from natural resources• We are in the middle of the 6th great
extinction
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Ch 2: Ecosystems Levels of organization of matter
Universe
Ecosphere/biosphere
Ecosystems
Communities
Populations
Organisms
Cells
Atoms
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Plants and animals interacting with their abiotic environment. Ecosystems
exist in biomes.•Climate – ave temperature over time•*Weather – daily variations in temp
and precipitation•Microclimate and Other Abiotic
Factors* light intensity
* Soil type* topography
Ecosystems
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Physics
• Energy is measured in calories– Calorie – amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram
of water 1 degree Celsius.– Kilocalorie = 1,000 calories
• 1st law of thermodynamics– Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only
change forms (light to chemical)• 2nd law of thermodynamics
– Energy transformation increases disorder (entropy) of the universe.
– Heat is the lowest grade of energy.
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Trophic Relationship
Food webs• Trophic levels
* producers* herbivores*primary carnivores
10 % rule- only ten percent of the energy can be passed from one trophic level to the next.
90% energy lost as heat from web
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Be able to fill in Kcal when given one level.
All biomass gets its energy from the sunOnly 10% of energy from one trophic level moves to the next trophic levelEnergy released is high potential energy molecules (like glucose) then converted to low potential energy molecules (like carbon dioxide)
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Numbers Pyramid
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Relationships
• Mutualism* Flowers & insects
•Commensalism•Predator/prey • host parasite• Competition
• habitat vs. niche
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Limiting FactorsTemperature, light, oxygen, carbon dioxide, precipitation• Optimum levels• Zones of stress• Limits of Tolerance• Range of ToleranceSynergistic effects – The interaction of two
or more factors is greater than the sum of the effects when each acts alone. Example: pollution and disease
Phosphorous is limiting factor in fresh water ecosystemsAdd a limiting factor…. Result cultural eutrophication
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Ch 3: Ecosystems, how they work
•Recycle or Die•All matter is recycled through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.•Nothing is created nothing is destroyed•All stable ecosystems recycle matter and get energy from the sun
MATTER CYCLED …………………………ENERGY FLOWS
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Energy... laws• High Quality Energy: organized & concentrated; can
perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)• Low Quality Energy: disorganized, dispersed (heat in
ocean or air wind, solar)• First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created
nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another (Law
• of Conservation of Energy)• Second Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is changed
from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded
• into lower quality energy, usually heat
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Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis (Only 1% of the energy from the sun is used)– Chlorophyll – absorbs light to drive photosynthesis
• Plants use glucose to:– Construct other molecules– Build their cell wall– Store energy– Source of energy
Building organic from inorganic
RespirationGetting the energy out of food
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Carbon cycle
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Nitrogen cycle
• Main reserve in the atmosphere N2 unusable!
• Living things must get N from ammonium (NH4) or nitrate (NO3) for DNA, proteins
• N from the atmo must be fixed • Change N2 into ammonium or nitrate
– Rhizobium (bacteria living in roots of legumes) fig 3-10
– Industrial
– Lightning
– Burning fossil fuels
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Nitrogen Cycle
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KNOW these Terms
• Nitrogen fixing: because atmospheric N2 cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium)
• Ammonification: decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia
• Nitrification: ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3)-
• Assimilation: inorganic nitrogen is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins
• Denitrification: bacteria convert nitrate (NO3)- and nitrite (NO2)- back into N2 gas
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Phosphorus cycle• No gas phase, only solid and
liquid• Man-made fertilizers contain
organic phosphates• Because P is a limiting factor
in aquatic systems, it leads to eutrophication
• The rain forest is very good at recycling P, except when we cut it down…
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element
Main nonliving reservoir
Main living reservoir
Other nonliving reservoir
Human-induced problem
Carbon
C
Atmo
CO2
Carbohydrates (CH2O)n
And all organic molecules
Hydro
Carbonate (CO3-2)
Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Litho minerals
Global warming
Carbon from fossil fuels underground are burned and released into the air as CO2
Nitrogen
N
Atmo
N2
Proteins and other N- containing organic molecules
Hydro
Ammonium
NH4+
Nitrate
NO3-
Nitrite NO2-
Eutrophication
Fertilizers contain human-made nitrates that end up in the water
Phos-phorous
P
Litho
rocks as PO4-3
*no gas phase
DNA
ATP
phospholipids
Hydro
Phosphate
PO4-3
Eutrophication
Fertilizers contain human-made phosphates that end up in the water
Cutting down rainforest stops recycling of P
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Biosphere II (remember ecocolumns)
• Purpose: recreate conditions of Earth (Biosphere I) * to understand our world better* space travel
• 5 acres in Arizona, 4000 species, 10 humans
* problem: 02 + CO2 were absorbed by concrete
* ants and cockroaches took over
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Fires in Ecosystem• Maintain balance of species and energy
in ecosystems over the long run. • Beneficial b/c provide nutrients for soil• We avoid natural fires, but the problems
like Crown Fires- (not natural) kill the whole tree
• 1988 Yellowstone fires changed climax ecosystems of white bark pine trees to huckle berries. Grizzlies eat both
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Succession - One species gradually replaced by another in
an ecosystem• Primary – new ecosystem
where there were no living things before. Cooled lava, receded glacier, mud slide
• Secondary- ecosystem used to be there. Fire, humans clear an area
• Aquatic – lakes taken over by terrestrial ecosystem
• Climax ecosystem- in balance only changes if major interference
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Primary succession
•Must create new soil for plants to grow•The first plants to come in are called pioneer species
•Lichen•Moss•Microbes
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Why do species change?
• Environmental resistance and biotic potential
• Selective pressure on mutations
• Speciation
* creation of a new species based on reproductive isolation
Populations isolated by rivers, mts, civilization
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Natural Selection • Some individuals may be better suited
to the environment than others.
• Those better able to survive and reproduce leave more offspring. Bird of Paradise
• Their descendants form a larger proportion of the next generation.
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Who Lives Where and Why?
Evolutionary response…
Resource Partitioning - Whenever there is competition for the same
resources, someone loses out!
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Evolution
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Speciation (Galapagos Finches)
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Geological Context (space and time for evolution)
• Plate tectonics
• Geological time scale (fig. 5-21)
• Cambrian explosion
• Selective breeding• Artificial selection• Natural selection
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Island biogeography…. Founder effec
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K- Selected Species populations of a roughly constant size have low reproductive rates. offspring require extensive postnatal care until they have sufficiently matured. They are very limited in resourses therefore they are a very competitive species.
Elephants, Rhinos and long lived plants are examples of a k-selected species.
R-Selected Species populations that experience rapid growth of the J-curve variety. offspring produced are numerous, mature quite rapidly, and require very little postnatal care. this population grows fast, reproduces quickly, and dies quickly.
Bacteria and mice are examples of r- selected species.
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exponential
r-species
K-species
--------------------------------------------------Carrying Capacity-
Carrying capacity changes…
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exponential
r-species
K-species
--------------------------------------------------Carrying Capacity
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Chapter 6•World population trends•Calculations •Demographic transition•Age structure diagrams•Developed vs. developing countries
Chapter 7
•Fertility rates•World bank•1994 UN conference in Cairo- program of action
Ch 6 and 7: The Human Population
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Population DensityPopulation Density
• Population Density (or ecological population density) is the amount of individuals in a population per unit habitat area– Some species exist in high densities - Mice– Some species exist in low densities - Mountain
lions
• Density depends upon– social/population structure– mating relationships– time of year
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Population DispersionPopulation DispersionPopulation dispersion is the spatial pattern of distribution
There are three main classifications
Clumped: individuals are lumped into groups ex. Flocking birds or herbivore herds due to resources that are clumped or social interactions most common http://www.johndarm.clara.net/galleryphots/
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Population Population DispersionDispersion
Uniform: Individuals are regularly spaced in the environment - ex. Creosote bush due to antagonism between individuals, or do to regular spacing of resources rare because resources are rarely evenly spaced
http://www.calflora.net/bloomingplants/creosotebush2.html
www.agry.purdue.edu/turf/ tips/2002/clover611.htm
Random: Individuals are randomly dispersed in the environment ex. Dandelions due to random distribution of resources in the environment, and neither positive nor negative interaction between individuals rare because these conditions are rarely met
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Age StructureAge Structure• The age structure of a population is
usually shown graphically
• The population is usually divided up into prereproductives, reproductives and postreproductives
• The age structure of a population dictates whether is will grow, shrink, or stay the same size
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Age Structure DiagramsAge Structure DiagramsPositive Growth Zero Growth Negative Growth (ZPG)Pyramid Shape Vertical Edges Inverted Pyramid
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Population Dynamics Population Dynamics OutlineOutline
• Characteristics of a Population
• Population Dynamics and Population Dynamics and Carrying CapacityCarrying Capacity
• Reproductive Strategies
• Conservation Biology
• Human Impacts
• Working with Nature
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• Biotic Potential–factors allow a population to increase
under ideal conditions, potentially leading to exponential growth
• Environmental Resistance –affect the young more than the
elderly in a population, thereby affecting recruitment (survival to reproductive age)
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(b) crude birth rate= number birth per 1000 individuals(d) crude death rate= number death per 1000 individuals(r) growth rate = natural increase in population expressed as percent
per years (If this number is negative, the population is shrinking.) equation:
rate = birth – death
But other factors affect population growth in a certain area…
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Population growth rates
increase population decrease population births deathsimmigration emigration (exit)
r = (birth - death)+ (immigration-emigration)
immigration = migration of individuals into a population from another area or country
emigration = migration of individuals from a population bound for another country
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r = (birth - death)+ (immigration-emigration)
B D I E r=( 10/1000) – (5/1000) + (1/1000) – (10/1000) r=(0.01-0.005) + (0.001 – 0.01)r = 0.005 – 0.009 = -0.004 or –0.4% per year
example: population of 10,000 has 100 births (10 per 1000)50 deaths (5 per 1000)10 immigration (1 per 1000)100 emigration (10 per 1000)
You try.
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Know Rule of 70
If the growth rate is 1% and the population size is 10,000, how many years will it take to get to a population of 40,000?
Population doubling:
In 140 years, the population will be 40,000 people.SHOW YOUR WORK!!!!!!!!!
(70 years)(2) =140 years
2 D.T. 40,000
1 D.T. 20,000
In 70 years the population will be 20,00070/rate =70/1% =70 years to double
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Bottom Line= as countries develop, first their death rate drops and then their birth rate drops
Reasons for the phases:
Phase II: medical care
nutrition (births still high)
technology
Phase III: birth control
education (of women)
lower mortality rate of infants
less child labor
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Developed Countries Canada, U.S., Australia, Western Europe
(Denmark)
Developing Countries Latin America, China, Africa (Kenya)
1/5 of the world’s pop. Lives in absolute poverty, illiterate, lack clean H2O and don’t have enough food
80% of world’s pop. Lives in developing co. and growing
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• Total fertility= avg. # of children born per woman
• For developed countries = 2.1• For developing countries = 2.6• Fertility of 2.0= replacement level
– Under 2.0 = shrinking population– Over 2.0 = growing pop.
• For developed countries = 2.1• For developing countries = 2.6(or higher)
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• Special agency of the United Nations
• Receives $$ from developed co. and loans $$ to developing co.
– Sometimes this backfires by increasing debt
• Oversees all types of issues, not just environmental issues
– Ex. electricity, roads, new modern technology
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Soil (pg 281)
Basis for life
(Dust Bowl(pg 304), Porosity and Permeability Lab)
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Texture• Sand 2.0-.02 mm
• Silt .02-.002 mm
• Clay.002mm ≥
some microscopic
CharacteristicsSands have large pore spaces, whereas clays have many small pore spaces. Both sand and clay can have high porosity
Permeability is a measure of a soil's or rock's ability to transmit a fluid, usually water.
The most rapid water and air movement is in sandsClay has low permeability due to small grain sizes with large surface areas, which results in increased friction. Also these pore spaces are not well connected. Clay often creates
confining layers in the subsurface.
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LOAM: 40%sand 40% silt 20% clay
Loam is theoretically the ideal soil
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Classes of Soil
Mollisols- very fertile, dark, found in temperate grasslands, best agricultural soil, Deep A horizonOxisols- soil of tropical and subtropical rainforest layer of iron and Al oxides in B horizon, little O horizonAlfisols- weathered forest soil, not deep, but developed OAE+B typical of most temperate forest biome. Need fertilizer for agriculture
Aridsols- dry lands + desert, lack of vegetation, lack of rain unstructured vertically, irrigation leads to salinization b/c of high evaporation.
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Soil Fertility improvement
• Organic fertilizer– Animal manure, green manure, compost
Improves water holding content,
Reduces soil erosion
Maintains texture
Maintains fertility
Maintains soil diversity
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• Figure 9-1 Earth’s water supply
Water
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Water FactsRead water resources (conflicts in ME Case study- page
314case
• The primary use for fresh water in U.S. is for agriculture.
• In our homes, we use the most fresh water to wash, clean and flush.
• The typical person in an industrialized nation uses 700-1000 gallons per week!
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Human effects on the Hydrologic Cycle
Figure 9-3 The Hydrologic cycle
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• Figure 9-5a Global air circulation
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Rain shadow
Figure 9-6 Rain shadow
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The Ogallala Aquifer
Figure 9-16 Exploitation of an aquifer
Largest freshwater aquifer in world
overdrawn Remember
Water is the New Oil
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Mono Lake
• Excellent example of human interference with the water supply.
• The water in the lake was diverted from the lake to the city of Los Angeles. It became a salt bed.
• ↑ Salt concentration due to evaporationThree Gorges Dam in China• China needs to meet the growing demand
for energy• Huge environmental impact• Hundreds of thousands of people will be
displaced (not to mention the ecosystems which will be flooded)
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Soil• Erosion• Loss of fertility• Salinization• Waterlogging• Desertification
Water•Aquifer depletion
•Increased runoff and flooding from land cleared to grow crops
•Fish kills from pesticide runoff
•Surface and groundwater pollution from pesticides and fertilizers
•Over fertilization of lakes >> eutrophication
Air•Greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels•Other air pollutants from fossil fuels•Pollutions from pesticide sprays
Modern Food Production
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Major Environmental Effects of Food Production
Biodiversity Loss• Loss and degradation of
habitat from clearing grasslands and forests and draining wetlands
• Fish kills from pesticide runoff• Killing of wild predators to
protect live stock• Loss of genetic diversity from
replacing thousands of wild crop strains with a few monoculture strains
Human Health•Nitrates in drinking water
•Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air
•Contamination of drinking and swimming water with disease organisms from livestock wastes
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The Green Revolution
• To eliminate hunger by improving crop performance• Movement to increase yields by using:
– New crop cultivars– Irrigation– Fertilizers– Pesticides– Mechanization
Results:• Did not eliminate famine• Population still increasing• Increase cost of production• An increased negative environmental impact• Didn’t work for everyone
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Agriculture
• Animal Feedlots- – ADV- incresed meat, less land use, higher
profit, reduced soil erosion, protect biodiversity
– Disadv- Large inputs of grain, fish meal, fossil fuels, Greenhouse gases, methane and CO2, concentration of animal waste(pollution), use antibiotics....Bad
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Aquaculture
– Advantages-• High efficiency, high yield/ vol, reduce over
harvesting, low fuel, high profit
– Disadvantages-• Large inputs of land, feed, water• Large waste, water pollution• Uses grain • Destroy estuaries and mangroves,• Dense populations... disease
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Pesticides• Advantages
– Save lives– Increase food supplies– Work fast and profitable– Safe if used properly
• Disadvantages– Promote genetic resistence– Kill natural enemies– Harm wildlife and people– expensive
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Alternatives to Pesticides
• Cultivation practices fool the pest– Rotting crops, alternating planting times– Pheromones-sex attractants lure pest in trap
• Provide homes for pest predators– Polyculture
• Biololgical control– Bring in natural enemies
• Implant genetic resistence– GMO resist pest
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Ch 11 and 12:Protection of Biodiversity and Ecosystems
• Threatened – if the trend continues, the species will be endangered.•Endangered – if the trend continues, the species will go extinct.•Pharmaceuticals and native plants Approximately 25% of drugs used as medicines come from natural plant sources.•The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (1989) 300,000 birds died as a result of that particular oil spill. The area, Prince William Sound, is still recovering.
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Know Specific Details about…
These Endangered animals (and check Barron’s examples):
• Wild Turkey – a success story
• Whooping Crane- Eggs raised by sandhill cranes led to problems, but the efforts proved successful overall.
• Peregrine Falcon- DDT
• Spotted Owl- deforestation
• Fish living in George’s Bank (off New England)-The marketable fish were over fished and other species took over. An example of poor management of fisheries.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
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Endocrine Disrupters
• Interfere with normal hormone action• Can interfere with development• Are often connected to cancer • Can interfere with sexual activity
(alligators)• Are found in plastics and some
pesticides
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Environmental Health Effects of Pollution• Toxicology
– Response is amount of damage to dose of toxicant
– ED50
• Effective dose that causes 50% of population to exhibit a response
– LD50 Dose lethal to 50% of population
Note threshold before see effect or when effect begins to show
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WATERLaws
• Safe Drinking Water Act: (SDWA, 1974) set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water that may have adverse effects on human health
• Clean Water Act: (CWA, 1972) set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable, including wetlands
• Ocean Dumping Ban Act: (1988) bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste in the ocean
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Laws to Protect Life• Endangered Species Act: (1973) identifies threatened and
endangered species in the U.S., and puts their protection ahead of
• economic considerations• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES): (1973) lists species that cannot be commercially traded• as live specimens or wildlife products• Magnuson-Stevens Act: (1976) Management of marine
fisheries• Food Quality Protection Act: (1996) set pesticide limits in food,
& all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for• estrogenic/endocrine effects