appendix vi. results of the national scoping exercise (1)

7/28/2019 Appendix VI. Results of the National Scoping Exercise (1)

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AppendixVI.ResultsoftheNationalScopingExerciseMAC01WATERQUALITYDEGRADATION1.1.Alterationofnaturalriverflowandchangesinfreshwaterinputandsedimentload

Comoros:The islandshaveveryvariabledrainage systems; therenopermanentwater systems in

GrandeComorebecause of the highpermeability of the soils, but there are complex anddense

drainage systems onAnjouan,Mayotte andMoheli. There has been a reduction inquantity and

qualityofflowintheseriversandstreamsoverthepasttwodecades.Thishasresultedindifficulties

in theprovisionofwater fordomesticusesand irrigation,hydroelectricgenerationand increased

prevalenceofwater andvectorbornediseases(asaresultofstagnation)(ComorosMEDA,2012).

Kenya:There are twomajor river systems, the Tana andAthiSabaki rivers,whichdrain into the

IndianOcean inthenorthernregionoftheKenyacoast,andnumerousothersmallsemiperennial

rivers draining into the Indian Ocean (Ramisi, Umba,Mwache,Mkurumuji, Rare and Kombeni).

Modificationoffreshwaterriverflowandsedimenttransportbudgets,haveimpactedcreeks,deltas

andestuariesandcontributedtowardsthedegradationofcoastalhabitatsandcoralreefassociated

ecosystems(KenyaMEDA,2012).

Madagascar:Therearenumerousriversandstreamsthatflow intotheseaontheeast(Mananara

andMangoro,Maningory,andtheBemarivo, IvondroandMananjary)andwestcoast (Sambirano,

Mahajamba, Betsiboka,Mania, south and northMahavavy,Mangoky and Onilahy) (Madagascar

MEDA, 2012). The largest riveron the island is the IkopaRiver,which crossesAntananarivo and

feedsintoBetsibokaRiverintheeast.FlowsintheMandrareinthesouth,whichisthedriestpartof

the island,are intermittent.Flood flowsof theseriversareusuallyveryhighbecauseof thesteep

topography and sedimentation is common. In the Betsiboka estuary, huge quantities of reddish

orangesiltaretransportedanddepositedinlargequantitiesastheflowslowswhentherivermeets

thesea.Changesinsedimenttransportpatternshavecontributedtowardsboththemodificationof

shorelinesandsiltingofreefflatsandmangroveforests(Bemiasa2009,MadagascarMEDA,2012).

Mauritius:OnMauritiusthereare25majorriverbasinsand21minorones,whereasonRodrigues

thereare20majorriverbasinsand10minorones.Almostall riversonboth islandsareperennial

withmostofthestreamshavingtheirsourcesinthecentralhigherareas.Onbothislands,baseflow

rates of these rivers are typically low due to low levels of infiltration, due to the low retention

capacityofthesoilandporousbasalticrock.Flowsratescanhoweverincreasefromafewlitresper

secondtomorethan500m3/sduringfloods.Duringfloodssedimentsarecarriedouttoadistanceof

over5kmtosea.

Mozambique:Thereare100principal riverbasinsand anumberof international rivers (Rovuma,

Zambezi,Save,LimpopoandImcomati).Riverrunoffhasdecreasedandtherehasbeenmodification

ofstreamflowleadingtofreshwatershortage/reductionorexcessiverunoffandfloodingincertain

periodsoftheyear.Theriversarethemainsourceofsedimentsanddissolvedinorganicnutrientsin

coastal zones. Shoreline stability in the estuaries and adjacent coast ismostlydependenton the

inputofsedimentsfromrivers.Freshwatershortagesandreducedriverflowshasledareductionin

sedimenttransportandresultedincoastalerosion.


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Seychelles:ThereareseveralfreshwatersourcesonMah(38catchments),Praslin(11catchments)

andLaDigue(8catchments),andthecatchments interconnectwithnumerousriversandstreams.

Theriversaretypicallyephemeralwithveryfewperennialones.The islandssteeptopographyand

thelowretentioncapacityofthesoilmeansthatstreamaretypicallyswiftflowing,duringtherainy

season and low flow volumes during the drought season. Although rainfall is high (average

2,362mm/yroverthelast37years),onlyasmallpercentageisretained(2%).Despitethisriverrun

off and siltationofdrainage systemshas increaseddue to increaseddevelopment (areasofhard

standingandhouses).Thesiltationofdrainagesystemshasreducedtheircapacityandresulted in

floodingincoastalareasduringheavyrains.Thissituationislikelytoworsenifrainfallincreaseswith

climatechange(SeychellesMEDA,2012).

Somalia:Thecountry issemiaridbuttherearetwomajorriverscontributingtoperennialsurface

flowinsouthernSomalia:theJubaandtheShabelle,whichoriginatefromEthiopianHighlands.The

restofthecountry iscrossedbyephemeralstreams,whichremaindryformostoftheyearexcept

duringmajorrainfallevents.AbouttwothirdsoftheJubaShabellecatchments lieoutsideSomalia,

mostly in Ethiopia, and part of the Juba catchment lies in northern Kenya. The Laag Dheera

catchment isanothertransboundarycatchment,threequartersofwhich is inKenya.Thisjoinsthe

Juba catchment in the lower reaches through a natural depression. In the central and northern

regionsofSomalia, there isvery littlesurface runoff sincemostof rainwatereitherevaporatesor

infiltrates into theporous soil.Most of the other rivers only flow after flash floods during rainy

seasons.Siltationoftheriversasaresultofpoorlandusepracticeshasledtothemodificationinthe

configurationofcoastalhabitats,shiftingaccretionanderosionpatternsandassociatedecosystems

arechanging(UNEP2009).

SouthAfrica:TherearenumerousriversandestuariesthatfeedintothecoastofSouthAfrica.Theserivers deliver large sediment loads to the coast.Modified river flows have however resulted in

changesinestuarinemouthdynamics,withnegativeconsequencesformangrovesandsaltmarshes

and fisheries. Increased sediment loadshave also caused theestuaries tobecome shallower and

havealteredthecharacteristicsofrivermouths(SouthAfricaMEDA,2012).Tanzania: The coastal regionofTanzaniahas several rivers thatdischarge into the IndianOcean,withadrainagesystemwhichcoversabout20%ofthecountry.TheRufijiisthelargestriver,which

contributes50%of the total freshwaterdischargestothesea.Other importantrivers includethe

Ruvuma,theWami,theRuvuandthePangani.OtherriverssuchastheMatandu,Mbwemkuruand

Lukuledi are considered to be relatively less important in terms of freshwater discharges to the

IndianOcean.Riverflowshavereducedovertheyears,andthequalityofwaterhasalsoreduced,

withsubsequentenvironmentandsocioeconomicimpactsincludingsocialconflictsinsomeregions

(TanzaniaMEDA,2012).

1.2.Degradationofgroundandsurfacewaterquality

Comoros: InGrandeComore,thetotalabsenceofsurfacewatermeansthatpotablewatercomes

fromgroundwaterandcisterns.Groundwaterishoweverbeingaffectedbysaltwaterintrusionand

atriskofpollutionduetohighsoilporosity(ComorosMEDA,2012).Otherwatersourcesarelocated

in themountains of the Grid andMbadjini, while these have low water storage capacity, they

providegood

quality

potable

water.

The

crater

lakes

at

high

altitude

fill

with

fresh

water,

but

those


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4/60


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inthewaterwithinthechannelneartheInfuleneRiverwerehigh(460,000bacteriacountsper100

ml)andvaluesexceeded2,400bacteriacountsper100ml intherivermouth.ThebacteriaVibrio

parahaemolyticusandV.mimicushavebeenfound inclamsatthe IncomatiRivermouthandnear

Matola in the Maputo estuary. Vibrio spp. is the cause of severe gastrointestinal illnesses

(Fernandes1996).HighlevelsofmicrobialpollutionhavealsobeenfoundatBeiraandNacalaBays,

althoughtheconcentrationsare lowascomparedtothoseobserved inMaputoBay (Mottaetal.,

1998).

Seychelles:CoastalwatersofSeychellesaregenerallygoodquality,exceptduringtherainyseason,whenareaswithsignificantriverinflowshavehighermicrobialquantities.Effluentfromwastewater

treatmentplantsdischargeddirectly intotheoceanwas foundtocontainbetween2000and5000

totalcoliformcountsper100ml,farabovetherecommendedstandardsof500per100ml(Antoine

et al. 2008). During a monitoring survey conducted during 2007, high microbial counts were

recordedatBeauVallonBayduringtherainyseason.Theseweremostlyassociatedwithrunofffrom

nonpointsourcessuchasriversandsmallstreams (Antoineetal.2008).Outbreaksofwater and

insectbornediseasesusuallyoccurduringtherainyseasonandaremainlyassociatedwithdefective

onsite wastewater disposal systems (UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, CSIR and WIOMSA,

2009).

Somalia:OnlyonepartofMogadishuhasaseweragesystem.AllothertownsandcitiesinSomaliatypically use septic tanks as the most common mode of human waste disposal. Coastal

municipalities also lack the capacity to treatwastes. Sewage and solidwastes containingorganic

materials, nutrients, suspended solids, parasiticworms and benign and pathogenic bacteria and

virusesarediscardeddirectlyintotheocean(SomaliaMEDA2012).

SouthAfrica:Sinceabout1985,thedesignofoffshoresewageoutfallsinSouthAfricahasfollowedthereceivingwaterqualityobjectivesapproachwhereeffluentquantitiesandcompositionmustbe

withinlimitsthatmeetsitespecificEnvironmentalQualityObjectives,asrecommendedintheSouth

AfricanWaterQualityGuidelines forCoastalMarineWaters (SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Longterm

environmental monitoring programmes at these outfalls have indicated no detrimental impact

relatedtochemicalandmicrobiologicalcontaminationonthemarineenvironmentor itsbeneficial

uses.Thereishoweverarapidincreaseindischargestolessdynamicandsensitiveareassuchassurf

zones and estuaries,where effluents frommalfunctioning or overloaded treatment facilities are

adverselyaffectingthemarineenvironmentanditsbeneficialuse,albeitinalocalisedmanner(RSA

DWAF 2004a, b ,c). In Cape Town (South Africa) an extensive monitoring programme for

microbiological contamination (usingE. coli as an indicatororganism) found that80%of stations

sampledcompliedwiththeSouthAfricanguidelinesforcontactrecreation.Thestationsthatdidnot

comply(E.coliexceeded200countsper100mlin80%ofsamplesinone,and2000countsper100

mlin95%ofsamplesintheother)wereinhighlydevelopedandurbanisedsectionsofthecoastline

(CityofCapeTown2005).

Tanzania:Rawsewage isdirectlyreleased intoestuariesandothercoastalhabitatsandawayfrom

coastaltowns.Highcountsoffaecalcoliformandtotalcoliformbacteriaofuptoseveralthousand

permlofseawaterwerealsorecorded inZanzibar,Tanzania(Mohammed2001).Highcountshave

promptedhealthconcernsandwarningsofhealthriskstoswimmers,andsomebeachesonZanzibar

and themainland inDar es Salaam (e.g.Ocean Road and Banda beaches) have been closed for


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swimming and other recreational activities due to microbial contamination (Mohammed et al.

2008).WIOLaBmonitoring conducted in 2007 showed contamination of waters around Dar es

SalaamaswellasStoneTown.

1.3.2 Nutrient enrichment from landbased (domestic, industrial, agriculture, livestock) and

marine(mariculture)

sources

Comoros:Theislandsaresituatedinonethemostprolific"upwelling"regionsoftheWesternIndianOceanwhichnaturallyenhancesnutrient levelsanddrivestrongbloomofphytoplankton.Nutrient

patternshaveyettobedeterminedinthewatersaroundComoros(ComorosMEDA2012).

Kenya: Coastal waters in Kenya receive nutrient inputs from agricultural runoff (fertilizers),untreatedwastewateror sewageand fromatmospheric sources from theburningof fossil fuels.

Nutrientenrichmenteventshavebeen reported to triggermassivealgalblooms.Along theKenya

coast,studieshavereportedan increasegrowthofepiphyticalgaeonseagrassandthedominance

of the green algae (Ulva and Enteromorpha sp.), and in areas adjacent to dense tourism

developmentsepiphytic

cover

reached

60

%

(Uku

1995,

2005,

Uku

and

Bjrk,2005,

UNEP/Nairobi

ConventionSecretariat,CSIRandWIOMSA,2009).This isacommon impactofnutrientenrichment

onseagrassbedswhichcanleadtoaphaseshift,asthealgaesmothersthebladesoftheseagrass,

blockingthelightnecessaryfortheseagrasstophotosynthesize,andultimatelyresultinginmortality

orashiftinspeciescomposition.

Madagascar: The rivers draining the Madagascan Highlands are important sources of nutrients

brought to the coast, and some lagoons have variable but high concentrations of nutrients

(ammonium,nitrateandnitrite)throughouttheyear(Lope2009).Nutrientenrichmentisduetothe

use of fertilizers in agriculture and accelerated soil erosion within the river basins due to

deforestation(Mozambique

MEDA

2012).

Flooding

of

the

Ifaho

River

in

Madagascar

results

in

apeak

in nitrate concentrations, 200 400 times higher than the minimum values in the lagoons

(MozambiqueMEDA2012).TheperiodicdrainingofwastewaterpondsinfishfarmsinMadagascar

isanother sourceofnutrientenrichmentas thiswater is rich inphosphates,nitratesandorganic

mattersandmayalsocontainpathogens,antibioticsandpesticides,andcancauseeutrophication

andharmfulalgalblooms(HABs)(MozambiqueMEDA2012).

Mauritius:Over use of fertilizers in agricultural practices (both intensive and small scalemarket

gardening,andlivestockrearing),posesaseriousthreattocoastalecosystemsandgiverisetoalgal

bloomsandredtides.Mass fishmortalityeventshavebecomequitecommon inrecentyearsand

thishas

been

attributed

to

discharge

of

untreated

effluents

as

well

as

pesticides

and

uncontrolled

use of fertilizers from coastal agricultural activities. High nitrate concentrations introduced into

lagoonsystemsthroughagriculturalreturnflowshavebeenassociatedwithalgalproliferationinthe

lagoons of Belle Mare/Palmar, and many hotels have had to remove algal deposits from the

shorelineonaweeklybasis(Dulymamodeetal.2002).AtFlicenFlac,blackanoxicsands,smellingof

hydrogen sulphide, have been observed at the lowwatermark and are associatedwith organic

enrichment fromwastewaterdischarges (Prayagetal.1995).High levelsofnitrateandphosphate

andassociatedproliferationofalgalgrowthhavebeenrecordedatbothBelleMareandFlicenFlac

(Prayagetal.1995,Botte2001).Nutrientenrichmentoflagoonwatersalsoresultsinincreasedalgal

growth

over

corals,

affecting

their

biology

and

the

coral

reef

ecosystem

as

a

whole

(Botte

2001).

Highconcentrationsofphosphates(relativetootherWIOcountries)wereconfirmedfromsampling


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conductedaspartoftheWIOLaBproject(UNEP/NairobiConventionSecretariat,CSIRandWIOMSA,

2009).

Mozambique:ThemainsourcesofthedissolvedinorganicnutrientsincoastalzonesofMozambique

aretherivers(Hoguane,2007;GammelsrdandHoguane,1987,1996andStreandSilva,1979).

TheSofala

Bank,

which

is

influenced

by

the

discharges

from

the

Zambezi,

Pungu,

Buz

and

Save

rivers,isoneofthemostproductiveshelfregionsofMozambique(Lutjeharms2006,Barlow,2007,

2008). However agricultural activitieswithin the coastal region and in the hinterland areas also

contribute contamination of the coastal andmarine environment, through sediments anduseof

pesticidesand fertilizers.High levelsofBODandCOD,and low contentofdissolvedoxygenhave

beendetecteddownstreamofthefactoriesandthepresenceofwaterhyacinthandPistiaisaclear

evidenceofnutrientrichwater(MozambiqueMEDA2012).

Seychelles:The coastalwatersofSeychellesaregenerally low innutrients,with theexceptionof

areaswhichreceivesignificant inputsfromfoodprocessingfactories inthevicinityofPortVictoria

(SeychellesMEDA

2012).

In

the

rainy

season,

areas

where

there

are

significant

river

inflows

influence the microbial quality and community structure in the coastal waters. Department of

Environment (DoE)hasanutrientmonitoringprogramme.There ishoweverasignificantgapwith

regards understanding the effects of rapid coastal and upland development on nutrient loading,

includingtheimplicationsforwaterqualityandcoastalhabitats(seeLittleretal.,1991;Grandcourt,

1995,SeychellesMEDA2012).

Somalia: The coastal waters of Somalia are subject to intense upwelling during the southwest

monsoon as the 'Southern Gyre' and 'Great Whirl' moves northwards up the coast. Nutrient

enriched water brought to the surface with the upwelling, increases primary and secondary

productivityand

is

the

main

driver

in

terms

of

the

fisheries

productivity

along

this

coast.

In

addition

tothistheriversalsocontribute largeamountsofnutrientsandfreshwater(Ngasaruetal.,2004).

Phosphorous andothernutrients are introduced to theocean from the Juba and Shebelle rivers

during the rainy season andphosphorous concentrations show apeakjust after the startof the

Southeastmonsoon(SomaliaMEDA2012).Coastalmunicipalitieslackthecapacitytoprocesswastes

andhumanactivitiesrelatedto foodandenergyproductionhavegreatly increasedtheamountof

nutrient pollution entering the marine environment, causing localised eutrophication of coastal

watersanddegradationoffisherieshabitats.Increasinglevelsoffertilizersusedalongrivercourses

alsoresult ineutrophicationof lower reachesandexcessnutrientsbeingreleased intotheoceans

(SomaliaMEDA2012).

SouthAfrica:Riverineinputofnutrientspeaksinmid tolateaustralsummer,andismaximalinthenortheast of the country (SouthAfricaMEDA 2012). Estuaries act as nutrientpurifying systems,

wherenutrientsfromcatchmentsareabsorbed,resulting incleanerwaterenteringthesea.This is

particularlyevidentduring lowflowperiods (dryseasons)whenriverrunoffenteringtheestuaries

mayhavehighernutrients levelsduetoagricultural irrigationreturnflows.Highnutrients levels in

estuariescanalsoresultfromlongerresidencetimesduringweakneaptideswhentidalexchangeis

reduced(Taljaardetal.2006).UrbanestuariesontheKwaZuluNatalcoastareincreasinglyshowing

signs of excess nutrient and organic loading from surface drainage and, possibly,malfunctioning

sewage reticulation systems. This has contributed to recent fish kills in several estuaries in the


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Thekwini municipality and the Port of Durban (UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, CSIR and

WIOMSA,2009).

Tanzania:Rawsewage isdirectlyreleased intoestuariesandothercoastalhabitatsandawayfrom

coastal towns; nutrients also enter the marine environment as fertilizer runoff from areas of

intensivefarming

through

mouths

of

major

rivers

and

streams

(Tanzania

MEDA

2012).

In

the

Tanga

areaofTanzania,macroalgaehasproliferateddue tonutrient loading frommunicipalwastewater

and industrialdischarges,particularly from a fertiliser factory (Munissi1998).Munissi (2000)also

demonstratedtheassociationofUlvaspp.andEnteromorphaspp.withnutrientinputfromsewage

pipes. InZanzibar,thereleaseof inorganicnutrients fromdomesticsewagehasbeen identifiedas

oneofthemaincauses foradecrease incorallinealgaewhicharesensitivetophosphateandare

disappearingfromphosphateenrichedareas(Bjrketal.1996,TanzaniaMEDA2012).

1.3.3 Chemical contamination (excluding oil spills)from landbased (domestic, industrial and

agricultural)andmarine(shipping,dumpingatsea)sources

Comoros:TwotypesofPersistentOrganicPollutants(POPs)werereportedin2006:polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins/furans. PCBs were used as heat exchange fluids and insulators

(dielectric) inelectricaltransformersusedbypowercompanies.Althoughonly6%oftransformers

onComoroshad PCBs, 84%were contaminatedwith PCB (National Implementation Planof the

UnionofComoros,PNM,2004).Dioxinsandfuransareproducedduring incompletecombustionor

some industrial processes. Over 77% of dioxins and furans emissions come from uncontrolled

combustionprocesses,andonComorostheseoriginateprimarilyfromtheuncontrolledburningof

householdwaste.Thenational contribution to theglobalemissionsofdioxinsand furans in2006

amountedto24.196gTEC/year(PNM,2004).Noquantitativestudyhasyetbeenmadeofpersistent

inorganic

pollutants,

but

it

is

known

that

this

pollution

consists

of

plastic

bags,

batteries,

electronic

waste, glass,motoroil andmetals thatmostoften endup in the sea (UNEP/NairobiConvention

Secretariat,CSIRandWIOMSA,2009).

Kenya:Somesignificantconcentrationsofpesticideresidueshavebeen reported inKenya (SabakiandRamisiRiver) (Wandiga2005;Wandigaetal.,2002)and from fish samples (Tana,AthiSabaki

rivers andestuaries) (Lalahetal.,2003;Mugachiaetal.,1992;Munga,1985).Studiesalso found

elevated levels of copper, cadmium, iron and zinc heavymetals (in Kilindini andMakupa Creeks

Mombasa,Kenya)althoughthelevelsweresubstantiallylowerthanthoserecordedinotherpolluted

coastalareas(Kamau2001).Monitoringofsedimentconcentrationsofcadmium,copper, leadand

zinc

in

the

Sabaki

estuary/Malindi

Bay

complex

and

Kilindini/Port

Reitz

Creek

were

found

to

be

aboverecommendedWIOguidelines(UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme/NairobiConvention

SecretariatandCSIR2009).Madagascar: Chemical contamination occurs due to industrial, agricultural, port and miningactivities. Most pollutants are biodegradable but there are also persistent organic pollutants

includinghighlytoxicinsecticidessuchasDDTandphenolsfromwoodindustries(MadagascarMEDA

2012). Effluents from the oil refinery at Toamasina and the shipyard at Antsiranana contain

naphthenicpollutants,sulphidesand thiophenolsandpollutants fromminingzones (mica,quartz,

iron, chromium, and graphite) are made up of solid waste and sludge mineral suspensions

(Madagascar

MEDA

2012).

WIO

Lab

surveys

found

that

sediment

heavy

metals

concentrations

were

the highest reported for the WIO region (United Nations Environment Programme/Nairobi


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chemicalsarevery low inSeychelles (UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme/NairobiConvention

SecretariatandCSIR2009).

Somalia: Fish factories, tanneries and slaughterhouses contribute to pollution of the marine

environment inSomalia.Maritimeactivitiesalsocontributetopollutionthroughthereleaseof (oil

andballast

waters

and)

soluble

PCBs

(UNEP

2009).

Noxious

oils,

organic

and

inorganic

chemical

wastes are also dumped into the sea on a regular basis and seepage from dump sites contain

significant amounts of dissolved toxicmetals and organic chemicals (SomaliaMEDA 2012). The

leachates frommunicipalwaste disposal sites pose a serious pollution problem during the rainy

season(UNEP2009).

South Africa: Municipal and industrial wastewater discharges are regulated and licensed, andmonitoringandassessmentstudiesconductedinandaroundtheoffshoreoutfallsappeartoindicate

thatthesesystemsarehelpingtoreducetheamountofcontaminantsenteringmarinewaters(CSIR

2004, McClurg et al. 2007). Persistent organic and inorganic pollutants have however been

measuredin

fish

(e.g.

Grobler

et

al.

1996),

sharks

(e.g.

Watling

et

al.

1981),

seals

(e.g.

Stewardson

et

al.1999,Vetteretal.1999),dolphins (e.g.Cockroftetal.1991;deKocketal.1994,Vetteretal.

1999)andbirds (e.g.Evans andBouwman2000) fromSouthAfrican coastalwaters (SouthAfrica

MEDA2012).Persistentorganicpollutantshavebeenfound inthetissueofmusselscollectednear

stormwaterdischargesandposeapotentialhumanhealthrisk(e.g.CSIR2008a).

Tanzania:Alarming levelsofPCBswere found in theDaresSalaamharbourareas (Machiwa1992

andMwevuraetal.2002).Heavymetalssuchaslead(Pb),zinc(Zn),cadmium(Cd),chromium(Cr),

mercury(Hg)andcopper(Cu)havealsobeenfoundinsedimentssamplesandassociatedbiotafrom

waterswithinDar es Salaam harbour and nearby coastal areas (Machiwa, 1992; Kondoro 1997;

Muzuka,1997).

Concentrations

were

three

fold

higher

than

in

other

areas.

Monitoring

conducted

as

part of theWIOLaB project in 2007 found high concentrations of copper in sediments (United

NationsEnvironmentProgramme/NairobiConventionSecretariatandCSIR2009).

1.3.4 Suspendedsolidsincoastalwatersduetohumanactivitiesonlandandinthecoastalzone

Comoros:Erosionof thecatchmentareas,due todeforestation,has increased the sediment loadentering coastalwaters. Thishas led to sedimentation and siltationof the reefs, smothering the

corals,especiallyonthereefflat.Thehighsedimentinfluxintothelagooncoupledwiththeeffects

of global changes (ENSO 1994 and 1998), also resulted in the disappearanceof Thalassodendron

ciliatumseagrassbeds(ComorosMEDA,2012).

Kenya:Increaseddischargeofsedimentloads inMalindiBay(GOK2008)affectedthecoralreefsintheMalindiNationalParkandReserve(McClanahanandObura1997,Kazunguetal.2002,Kithekaet

al.2003a)andresulted inadecrease inthenumberofseagrassspecies, from fourtotwospecies

(Wakibia1995).PoorlandusepracticesandanincreaseindevelopmentactivitiesintheAthiSabaki

RiverBasinresulted inhighersedimentfluxesandareduction inthedepthofthephoticzoneand

productivityincoastalwater.HighsedimentloadsintheAthiSabakiandTanaestuarieshaveledto

very high turbidity of waters in Ungwana Bay (Kitheka et al. 2003a, b, Kitheka et al. 2005).

Sedimentationhasresulted insignificant impactsonmangroveareas,smotheringtherootsystems

oftreesandcausingdiebackoftheseforests(Kitheka,etal.2005).HeavysedimentationinMwache

Estuaryhasalso led todegradationofa largeexpanseofmangrove forest located in theestuary


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(Kithekaetal. 2003b).Sedimentdepositionandbeachaccretion(e.g.inMalindiBay)haveresulted

inthelossofbeachfrontagefromsomehotelandresortdevelopmentsinKenya,withaconsequent

lossoftourismrevenueandemployment(Kazunguetal.2002,Kithekaetal.2003a,b).ThePortof

Mombasarequiresregulardredgingofthenavigationalchanneltomaintainthedepthrequiredfor

shippingactivitiescontributingfurthertohighloadsofsuspendedsolids(Kazunguetal.2002).

Madagascar:Sediment loads fromrivercatchmentsarerecognisedasamajorconcern.Themajor

source of suspended solids originates from the Ifaho River, and particle charge and turbidity

decreasedependingonthedistancefromthemouth.DischargeofsuspendedsolidsfromtheToliara

WaterBasinhasbeenestimatedatapproximately6milliontonsperyear(MusyokiandMwandotto

1999citedinPayetandObura2004).Sedimentationhasresultedinsignificantimpactonmangrove

areas,smotheringtherootsystemsoftreesandcausingdiebackoftheseforests(Mongetal.2009).

Miningactivitiesalsocontributetoanincreaseinsuspendedsolidsthroughthedischargeofsludge

mineralsuspensions(Anonymous2003).

Mauritius:Coastal

waters

around

Mauritius

are

normally

crystal

clear

apart

from

during

heavy

rains

whenriverflooding isacommonoccurrence.Largeamountsofdebrisandsoilaredischarged into

the lagoons leading to seawater turning from blue to red brown (MauritiusMEDA 2012). High

sedimentation and associatedhigh turbidityhave alsobeen reported in the lagoon atRodrigues,

someofthebaysaresiltedandchannelshavebeenconstructedtofacilitatethemovementofboats

(MauritiusMEDA2012).Mozambique: The excessive inflow of sediments in the coastal and marine environments ofMozambique isduetobad landusepracticeswhich,amongothers, includepoorfarmingpractices

and deforestation in the coastal and hinterland areas. Shoreline stability in the estuaries and

adjacentcoast

is

mostly

dependent

on

the

input

of

sediments

from

rivers.

Given

that

sediment

dynamics is governed by the river runoff, freshwater shortages lead to a sediment deficit, and

coastalerosion. InMaputoandBeiraharbour thesiltation is furtheraggravatedby thesystematic

dredgingofthenavigationalchannels(FAO1999).

Seychelles:Construction anddevelopment activities in theupper regionsof Seychelleshave also

resultedindisturbancesofsoilmaterials,whicharedepositedintothelowerareas,wheretheflow

of water slows down. This has resulted in excessive silting of the lower part of rivers occurs

(SeychellesMEDA2012).

Somalia:Poor

farming

practices

upstream

increase

in

the

siltation

of

the

rivers

(UNEP

2009).

Destructionofmangroveforestsisalsoleadingtoheavyoffshoresiltationandalterationofnutrients

pathwaysforoffshorespecies.Municipalwastescontainingorganicmaterialsandsuspendedsolids

andothercontaminantsarereleaseddirectly intotheseaasthere isnocapacitytotreatwastes in

the coastalmunicipalities.Mininganddredging also increase in siltationof the rivers in Somalia.

Limestoneminingoffossilcoralreefs(beachrock)occursinthesouth,intownssuchasMarkaand

Barawe. The lime is used in house construction, whitewashing and decoration. The mining for

limestone degrades the coastal landscape and leads to coastal inundation, sedimentation and

erosion.Themainthreatstocoralreefsandseagrass includesmotheringduetosiltation (Somalia

MEDA2012).


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SouthAfrica: Sandmining activities in South Africamodify flows, produce high suspended solidloadinganddestructriparianandinstreamhabitats(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).

Tanzania:Seagrassbedsandcoralreefs inTanzaniaarethreatenedbyvariousnaturalandhumanactivitiesincludingexcessivesedimentation, increasingturbidityandreducinglightpenetrationand

shorelinedynamics

involving

sand

deposition

and

removal

(Whitney

et

al.

2003,

Wells

et

al.,

2004,

TanzaniaMEDA2012).1.3.5 Solidwastes/marinedebris(plasticsetc.)frommarineandlandbasedsources

Comoros: Due to the lack of an effective waste collection, processing and disposal system thepopulationindiscriminatelydisposeoftheirgarbagealongtheroad,intheseaalongthecoast,ina

riverornear theirhomes (ComorosMEDA2012).This results inanaccumulationofgarbageand

degradation of urban and coastal and marine habitats. With the rapid population growth,

uncontrolledurbanization,householdwasteproduction,aswellasotherpotentiallymoredangerous

medicalwaste,will continue to increase. Uncontrolled open air waste incineration causes toxic

fumes,which includedioxinsandfuransemissionsandfoulodoursthat inturncauseallergiesand

lungdiseases.Theseconditionsareunhealthyforthelocalcommunitiesandadeterrentfortourism

(ComorosMEDA2012).

Kenya:Dumpingof solidwastes inKenyaoccursaroundurbanareas and tourism centres (KenyaMEDA2012).Highpopulation concentrationalong thecoast is leading to increasedgenerationof

waste andwastemanagement is amajor challenge formost of themain urban coastal centres.

Garbage collection services only cover only 50% of the population. Dumpsites are located and

managedpoorly.Municipalitiesdonothaveadequatebudgetshencetheavailablestaffarepoorly

paid and notmotivated towork, and garbage collection vehicles are not adequate. The private

sectoroperatesonalocalisedscale,whilesmallscalesolidwastemanagementgroupslackmeansof

transport.Solidwasteonthepublicbeach isnowamajorproblem,even inareaswherethereare

officialwastebins(KenyaMEDA2012).

Madagascar:Thereareinadequatecollectionsystemsandsafemodesofdisposalorlittertreatment

systems. Incinerators, treatmentequipmentare rundownand insufficient.There isawidespread

useoftraditionaltechniques/technologiessuchasgarbageembankmentfills,burialofhospitallitter,

openair burning and open dumpsites. About 10% of householdwaste is disposed at authorised

sites; while 40% goes to inadequately managed sites and 5070% is illegally dumped. Mining

activitiesalsocontributetoanincreaseinsolidwaste.Thereisconcernthatmarinewastessuchas

plastic bags are a threat to turtleswhich feed onjellyfish (Hirama andWitherington 2006) and

abandonedfishinggearsuchascastnetscanalsotrapanddrownallspeciesofturtles.Seabirdscan

alsobeaffectedbymarinedebrisandcanbecomebeentangledinnetsandotherdiscardedfishing

gear. Population pressure has increased the number of settlements in the vicinity ofmangrove

forests, and led to dumping of garbage and otherwaste intomangrove forests leading to their

degradation(MadagascarMEDA2012).

Mauritius: The waste disposal infrastructure is adequate and facilities exist for collection and

disposal.Wasteiscollectedandbroughtdirectlythroughthefourtransferstationstoalandfillsite.

Solidwasteandmarinelitterinthemarineenvironmentdoeshoweverneedtobebetteraddressed


13/60

(MauritiusMEDA2012).Garbagefromfishingboats isoneofthemainsourcesofpollution inPort

Louisharbourwaters(MauritiusMEDA2012).

Mozambique: The municipalities do some waste removal, but this needs improvement

(MozambiqueMEDA2012).Tourismoperatorsandenvironmentalnongovernmentalorganisations

doalmost

all

of

the

beach

clean

ups

with

limited

support

from

the

municipalities

or

government

institutions.Effortsat thecentral levelcurrentlyneed tobedirected towards thecreationofand

upgradingofwastereceptionfacilitiesatthemainports(MozambiqueMEDA2012).

Seychelles: Over 90% of the solid waste stream is collected, treated and disposed of in an

environmentallyacceptablemanner (SeychellesMEDA2012).Therearealso regularand frequent

cleaningprogrammesforalltheriversandbeachesintheSeychelles,andalsointheseaandyacht

basin.On theouter islands,debris andmarine litter from the sea is themain causeofpollution

(DepartmentofEnvironment2009)andtherehavebeenvariousinstanceswheremarinedebrishas

beenswallowedbyturtlesorfoundentangledaroundtheanimals(SeychellesMEDA2012).

Somalia: The expansion of urban areas has increased solid waste generation and dumping of

garbagedirectlyontotheseashore.Duetolackofregulation,almostallthecoastalcitiesandtowns

use the beaches as garbage dumping sites. Over the years, a huge volume of garbage has

accumulatedonthebeaches,andplasticsareamajorconcernonturtlebeachesinSomalia(Somalia

MEDA2012).

SouthAfrica:Portreceptionfacilitiesareadequate inthecommercialports,butnot infishingandrecreationharbours(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Onland,solidwastecollectionservicesanddisposal

sites are currently largely adequate, except for informal settlements. Compacting, landfill and

incinerationare

used,

but

this

is

not

sustainable

and

pressure

is

mounting

to

reduce

the

waste

stream. Effective storm water screening devices have been developed and tested but not yet

installedinmostplaces(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Tanzania: There is insufficient equipment for the collection of waste, and for covering waste

dumpsites(TanzaniaMEDA2012).Alldumpsitesareopen,notreatmentisdone,andhencelitteris

easilyblownbythewindandtransportedbywatertostormwaterdrainsandriversandeventually

intotheocean.Most recyclable items,suchasplasticbottles,containersandbags,arescavenged

from thewaste collectionpoints and dumpsites. Touristhotels generate largequantitiesof solid

wastes(TanzaniaMEDA2012).

1.3.6 Oilspills(drilling,exploitation,transport,processing,storage,shipping).

Comoros:Over30%oftheworld'soilproductionpassestheComoros,representingmorethan5000tankertripsperyear,andtheriskofaccidentsincreasesduringthecycloneseason.Todate,onlyone

accidenthasoccurred,whentheTaurusboatcaughtfireinMarch2007neartheportofMoroniwith

60tonnesofdieselonboard.Therehavebeensmallerspillswhenshipsemptytheirballastwaterat

sea,orduringthetranshipmentofoilproductsinportsandoildepots(ComorosMEDA2012).

Kenya: Kenyahas adownstreamoil industry, and EastAfricasonly refinery,whichproduces1.6

milliontonnesannually inMombasa.Spillage from theBritish tankerCavaliercausedconsiderable

damageto

mangrove

forests

in

Mombasa

in

1972.

This

coastline

has

since

been

subject

to

afurther

five severespills, resulting inmangrovedieback,especially inMidaCreekwhere theeffectsofoil


14/60

spillswerestillevident10yearsafterthe lastoilspill incident(AbuodhaandKairo2001).Aspill in

MakupaCreekduring1988causedmassivedeathofmangroves.Seagrasshabitatshavealsobeen

impacted(AbuodhaandKairo2001).Dispersantscommonlyusedtocleanupoilspillscontaintoxic

solventswhichpenetratetheprotectivewaxycuticlesofseagrassblades.Thisaffectsthebiological

functioning of cellular membranes and chloroplasts, thereby causing plant loss and as well as

harmful effects in other benthic biota (Ellison and Farnsworth 1996, Abuodha and Kairo 2001).

Kenya has demarcated 17 blocks for petroleum rights negotiations, all offshore exploration is

currentlybeingundertakenby theprivatesector.The currentexpansionofKilindiniPortand the

developmentofLamuasa freeportbring increased risksofoilpollutionandconsequent impacts

(KenyaMEDA2012).

Mozambique:Morethan16,000tonnesofheavyfueloilwerespilledbytheKatinaPtankerin1992

threatening the coastal and marine ecosystems, and extensive areas of mangrove forest near

Maputoweredestroyed(Munga1993).TheportofBeirahasthelargestpetroleumrefinery(witha

capacityofnearly110,000m3)andapipelinewhichpumps1 to1.5million tonsofpetroleum to

Zimbabweeveryyear.Therearemoreportsinthecountrywithoilstoragefacilitiesfromortowhich

oil ispumpedwith associate risks foroil spillsduring the courseof theoperation.Theprevailing

winds (Southeasterly trade winds) make the Mozambican coast vulnerable to spills in the

MozambiqueChannel,asevidencedduringtheKatinaPoilspillin1992nearMaputoBay(Massinga

andHatton1997,MozambiqueMEDA2012).

Seychelles:Therehasnotbeenamajoroilspillreported intheSeychellesand,althoughthereareincidentsorminorspills,understandingofdiffuseandnonpointsourcesinthemarineenvironment

islimited(SeychellesMEDA2012).ThedownstreamoilsectorisavitalcomponentoftheSeychelles

economy,with fuel and liquefiedpetroleum gas accounting forover 25%of total imports in the

country.Oilsectoractivitiesincludeimportationanddistributionofrefinedoilandliquidpetroleum

gas, storage and marketing of petroleum products, marine bunkering, aviation refuelling, bulk

storage and transhipment and transportation of petroleum products by tankers. Oil exploration

effortscommenced in1969,butsignificantreserveshaveyettobediscovered.Thegovernmentof

Seychellesiskeentoencourageforeignoilcompaniestopartakeinfurtherhydrocarbonexploration

survey through the Petroleum Mining Act of 1976 (Seychelles Investment Bureau 2009). The

potentialsideeffectsofoffshoreoilexploration,particularlyonmarineecosystemshavealsobeen

highlightedasathreatinthefuture(SeychellesMEDA2012).

Somalia: In the vicinity of coastal cities, municipal waste, noxious oils, organic and inorganic

chemicalwastes isdumped into the seaona regularbasis.Maritimeactivitiesalso contribute to

pollutionthroughthereleaseofoilandballastwatersandsolublePCBsfromtheseproducts(UNEP

2009).Thecoasthasnotyetbeensubjecttoextensiveoilandgasexplorationandseveralareaswith

worldclasspotentialremaintobetested.Priortotheonsetofthecivilwar inDecemberof1990,

severalconcessionswereheldbymajor internationalpetroleumcompaniesandat least threekey

wells were scheduled to be drilled. Some large multinational oil companies were interested in

exploringdifferentsedimentarybasinsofSomalia.However,duetopolitical instabilityandwar,no

furtherworkinthisareahasbeendonedespitethehighpotentialfordiscoveryofdeposits(Somalia

MEDA2012).


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SouthAfrica:TherehavealreadybeenanumberofspillsinSouthAfricanwaters.TheKapodistriasran aground off Cape Recife, Eastern Cape in 1985 (Randall and Randall 1986) and at least 137

penguins died from oiling and 1,043 oiled penguins were rescued for rehabilitation. After the

Treasure oil spill of 2000, more than 40,000 African penguins were caught for rehabilitation,

relocation(toCapeRecife)orcaptiverearingduring(Crawfordetal.2000).Oilandgasexploration

commencedin1967andabout300petroleumwellshavebeendrilled(Broadetal.2006)centredon

the commercial oil fields of theOuteniqua Basinwith the Transkei, Zululand andDurban Basins

receivingconsiderably lessattention.Thepetroleum industrycontributes2% toGDP.Thecountry

produces 35,000 bbl/d of oil,with proven reserves estimated to be 15million barrels, and also

produced115billioncubicfeetofgas in2008,withreservesestimatedtobe320billioncubicfeet.

SouthAfricaalsohasAfricassecondlargestoilrefinerysystem,comprisedoffourrefineriesandtwo

synfuelplantsproducing692,000barrelsperday(bbl/d)in2008.Around19milliontonsofcrudeoil

is imported into South Africa annually,while approximately 120million tons pass South African

coastsboundforworldmarkets,hencethereisasignificantriskofanoilspillincident.Furthermore,

theincrease

in

shipping

traffic

due

to

the

piracy

taking

place

off

the

Somalia

coast,

and

port

expansionsnowposeanewconcern(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).

Tanzania:An increase inoiloperations(drilling,exploitation,transport,processing,storage,etc) in

Tanzania ispredicted to increaseoilspill risks.Oilandgasproductioncommenced recently in the

SongoSongoarchipelago,off the southernRufijidelta,andMnaziBay,andbothposea threat to

marine biodiversity due to general disturbance (e.g. pipe laying) and oil/gas leaks. Numerous

companiesarecurrentlyexploringpotentialoilreserves,and13offshoreblocksareexpectedtobe

concededinthenearfuture.TheoldrefineryinDaresSalaamwasclosedin1999,butthisisstillthe

centre for downstream activity, as it handles imports of liquid petroleum gas (LPG), stores oil

products,receives

gas

from

the

230

km

pipeline

connected

to

Songo

Songo,

supplies

Burundi,

Uganda,Rwanda andEasternConcoand transports crudeoil through apipeline to the Indenioil

refineryinZambia.Therearealsoplanstoconstructanewoilrefinery inDaresSalaam,aswellas

upgradingofoilstoragecapacityinDaresSalaamandincreasingofcapacityattheSongoSongogas

field,allofwhichshouldbeconducivetogrowth inthesector.Howeverthereareconcernsasthe

country has weak petroleum regulations, human capacity constraints, and an inconsistent EIA

framework. Increases inoiloperations,bothupstream anddownstream,will intensify the riskof

spillsandaccidents(TanzaniaMEDA2012).

MAC02 HABITATANDCOMMUNITYMODIFICATION2.1. Shorelinechange,duetomodification,landreclamationandcoastalerosion

Comoros: There are no official and reliabledata sourceson the extentof coastal erosion in theComorosotherthantheobservations(ComorosMEDA2012).Kenya:Shorelinechanges(erosionandaccretion)haveoccurredduetochanges insediment loads

fromrivers, increasedwaveclimateandcoastaldevelopment.Erosionasaresultofsandandcoral

miningcouldalsobecomeproblematic inKenya ifnotattendedto.Vulnerabilityassessmentshave

beenusedasatooltoidentifyandmapareasthatneedmanagementattentionagainstoccurrences

offloods,erosionandoilspill(KenyaMEDA2012).


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Madagascar: Coastal erosion is particularly noticeable atMorondava,Manakara andMahajanga

(MadagascarMEDA2012).Morondavaandneighbouringareason thewestcoasthave longbeen

affectedbyhigh ratesofcoastalerosion,andbreakwaterswereconstructedon thebeach. In the

cases ofManakara andMahajanga, coastal erosion is amore recent phenomenon (Madagascar

MEDA2012).TheeastcoastofMadagascarhasalsobeenaffected,andtheavenuebordering the

beachofToamasina cityhasbeendestroyed.Ports, culturalandhistorical sites locatedalong the

coastandtouristbeachesareexposedtohigherrisksoflossduetocoastalerosion(Tsangandrazana

2007).Coastalretreatduetowaveerosionwasestimatedbetween5.71mand6.54min1997,and

estimatedtoreachapproximately225mbyyear2100(MadagascarMEDA2012).

Mauritius:Enhancedcoastalerosionduetohumanactivitiesonlybecomenoticeableafewdecadesago.Hardstructuresplaced tooneartheshorelinegave riseto localizederosion.Seawallsbuiltto

contain theerosiongaverise to furthererosiondownstreamandotherprotectionmeasureswere

taken(MauritiusMEDA2012).Cyclonicwavesarehoweveralsoacontributoryfactorresponsiblefor

removing large quantities of sand from the beach and lagoons (MauritiusMEDA 2012). Tropical

cyclones will most likely become more intense and higher waves will be formed and as a

consequence,coastalerosionwillbeenhanced.Coastalerosionalsooccursdue towaves,razde

mare (tidal surges) in thewinter and transitionalmonths,which can result in coastal flooding.

Acceleratedsea levelrisehasbeenrecorded inMauritius,Rodriguesandother islands intheWest

IndianOcean (Ragoonaden2006).This isamatterof seriousconcern in theevent that the trend

continues. Coastal erosion is expected to worsen threatening more coastal infrastructure and

settlement(MauritiusMEDA2012).Mozambique:Coastalerosionisrecognisedasanimportantissue.Morethan90%ofthecoastlineerosion isduetonaturalprocessesthatoccurasaconsequenceof tropicalcyclonesandsea level

rise,resultinginretreatofthecoastline(MozambiqueMEDA2012).Theinstabilityofthecoastlinein

Mozambiqueishoweverthoughttobeduetothedepositionofmaterialsbroughtbyriverscurrents,

aswell as erosion due to the strong currents toward themouths of the rivers especially during

floods.Themaximumerosion valuesoccur in the southernborderbeachdune system (Pontado

Ouro)duetodisturbanceofthedunesystemsfromconstructionbytherecenttourismactivitiesin

theregion(MozambiqueMEDA2012).

Seychelles:Major reclamationworkswerecarriedoutoff theeastcoastofMah inSeychelles to

meetflatlanddemandsforadditionaldevelopmentandurbanization(Bijouxetal.2008,Seychelles

MEDA2012).Theseresultedinthelossofcoralreefsandshorelinechange.Coralrubblewasusedas

fillduring the reclamation, and this resulted in erosion on one side and accretion on the other,

damagetothebenthichabitatandalteredthecoastalandnearshorehydrodynamics(Pulfrichetal.

2006).Othercontributoryfactorsincludechanges inwindandwavepatternsduringthemonsoons

aswellasunregulatedcoastaldevelopment.Synergisticinteractionsofspringtideandsurgesfurther

exacerbatecoastalerosion.Theprevalenceofcoastalerosion ismore likely to follow theexisting

trendandfurtherescalateasaconsequenceofglobalandlocalnaturalandanthropogenicchanges

(SeychellesMEDA2012).

Somalia:MostoftheSomalicoastlinehasbeenseriouslyaffectedbycoastalerosion,especially intheeasternandsouthernregions(SomaliaMEDA2012).Coastalerosionisanissueofmajorconcern

inviewofitsimpactsonvaluableland,lossofvegetationinadditiontodestructionofinfrastructural


17/60

facilitiesandproperties. Poorfarmingpracticesupstreamcausean increase inthesiltationofthe

rivers in addition to mining, urban development and dredging. As a consequence, the coastal

configuration,accretionanderosionpatternsandassociatedecosystemsarechanging(UNEP2009).

Sandminingisverypopularinallcoastaltownsandfishingvillages.Itismixedwithcement,coastal

soilandgraveltomakebricks.Thisdestabilizesthecoastalsanddunes,whichalreadycausedsevere

coastalerosion(SomaliaMEDA2012).

SouthAfrica:Bridgesand causeways for coastal roadsand railway lineshavedisruptedestuarinefloodplains in many areas, aggravating floods, increasing sedimentation and limiting seawater

exchange,whichhasa rangeofecological impacts includingcoastalerosion.TheDurbanharbour,

Africasbusiestport, interruptedthenaturalnortherlypatternofsedimentdriftandaffectedwave

refraction, resulting in beach erosion to the north. Durbans beaches are therefore artificially

maintainedbyasandpumpingschemethatreplenishessome280,000cubicmetresofsandevery

year(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).TheharbourdevelopmentatRichardsBayhasalsointerruptedthe

naturalsedimentdriftpattern,causingsandtoaccumulateagainstthesouthernbreakwater(South

AfricaMEDA 2012). It has also destroyed the dunefieldwheremuch of the northwardmoving

windblownsandwouldhavenaturallyaccumulated(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Estuariesandrivers

areexploitedbyanumberofsandwinningoperations.

Tanzania:Theproblemof shoreline changes,particularly coastalerosionhas increasinglybecome

one of themajor issues of concern and has been a recurrent problem in many coastal areas,

includingtheislandsofZanzibar(TanzaniaMEDA2012).Coastalerosionproblemsaremainlycaused

bywaveactionontheshoreline.Between1981and2002,between2.04haand2.60haofthebeach

nearDar es Salaamwere eroded bywave action (Makota et al. 2004). Recently, Almstrm and

Larsson(2008)concludedwavegenerated longshoretransport isthegoverningprocessformoving

sedimentsalongtheKunduchibeacharea.Lwiza(1994)alsorecognisedthe influenceofwaveson

coastalerosioninTanzania(TanzaniaMEDA2012).

2.2. Disturbance,damageandlossofcoastal,watershedanduplandhabitats

2.2.1. Disturbance,damageandlossofupland/watershedhabitats(>10melevation)

Comoros:Due to thehighpopulationdensity (300 inhabitants/km), the lackof landuseplanningand the land tenure policy, there is uncontrolled land clearing and deforestation for agricultural

purposes,and logging.Deforestationhas ledto increasedsiltationandareduction ingroundwater

supplies.To controldeforestation,differentprojectshave focussedon sustainable techniques for

forestrestoration

and

better

agricultural

practices

have

been

undertaken.

However,

the

migration

of

farmersbetweenislandsisincreasingandnecessitatestheexpansionoffarmingareas.Kenya: Land use change has had significant impacts on the coastal and marine environment(UNEP/Nairobi Convention, 2010). Construction activities, poor agricultural practices and

deforestation in the riverbasinshave intensifiedhabitatdestruction and soilerosion resulting in

highsediment load into thecoastalwater.Thishastheeffectofreducing thedepthof thephotic

zone thus limiting productivity of the marine ecosystems (Kenya MEDA 2012). Poor land usepracticesintheAthi SabakiRiverBasinforinstance,hasresultedintheincreaseddischargeofhuge

volumeofsedimentsinMalindiBaywithfarreachingecologicalandsocioeconomicconsequences.

Massivesedimentation

interferes

with

growth

of

mangroves

and

also

smothers

coral

reefs

and

sea

grassbeds(GOK,2008).


18/60


19/60

Comoros:Pooragriculturalandforestrypracticessuchasburning,clearingoftheforest,areanissueofconcern(ComorosMEDA2012).Kenya: Coastal forests in Kenya cover 139,000 ha and important areas include Arabuko Sokoke,

Diani,and theShimbahills (KenyaMEDA2012).Theseunique lowland tropical forestsareknown

locallyas

Kayas.

The

Kaya

forests

are

distributed

in

few

remaining

patches

along

the

coast

which

haveahighculturalsignificancetothelocalMijikendacommunitywhohavetraditionallyusedthem

for religiousand spiritual rituals (Blackett,1994).The sacredvaluesassociatedwith these forests

havecontributedtotheirconservationandgrowthofforesttourism inthecoastregion.However,

cultural belief associatedwith the Kayas is progressively being erodedwhich is threatening the

traditional management and conservation of these important indigenous forests. Coastal

populations arehighlydependenton forest resources for theirdailyneeds (food,medicines,and

generallivelihoods).Degradationofcoastalforestsimpactsuponthesecommunitiesandthemarine

environment through clearing of buffer vegetation in environmentally sensitive areas close to

shorelines,resultinginincreasederosionandsedimentation(KenyaMEDA2012).

Madagascar: Heavy dependence on subsistence agriculture, and particularly traditional tavy

agriculture, has caused massive deforestation and threatens to continue to do so due to high

poverty levels, rising population growth and limited nonagricultural incomegenerating

opportunities.Madagascarhas also lostmuch of its forests due to illicit logging and agriculture,

whichhashadaseriousimpactonadjacentecosystems.Thedegradationisparticularlyseverenear

Toliara,where forest landwas largely eliminated.Continental forests along the coast are rapidly

decliningandasaresult,andnowmangrovesarealsobeingincreasinglyexploitedforitstimberand

energyresourcesasaresult(MadagascarMEDA).

Mauritius:Althoughtherearestillsmallpocketsofforest(40km2)onMauritiusandRodrigues,verylittleof thenative forests remain.The first settlersonMauritiusexploited theebony forestsand

introduced alien species,which severelydamaged the islandsecosystems and indigenous species

throughover grazingandpredation (TurnerandKlaus2005). InRodrigues, clearanceby fires for

agriculture and introductionof cattlebegan in theearly1800s and continued through the1900s

(Turner and Klaus 2005). Replantation work by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, has been

attemptingtoreintroducenativespeciesand improve forestcover.At theNationalCCAMeeting,

participantsidentifiedthisissueas'Notrelevant'.

Mozambique:Theutilizationof cropping, aswellas firewood and charcoalproduction, to supplyurban

centres

has

resulted

in

extensive

deforestation

of

coastal

forests.

The

forestry

sector

is

estimatedtocontributebetweentwoandthreepercenttototalGDPinMozambique(Suich2006).

Inexcessof70%ofthevalueaddedofforestryandforestryproductsisthoughttobeaccountedfor

bysubsistenceproductionwiththeremainderconsistingofmarketfuelwoodproduction, industrial

roundwood andprocessedwoodproduction (Suich 2006),onlypartwhichwillbe from activities

withinthecoastalzone.

Seychelles:MuchoftheuppermountainousslopesoftheinnerSeychellesareprotected.Therearefew landbased opportunities in Seychelles, thus, agriculture and forestry contributes far less

economically than themore dominant tourism and fisheries sectors. Subsistence agriculture and

forestrydoes

however,

contribute

6%

to

GDP

and

agriculture

alone

employed

nearly

6%

of

the


20/60

labourforcein1995.Traditionalexportsofcinnamonandcoprahavealsorecentlybeenrevived,as

thegovernmentcontinuestoprovideincentivestothesectortoincreaseproductivity.

Somalia:TheMEDAdoesnotdiscusscoastalforests.SouthAfrica:ThesouthernCapehasremnantsofAfromontaneforest,whiletheEasternCapehaslargeareasofsubtropicalthicket.Thehighlyinginteriorisdominatedbygrasslands,whileKwaZuluNatalhas lushsubtropicalforests interspersedwithsavannah,whichalsooccursinthefarnorthof

thecountry.Coastalhabitats, includingcoastalforests,arevulnerabletothe increasingpressureof

increasedpopulationdensityandtheassociateddevelopment,mining,agricultureandafforestation,

habitatfragmentationandalienplantinvasion(SouthAfricaMEDA,2012).

Tanzania:Coastal forestsarenow recognisedasakey resourceunder threatby theGovernment.

Fuelwood and charcoal are themain sources of energy formostpeople in the coastal regionof

Tanzania.Thelackofanalternativeenergyforcookinghasresultedinunsustainableharvestingand

imposedsevere

demands

on

forest

resources.

In

addition

there

is

amajor

threat

posed

by

the

demand for land for export oriented production, including biofuels, which without careful

management,willbedetrimentalratherthanbeingbeneficialtocoastallivelihoods.Thepromotion

ofparticipatoryforestmanagementbythegovernmentandinternationalNGOssuchasWWFhave

focused on the empowerment of local communities to manage their own resources. Likewise,

alternativesourcesof incomegeneration,suchasbeekeeping,honeyproduction,andtreenursery

managementhavehighlightedpotentialsubstitutesinthissector(TanzaniaMEDA2012).

2.2.3. Disturbance,damageandlossofcoastalhabitats(beaches,dunes,coastalvegetationand

floodplainhabitatsto10melevation)

Comoros:Manynaturalbeachesarecurrentlydegradedduetotheremovalofsandanddumpingofgarbage(ComorosMEDA2012).Kenya:ThesandbeachesofKenyaareamajortouristattraction.Othercoastalhabitatsincludefossil

reef intertidalflatsandasbackshoreraisedreef limestone,formingcliffswhichare12 15mhigh,

sanddunes,mudflats,androckyshoresborderedbycliffs(KenyaMEDA2012).Inthe lastdecade,

therehasbeen rapidandunmanaged transformationof thecoast landwithaconsequent lossof

criticalcoastalhabitats.Mostsettlements,commercialdevelopmentsand touristbeachhotelsare

foundwithinafewhundredmetresfromthesea.Thismakessuchdevelopmentsvulnerabletosea

level rise (UNEP/FAO/PAP/CDA, 2000) but also contributes towards the degradation of these

habitats.Other

impacts

include

increased

sediment

loads

from

the

major

rivers

have

resulted

in

accretionofbeaches inMalindi andUngwanabays (GOK,2008). Lossofbirdhabitatsemanating

fromunsustainablehumanactivitiesthreatenstheKenyanavifaunaand,populationsofshorebirds

andseabirdshaveundergoneageneraldeclinealongthecoastoverthepastdecade.

Mozambique:Theacceleratedgrowthof the tourist industryalong the coastpromotesveryhigh

disturbance levels and represents a serious threat to the status of these habitats and the

conservation of shore birds. Exploitation of littoral organisms by the local population, a very

common activity along the Mozambican coast, also represents a potential threat to their

conservation(MozambiqueMEDA2012).


21/60

Mauritius:Coastalhabitats includesandbeaches,rockyshores,andfossilreefbeachrock.Mostofthepristinecoastalsites,oftenadjacenttoexpansivesandbeaches,havebeenexploitedandnow

hotelplannersareexaminingareas lesstouchedbythe imprintofchange.Urbandevelopments in

floodplainsareas,whichareactuallybelowmeansealevel(e.g.FlicenFlac),havecreateddrainage

problems.InMauritius,cyclonicwavesareresponsibleforremovinglargequantityofsandfromthe

beach and lagoons.Mauritius also suggests that ocean acidification threatens coral reef growth

aroundtheislandandmaythereforereducethesupplyofsandtothelagoonandbeaches.

Madagascar: Coastal habitats include sandy beaches, coastal dune systems, pebble beaches and

rocky outcrops. Climate change related intensification of winds could result in dune systems

becoming more dynamic and significant, leading to the silting of back mangroves and shallow

ecosystems such as lagoons and reef. Recent observations in the Southwest suggest thatmany

ancientturtlenestingbeachesidentifiedbyRakotonirina(1989)arenolongerinuse.Thisreduction

may bedue to increased lightdisturbance due to the increasednumberof beach hotels, as the

presenceof lightson thebeach can induce females to leavewithout layingeggs and affectnew

hatches,inducingthemtoapproachthelightinsteadofmovingtowardthehorizontothesea.

Seychelles:Themost threatenedhabitatsare foundaround the inner islandswhichare themost

populated. Various development pressures along the coast, especially for tourism purposes are

currently posing threats to diversemarine habitats. The inner islands geomorphologic features

(mountainouswith coastalplateaus) and theprotectionplan (mountainouspartsnormally falling

intoNationalParks),are such that themajorityof thedevelopments for local residencesor rural

expansionsaretakingplacealongthecoast. Thisalbeit,nonurbanandcontrolledexpansionshould

stillbetaken intoaccountfor itcouldcauseadditionalstressonthecoastalareasifnotmonitored

and controlled accordingly (Ministry of National Development 2009). Increases in urban

developmenthavebeenshowntocausean increaseinthevolumeofwaterflowing intothe lower

drains,withthepotentialforcoastalflooding.

Somalia:Theexpansionofurbandevelopment inthecoastalzoneandtheexpansionof thecities

increasegarbagedumpingontheseashore.Duetolackofenvironmentalgovernance,almostallthe

coastalcitiesandtownsusethebeachesasrubbishdumpingsite.Sandminingisalsoverypopularin

allcoastaltownsandfishingvillages inSomalia. It ismixedwithcement,coastalsoilandgravelto

makebricks.Thisdestabilizesthecoastalsanddunes,whichalreadycausedseverecoastalerosion.

South Africa: Coastal development in South Africa includes development activities such asinfrastructure

(harbours

and

launch

sites,

cities,

towns,

housing,

roads

and

tourism),

as

well

as

dredgingactivitiesandthedisposalofsediments.Thesedevelopmentsposeamajorthreattomany

components of themarine environment, owing to their cumulative effects,which are often not

takenintoaccountbyimpactassessments.Fivetypesofminingarecurrentlyconsideredtothreaten

marinebiodiversity:sandwinning;miningfortitanium;diamonds;fossilfuels;andphosphate.

Tanzania: Coastal habitats found include sand beaches, intertidalmudflats and rocky cliffs and

intertidalbeachridgesandmarineterraces.Beachridgesandmarineterracesareamongthemost

prominent backshore features along the coast of Tanzania. A wide variety of coastal birds and

seabirdsarefoundparticularly inmangroveforests, intertidalflatsandonrockycliffs.Wadersand

shorebirdsvisit

Tanzania

in

large

numbers

each

year

between

August

and

May

to

feed

on

intertidal

flatsduringlowtides.10ImportantBirdAreas(IBAs)havebeendesignatedbyBirdlifeInternational


22/60

along the coastofTanzania. Lossofbirdhabitatsemanating fromunsustainablehumanactivities

threatens the existence of the Tanzanian avifauna, populations of shorebirds and seabirds have

undergoneageneraldeclinealongthecoastoverthepastdecade.

2.2.4. Disturbance,damageandlossofwetlandhabitats

Comoros:TheparticipantsattheNationalCCAMeetingsidentifiedthisissueasbeing'NotRelevant'.Kenya:ThelargestandmostimportantcoastalwetlandsinKenyaistheTanaDelta.TheTanaRiveristhelargestandlongestriverinKenya(nearly1,014kmlong);theDeltacoversabout130,000haand

supports 100,000 people, consistingmostly of farmers, pastoralist& fishermen. The Tana Delta

presents true features of a typical delta, characterised by several distributaries that discharges

turbidwater intoUngwanaBay.Whiletherearesome importantcoastal lakes,someoftheoxbow

lakesarealsowetlands (e.g. LakeMahe inUmba floodplain,and Ziwa laChakambaandZiwa la

Ndovu in Tana flood plain see also Kitheka, 2002). The shores of both deltas and estuaries are

characterized by the presence of mangrove forest ecosystem (Kokwaro, 1985). The Tana River

volumehasfallenby20% in10years.TheKenyaMEDA(2012)recognisedthatclimatechangeand

naturalvariabilityisalreadyinfluencingrainfallpatternsandtheflowpatternsofrivers,impactingon

floodplains,deltasandcoastalecosystemsand;thattherewas limitedknowledgeand information

onthehydrologicalfunctionsofcoastalwetlands.Madagascar: The west coast ofMadagascar is particularly important for wetland birds. Coastalwetlandsarebeingimpactedbybothhumanandnaturalfactors(MadagascarMEDA2012).

Mauritius:Mauritius has an extremely rich coastal zone consisting of near shorewetlands and

mangroves, lagooncoral,fringingcoralreef.TheRivuletTerreRougeBirdSanctuary inMauritius is

thelargest

estuarine

delta

covering

about

26

hectares

and

is

an

important

wintering

ground

and

refugeformigratorybirdsescapingtherigorouswintermonthsofthenorthernhemisphere.

Mozambique: There are four coastal regions identifiedwhich include the coral reef coast, themangrovecoast,thedeltacoast,andtheparabolicsanddunecoast.Thesecondcoastalhabitat is

dealtwith under a separate issue (MozambiqueMEDA 2012). TheMozambiqueMEDA does not

howeverspecificallydiscussissuesrelatedtowetlands.

Seychelles: On the inner granitic islands the ever growing human population coupled with thetourismindustry(RocamoraandSkerrett,2001)leadstolandclearinganddrainageofwetlandsfor

developments such as housing. This can be exacerbated by the additional threat from global

warmingand

sea

level

rise

which

can

particularly

affect

the

outer

low

lying

coralline

islands.

Somalia:SixmaintypesofwetlandsinSomaliahavebeendescribed(HughesandHughes1992):(i)Tidal wetlands in bays in the East of the country and in the Gulf of Aden where they form a

continuoussaltmarshdevelopedonsedimentwasheddownfromtheOgoMountains.(ii)Wetlands

oftheShabelleJubbaRivers,wherethewholesubcoastalvalleyoftheShabelleischaracterizedby

the presence of swamps with peripheral floodplains. The river divides into three channels and

crossesaswampwhichspans25kmandstretches150kmalongthecoast,coveringanestimated

300,000ha.Wherethetworiversmeetthereisafloodplainafterwhichtheycrossmarshylandand

drain into amangrove fringedestuary at Jumba. (iii)Wetlandsof the LachsDistrict:occurwhere

temporarylarge

water

courses

(lachs)

drain

into

southern

Somalia,

and

become

floodplains

during

rainyseasons.(iv) Bullehs,TugsandDholos:Abullehisasmallendorheicdepressionfilledbyrunoff


23/60

after a storm; these have distinct soil types which retain moisture and as a result have richer

vegetationthansurroundingareas.Tugsaresmalltemporarywatercourseswithlowgradient,which

floodandspreadoverawideareacausingbroadalluviumdeposits.Tugsoftenendininlanddeltas

whichareknownasdholos. (v)TheCentralDistricts:where therearesinkholesandasmall lake.

Severallargepansalsoexisttowardsthecoast,whichseldomholdwaterandwhentheydoitisonly

for a brief period. (vi) Artificial Impoundments: 240 reservoirs have been constructed to water

livestock(SomaliaMEDA2012).

SouthAfrica: Saltmarshesoccurmainly in temperate areas, so in SouthAfrica they are found insuitableestuarinehabitatalongtheCapeswestcoast,southcoastandsoutheastcoast.Furtherup

theeastcoast, inthesubtropicalpartsoftheWildCoastandKwaZuluNatal,theyarereplacedby

mangroves.Truesaltmarshesarefound inapproximately70oftheCapes155estuaries,themost

extensive in the ASCLME region being the 1,800 ha in the Knysna Lagoon on the south coast.

Commonspecies include thecordgrassSpartinamaritima, theglasswortSarcocorniaperennisand

themarshsamphireSalicorniameyeriana.Tanzania:TheRufijiMafiaKilwaMarineRAMSARSite is locatedacross the threenameddistricts,withinthecoastalandLindiregionsofsoutheastTanzania.Ithasanareaof596,908ha(URT2009).

According to theDirectory ofWetlands of International Importance, this site is a representative

wetland of East Africa as it contains a large diversity of wetland types, which are ecologically

interlinked,and includesthethreatenedestuarine,coastalandmarinewetlandhabitats (Directory

ofWetlandsofInternationalImportance2004).2.2.5. Disturbance,damageandlossofestuarinehabitats

Comoros:DuringtheNationalCCAMeetings,attendeesidentifiedthisissueas'NotRelevant'.

Kenya:Oneof thebiggestestuaries is theAthiSabakiEstuary inMalindi; thedistributarieswithintheTanaDeltasuchasKipiniandMtoKilifiarealsoestuariesintheirownright(Kitheka,etal.,2003).

OtherestuariesincludethoseatthemouthsofMwache,Kombeni,RamisiandUmba.Theshoresof

estuaries are characterized by the presence of mangrove forest ecosystem (Kokwaro, 1985).

Changesinlandandwaterusepractices,pooragriculturalpractices,deforestationinthecatchment

areas, are leading to alteration of river freshwater flow and increased soil erosion, increasing

sediment loads increek,deltasandestuaries, causing thedegradationofmangrove forests,coral

reefsandseagrassbeds.TheAthiSabakiestuary ischaracterisedbyhighlyturbidwaterthat limits

primaryproductivityandresultedinaccretionofbeachesinMalindiandUngwanabays(GOK,2008).

Fish samples in the AthiSabaki Rivers and estuaries have also been found to have residue

concentrations of pesticides (Lalah et al., 2003;Mugachia et al., 1992; Munga, 1985). There is

however limitedmonitoring of estuaries and a limited knowledge of the flora and fauna (Kenya

MEDA2012).

Madagascar: The most spectacular areas of shoreline change are due to sedimentation oftenobservedinestuariesandmouthsofmajorrivers.TheBayofBetsibokaisanexampleofanestuary

withserioussedimentationproblems.Therivercarrieshugequantitiesofsiltwhich isdeposited in

largequantitiesatthebay.IntheSouthwest,thesameheavysedimentationoccursatthemouthof

theriverFiherenana,resultinginsmotheringofreefflatsandmangroveforests(Bemiasa2009).Gill

netsandfishbarriersareusedacrossriversandestuaries(MadagascarMEDA2012).


24/60

Mauritius: Small estuaries and deltas are observed in a few placesmainly atGrand RiverNorthWest,Grande RivireNoire in thewest and Baie du Cap in the south.During theNational CCA

Meetings,attendeesidentifiedthisissueas'NotRelevant'.Mozambique:TheestuariesofbigriverssuchastheZambezi,Pngu,BuziandSaveareall inthe

centralpart

of

Mozambique.

These

provide

important

habitat

for

mangroves;

the

Zambezi

delta

mangrovesextend50kminland.Theseareasarealsoimportantfishinggrounds,wheresmallpelagic

and demersal fish and crustaceans of estuarinewaters are dominant. The semiindustrial prawn

fishingareasare locatedalong thenavigationchannelsofMaputoBayand in theestuariesof the

MaputoandNkomati rivers (atdepthbetween10and20meters).Estuariesareoftencentres for

development.Forexample,duetothelowlyingcoastalplain,mostoftheports(withexceptionto

PembaandNacala)havebeendevelopedinshallowbaysandestuariesandthisposesaproblemfor

handlinglargemodernoceangoingvessels.Thehighcostsofmaintenancedredgingareconstraints

inportdevelopment.There is a gap in theunderstandingof the coupled riverbasin and coastal

systems, including themaindriversofecological,hydrodynamics andmorphodynamic changes in

the estuaries (and coastalwaters) and a gap in knowledge on the influence of nutrients inputs

throughriversandrainfallinthebiogeochemicalprocessesinestuaries(andcoastalwaters).

Seychelles:DuringtheNationalCCAMeetings,participantsidentifiedthisissueas'NotRelevant'.Somalia:Where theShabelleand Jumba riversmeet there isa floodplain, afterwhich they cross

marshy landanddrain intoamangrove fringedestuary (HughesandHughes1992).The Shebelle

rivermouthisoneofthepriorityseascapesmentionedintheEasternAfricaMarineEcoregion.The

areahasbeenproposedforprotectionasitisnotonlythemostnorthernestuaryineasternAfrica,

but it is also the largest estuarineoffshore mud ecosystem and the only permanent estuarine

systemin

Somalia.

Sea

level

rise

could

cause

flooding

of

estuaries,

placing

most

coastal

cities

at

risk

(SomaliaMEDA2012).

SouthAfrica:SouthAfricasestuariesarerelativelysmallandmeanannualrunoffforthecountrysrivers is variable. These characteristics, coupledwith extreme environmental conditions, such as

droughts, have led to a number of different definitions for South African estuaries (Day 1980;

Heydorn 1989). Depending on the definition used, there aremore than 258 systemswith total

coverageof75000haofwhichabout60000ha,morethan80%,occurintheACMLE(VanNiekerk

unpublisheddata).Riverinflowtotheestuariesisdeterminedbythedifferentclimaticconditionsin

different parts of the coast, as well as the size and shape of the catchment. Poorly regulated

activitiesupstream

have

destroyed

many

estuarine

habitats.

These

include

infra

structural

developmentssuchasmouthstabilisation, low lyingdevelopments,canalisation, landreclamation,

harbourdevelopment,pollutionanddredging.Thedegradationofsuchintertidalestuarinehabitats

isparticularlyproblematic foroverwinteringPalaearcticmigrantbirdspeciesandcouldresult ina

drasticreductioninthenumbersandevenextinction(SouthAfricaMEDA2012)

Tanzania:RiverssuchasPangani,Wami,Ruvu,Rufiji,Matandu,Mbemkuru,LukulediandRuvumaallflow to the Indian Ocean. Themouths ofmost of these rivers are characterized by productive

brackishwaterenvironmentsinestuaries,deltasandmangroveforests(FrancisandBryceson,2001).

Tidal inlets, estuaries and creeks are characteristically sites of urban and port development, for

exampleTanga

and

Dar

es

Salaam,

which

can

lead

to

nutrient

enrichment

and

other

forms

of

pollution.Sandmininginestuariesalsocausesdirectimpactsresultinginlossofaestheticvalueand


25/60

ecosystemdegradation,aswellassecondary threats to the longtermsustainabilityof thecoastal

sandresourceandstability.Increasedeconomicactivitiesandexpandingpopulationsinthegrowing

coastaltownshaveresultedinproductionoflargeamountofwaste,andrawdomesticsewageand

industrialeffluentsaredirectlyreleasedintothenearbyestuaries(TanzaniaMEDA2012).

2.2.6.Disturbance,

damage

and

loss

of

mangrove

habitats

Comoros:Mangrovesare foundthroughout thearchipelago,coveringanestimated115to117ha

(FAO2007),withmoresignificantcoverageonMohli(91ha),withlessonGrandeComoro(18ha)

andAnjouan(8ha)(ComorosMEDA,2012).Thereare5mangrovespeciesknowntooccur,themost

commonofwhichare:Sonneratiaalba,AvicenniamarinaandRhizophoramucronata.The forests

are mostly situated on the south side of the islands, due to exposure patterns and rainfall

distribution. At thewater's edge other species such as: Pandanus sp, Hibiscus tillaceus, Ipomea

pescaprae,Rhizophoramucronata,Bruguieragymnorrhiza,Avicennia.sp.andLumnizerasp.

Kenya:MangroveforestsinKenyaareestimatedtocover50,000ha(FAO2007)withninemangrovespecies that include Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal which are the dominant species

represented in almost all mangrove formations (Kenya MEDA 2012). The rare species include

Heritiera littoralisandXylocarpusmoluccensis.Mangroveshavebeen impactedbyhumanactivities

particularly through removal ofwood products, conversion to other uses and pollution. Recent

estimatessuggesta20%declineinmangrovecoveroverthelasttwodecades(KenyaMEDA2012),

although this ishigher than the10%estimated loss fromFAO (2007).Reduction in river flowhas

increased erosion of the delta mouth, and through increased saltwater intrusion, lead to a

reductionofdownstreamhabitatsformangrovesandotherspecies.Conversionofmangroveareas

has also contributed to mangrove degradation in Kenya, for example more than 5000 ha of

mangrovesat

Ungwana

Bay

have

been

cleared

to

pave

way

for

solar

salt

works

and

aquaculture

(AbuodhaandKairo,2001).

Madagascar:Mangrove coverage is the secondhighest afterMozambique: estimates range from

278,078ha(Girietal.,2011)to300,000to400,000ha(FAO2007,MozambiqueMEDA2007).There

arereportedly8(9)speciesfound including:Acrostichumaureum,Avicenniamarina,Ceriopstagal,

Heritiera littoralis, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophoramucronata, Sonneratia alba andXylocarpus

granatum(andpossiblyBruguieragymnorrhiza)(FAO2007).Mangroveresourcesweretraditionally

usedfortimberforhouseandboatconstruction,intraditionalmedicineagainststomachulcers,for

the collection of crabs and fish and for firewood. Rapid population growth in coastal areas has

resultedin

increased

exploitation

for

urban

fuelwood,

charcoal

and

timber.

Fishing

in

mangroves

is

mainly artisanalbut fishing companiesoperating in thenorthern areas tend tobe industrial and

shrimp aquaculture inmangrove areas is being encouraged in certain areas. Increased sediment

loads, due to deforestation upland and changes in rainfall patterns is resulting in

hypersedimentation and smothering of mangroves. Sedimentation at the mouth of the river

Fiherenana,forexample,issiltingthenearbymangrove.OverharvestingofthemangrovecrabScylla

serrata,iscommoninthemangroveareasnearcoastalcities,whilemoreremoteareasstillsupport

fishablestocks.

Mauritius: Mauritius only hosts two species of mangrove, namely Rhizopora mucronata and

Bruguieragymnorhiza,

and

as

such

is

the

most

species

poor

country

in

the

ASCLMEs.

The

mangroves

form a narrow fringe, and the extent of mangrove cover around the islands has significantly


26/60

decreased (2000 ha in 1987 to 1400 ha in 1994) due to overcutting for firewood, construction

purposes and for clearing boat passages. The figures reported in the MEDA are an order of

magnitudelargerthanthosereportedbyFAO(2007)whichreportedacoverageof45hain1980and

120hain2005.Furthermore,thetotalareaofmangrovecoverinMauritiusisnowreportedtobe23

ha(MauritiusMEDA2012).Inresponsetothedeclineinmangrovehabitat,theFisheriesandMarine

ResourcesActof1998,makesprovision for theprotectionand the conservationofmangroves.A

MangrovePropagationProgrammewas initiated in1995,with anobjectiveof restoringdenuded

areaswithmangroves.Since1995,atotalof214,800ofmangroveseedlingswereplantedinanarea

of12.95ha,withanoverallsurvivalrateof78%(MauritiusMEDA2012).

Mozambique:MangrovesoccuralongalmosttheentirecoastofMozambiquemostly insheltered

shorelinesandestuaries,coveringanestimated396,080ha (Barbosaetal.,2001)to390,200 (FAO

2007),whichisthelargestareacoverageforallthecountriesintheregion.Mozambiquealsohosts

thehighest species richness,with a total 10 speciesofmangrove, includingBruguiera cylindrica,

which isonlyfound inMozambique.Mangrovesarebeingdepletedatarateof4%(Mozambique

MEDA,2012). Thegrowthofpopulationincoastalregions,associatedwiththedevelopingtourism

has increased thedepletionrateandbetween12,300ha (FAO2007)and15,000ha (Mozambique

MEDA 2012) has been degraded across 7 provinces. The northern sector has numerous islands

(mainlyQuirimbasarchipelago)whichhelptoprovideprotectiontomangroves.Themangrovesof

Zambezi delta extend 50 km inland. This mangrove zone is continuous from the south up to

Quelimanecoveringcloseto180kmofcoastline.Thiszoneisoneofthelargestextentsofmangrove

forests inAfricarepresentingcloseto50%ofMozambiquemangroves (Barbosaetal.,2001).The

southernsectorhasextensivemangrovesinMorrumbeneestuary,Inhambanebay,Maputobayand

Inhaca Island.Maputobaywith itsfourmainrivers inlets inthebay isoneofthemajormangrove

areasin

southern

Mozambique

(Barbosa

et

al.,

2001).

Some

of

the

major

threats

to

mangroves

in

Mozambique include: uncontrolled exploitation for firewood, charcoal and pole production;

clearance foragriculture and saltproduction;uncontrolled influxofpeople frommainland to the

coast leadingto increasedoverexploitationofmangrovesandpollution.Degradationofmangroves

isalsocausedbychanges inriverflowrates,andparticularlybyareductionof freshwater flowto

mangrovesduetodamconstruction(Barbosaet al.,2001).

Seychelles:Mangrove forestsare foundwithin the innergraniticandouter islands.Theyoccupyatotalsurfaceareaof2,900ha(SeychellesMEDA,2012)to2,500(FAO2007)andthereareatotalof

eightspecies,namelyRhizophoramucronata,Bruiguieragymnorhiza,Ceriopstagal,Sonneratiaalba,

Lumnitzeraracemosa,

Avicennia

marina,

Xylocarpus

granatum

and

Xylocarpus

mulocuensis

(SeychellesMEDA,2012).There issomediscrepancybetween this listand thespeciesreported in

FAO (2007),which lists9species, includingPemphisacidula,which isreportedtoonlybefound in

the Seychelles, andAcrostichumaureumbutwhichdoesnot includeXylcocarpusmulocuensis.At

PortLaunayinMah,alleightspeciesofmangrovesarefoundinanareathathasbeendesignateda

RAMSARsite.TheSeychellesreportedthatonCurieusethereisaproblemwithinsufficientsewage

andwastewatertreatmentwhichleadstopollutionofthemangrovesandthebeaches.

Somalia: Mangroves aremainly found along the southwest coast although isolated pockets of

AvicenniamarinagrowonthenortherncoastbehindsandspitsandalongtheGulfofAden(Carbone

andAccordi

2000;

Khalil

2004).

Tree

growth

is

reportedly

restricted

due

to

cold

upwelling

waters

(Tayloretal.,2003),althoughsalinityisalsoanotherfactorknowntostuntgrowthinsomeregions.


27/60

Coverage was reported to be 10,000 ha in 1975 (FAO 2007) and is currently estimated to be

between7300ha,representingalossof2,200ha.Somaliareportedsixmangrovespecies:Avicennia

marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophoramucronata, and

Sonneratiaalba(SomaliaMEDA2012).B.gymnorrhiza,C.tagal,L.racemosaandR.mucronataare

commonalongthe IndianOceancoast,Sonneratiaalbaoccurs insomeestuaries inthesouth,and

Avicennia and Rhizophora grow on intertidal flats facing the channels. FAO (2007) reported the

presenceof8species,includingXylocarpusgranatumandCeriopssomalensis,thelatterofwhichis

anendemicspecies(although it isnotentirelyclear ifthesespeciesarefoundontheIndianOcean

coast).Mangroves are found in the intertidal zoneof the coast southof Kisimayo and extensive

mangroveforestsarefoundinthecreeksofIstambul,KudhaandBurgavoandontheshelteredside

ofthebarrierislands(CarboneandAccordi2000).TheShebellerivermouth,whichincludesthearea

wheretheJubaandShebellemeet,isoneofthepriorityseascapesmentionedintheEasternAfrica

MarineEcoregionandshouldalsobeconsideredforprotectionas it isnotonlythemostnorthern

estuary ineasternAfrica,butit isalsothe largestestuarineoffshoremudecosystemandtheonly

permanentestuarine

system

in

Somalia.

In

this

area

there

is

mangrove

fringed

estuary

at

Jumba

(Hughes andHughes 1992). There is systematic overharvesting ofmangrovewood for building,

charcoal, firewoodandtradepurposes,aswellasconversionofmangrovehabitat foragricultural,

residential use and salt and lime production.Destruction ofmangrove forests is also leading to

heavyoffshoresiltationandalterationofnutrientspathwaysforoffshorespecieswithconcomitant

reduction in fish catches. This is contributing towards the decline in artisanal fishery resources

includingthegiantmangrovemudcrabScyllaserrata.

SouthAfrica:MangrovesoccurinestuariesalongtheeastcoastofSouthAfricafromKosiBayinthenorth toNahoon River at East London. Two species, the Tagalmangrove Ceriops tagal and Kosi

mangroveLumnitzera

racemosa,

extend

no

further

south

than

the

Kosi

system,

while

the

red

mangroveRhizophoramucronataandblackmangroveBruguieragymnorrhizareachtheir limitson

theWildCoast,togetherwiththemangroveassociateAcrostichumaureum,ahalophytic fern.The

whitemangroveAvicenniamarinaextends toEastLondon (Steinke1995).Mangrovescover some

2.20 km2,within the Kosi Bay system supporting the threemost common SouthAfrican species

(Avicenniamarina,BrugueiragymnorrhizaandRhizophoramucronata)aswellastwospeciesatthe

southernmost limitof theirdistribution (Ceriops tagalandLumnitzera racemosa).Mangrove trees

(white, red and blackmangrove) areharvested for theirwood,which is verydurable.Mangrove

cutting is considered aproblem inmanyof theWildCoastestuariesMngazana,Mtata,Xoraand

Mntafufu (Sink et al. 2004).At Kosi Baymangroves are harvested for buildingmaterials and for

constructionof

fish

traps,

and

there

is

some

harvesting

in

Richards

Bay.

Tanzania: Mangroves are found in various locations including themouths characterized by the

presenceofdeltas, estuaries andmangrove forests, covering an estimated 127,200ha, the third

largest coveragewithin theASCLMEs.TheRufijidelta ishome to the largestestuarinemangrove

forestinEastAfrica,withanestimatedsurfaceareaof53,200ha,itconstitutesapproximately46%

oftotalmangroveforestcoverinTanzania(TanzaniaMEDA2012).Atotalof8speciesofmangrove

arefound inmainlandTanzania(Avicenniamarina,Bruguieragymnorrhiza,Ceriopstagal,Heritiera

littoralis,Lumnitzeraracemosa,Rhizophoramucronata,SonneratiaalbaandXylocarpusgranatum)

andXylocarpusmulluccensisoccursinZanzibar(Ngusaruetal,2001).ThisiscontrarytoFAO(2007)

whichonly

reported

the

presence

of

5species

appendix vi. results of the national scoping exercise (1)

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