applied ecology. contents diversity diversity effects of pollution on diversity effects of pollution...

Applied EcologyApplied Ecology

ContentsContents DiversityDiversity Effects of Pollution on DiversityEffects of Pollution on Diversity Structural, Physiological and Behavioural Structural, Physiological and Behavioural

Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given NicheNiche

Agricultural EcosystemsAgricultural Ecosystems Harvesting from a Natural EcosystemHarvesting from a Natural Ecosystem ConservationConservation

Depends on:Depends on:- number of species and abundance of each species in an - number of species and abundance of each species in an ecosystemecosystem

Growth of population depends on:Growth of population depends on:- Abiotic factors- Abiotic factors- Biotic factors- Biotic factors

Index of Diversity:Index of Diversity:d = N(N-1)/d = N(N-1)/ΣΣn(n-1)n(n-1)

d: index of diversityd: index of diversityN: total number of organisms of all species in areaN: total number of organisms of all species in arean: total number of organisms of each species in arean: total number of organisms of each species in area

DiversityDiversity

Impact of HumansImpact of Humans

Humans pose a huge threat to lives of animals, plants Humans pose a huge threat to lives of animals, plants and their environmentand their environment

Our impact is so great due to:Our impact is so great due to:

- technologies that change the world so quickly- technologies that change the world so quickly

- population increase- population increase

- consumption of natural resources, and waste- consumption of natural resources, and waste

Human Population GrowthHuman Population Growth

Humans can adapt to survive in almost all habitats Humans can adapt to survive in almost all habitats and climates. The human population is increasing and climates. The human population is increasing rapidly and is threatening the environmentrapidly and is threatening the environment

The population will eventually be limited by these The population will eventually be limited by these factors:factors:

- food and water supply- food and water supply

- disease and pollution- disease and pollution

- over-crowding- over-crowding

- sudden changes in climate- sudden changes in climate

AtmosphericAtmospheric: Caused by combustion, exhaust fumes, livestock, : Caused by combustion, exhaust fumes, livestock, waste dumpswaste dumps

Effects:Effects:

- smoke, which damages air quality- smoke, which damages air quality

- carbon dioxide and Methane, which cause climate change - carbon dioxide and Methane, which cause climate change

- sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, which mix with rainwater - sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, which mix with rainwater to form acid rainto form acid rain

- carbon monoxide, which is poisonous to humans and animals- carbon monoxide, which is poisonous to humans and animals

WaterWater: Caused by deposition of substances into seas, lakes, : Caused by deposition of substances into seas, lakes, riversrivers

Effects:Effects:

- sewage and oil, which destroy habitats and kill animals- sewage and oil, which destroy habitats and kill animals

- fertilisers and pesticides, which damage ecosystems- fertilisers and pesticides, which damage ecosystems

PollutionPollution

Ecological NicheEcological Niche Describes how organisms in an ecosystem interactDescribes how organisms in an ecosystem interact What it does that affects or contributes to its What it does that affects or contributes to its

surroundingssurroundings Includes: habitat, relationships and nutritionIncludes: habitat, relationships and nutritionInteraction Examples:

HerbivoryA primary consumer feeds on a producer

A fruit bat eats a papaya

PredationA consumer feeds on another consumer

The cougar is a predator of black-tailed deer

Mutualism2 species live together with each providing benefit to the other via the relationship

Aphids provide honey dew for ants, while the ants move the aphids to new leaves and protect them from predators

ParasitismA parasite lives on or within a host and obtains food from it. The parasite benefits, the host is always harmed

Mistletoe is a plant parasite on Oregon White Oak, obtaining sap from the oak

Competition2 species compete for the same resource if there is not enough to support both

A scrub jay and a grey squirrel compete for nuts and seeds within the oak forest

AgroecosystemsAgroecosystems DefinitionDefinition: formed by interactions between biotic : formed by interactions between biotic

(plants, microbes etc.) and abiotic (temp. humidity (plants, microbes etc.) and abiotic (temp. humidity etc.) factors in a defined area, an agroecostystem etc.) factors in a defined area, an agroecostystem influences the distribution and population of living influences the distribution and population of living organismsorganisms

Tends to minimise human impactTends to minimise human impact

Differs from natural ecosystems:Differs from natural ecosystems:- maintenance at an early successional state- maintenance at an early successional state- monoculture- monoculture- crops planted in rows- crops planted in rows- simplification of biodiversity- simplification of biodiversity- intensive tillage- intensive tillage- use of GM organisms and artificially selected crops- use of GM organisms and artificially selected crops

AgroecosystemsAgroecosystems Refers to the study of an ecological phenomenon in the Refers to the study of an ecological phenomenon in the

crop field e.g. relations between predators and preycrop field e.g. relations between predators and prey

Needs energy input to maintain a balanceNeeds energy input to maintain a balance

e.g. use of pesticides disturbs balance by killing e.g. use of pesticides disturbs balance by killing organismsorganisms

Maintenance keeps pest populations at manageable Maintenance keeps pest populations at manageable levels:levels:

- ecosystems are ever changing systems- ecosystems are ever changing systems

- ecosystems follow food webs- ecosystems follow food webs

- All elements of an agroecosystem are closely linked. - All elements of an agroecosystem are closely linked. Disturbance to one has effects on othersDisturbance to one has effects on others

Harvesting from a Natural Harvesting from a Natural EcosystemEcosystem

Humans have a huge impact on the planet. This Humans have a huge impact on the planet. This includes intensive farming, selective breeding and includes intensive farming, selective breeding and pesticides/fertiliserspesticides/fertilisers

Impacts of Monoculture:Impacts of Monoculture:1.1. Genetic diversity is reduced, crops susceptible to Genetic diversity is reduced, crops susceptible to

diseasedisease2.2. Fertilisers pollute groundwaterFertilisers pollute groundwater3.3. Pesticides pollute groundwaterPesticides pollute groundwater4.4. Species diversity is reducedSpecies diversity is reduced5.5. Countryside less attractiveCountryside less attractive

Crop rotation: breaks pests’ life cycles, improves soil Crop rotation: breaks pests’ life cycles, improves soil texture and can increase soil nitrogentexture and can increase soil nitrogen


Hedgerows have been diminishing due to human Hedgerows have been diminishing due to human need for barren landneed for barren land

Benefits of hedgerows to ecosystem:Benefits of hedgerows to ecosystem:

1.1. Provide habitatsProvide habitats

2.2. Animals use them to move safely between Animals use them to move safely between woodlandswoodlands

3.3. Shelter predators of pestsShelter predators of pests

4.4. Windbreaks, shelter, reduce soil erosionWindbreaks, shelter, reduce soil erosion

5.5. Provide habitats for pollinating insectsProvide habitats for pollinating insects

Importance is now being recognised and farmers are Importance is now being recognised and farmers are receiving grants to plant hedgerowsreceiving grants to plant hedgerows


Inorganic fertilisers are most common but affect the Inorganic fertilisers are most common but affect the environmentenvironment

Benefits of organic fertilisers to ecosystem:Benefits of organic fertilisers to ecosystem:

1.1. Compounds decompose slowly and prevent leachingCompounds decompose slowly and prevent leaching

2.2. They are cheapThey are cheap

3.3. Can be disposed of on fields and not only in landfill Can be disposed of on fields and not only in landfill sitessites

4.4. Improves soil structure and improves drainage and Improves soil structure and improves drainage and aerationaeration

But… bulky and less concentrated than inorganic But… bulky and less concentrated than inorganic ones, highly odorous and can contain weed seeds etc.ones, highly odorous and can contain weed seeds etc.

Intensive farming can damage the environment.Intensive farming can damage the environment.

e.g.e.g.


Pesticides can harm larger organisms.Pesticides can harm larger organisms.

e.g.e.g.


FishingFishing::

Unsustainability: the using up of resources faster than they are Unsustainability: the using up of resources faster than they are produced so that they will not continue in the futureproduced so that they will not continue in the future

e.g. North Sea Cod are over-fished so are reproducing slower e.g. North Sea Cod are over-fished so are reproducing slower than are being caught. Effect than are being caught. Effect population is heavily declining population is heavily declining

ForestryForestry::

Humans burn wood or clear land for farming Humans burn wood or clear land for farming deforestation: deforestation:

1) destroys habitats1) destroys habitats

2) causes soil erosion 2) causes soil erosion barren land and flooding barren land and flooding

3) causes pollution from combustion3) causes pollution from combustion

4) increased levels of carbon dioxide as loss of photosynthesis4) increased levels of carbon dioxide as loss of photosynthesis


Humans recognise the necessity to maintain a balance Humans recognise the necessity to maintain a balance between the needs of ourselves and other speciesbetween the needs of ourselves and other species

Conservation of forests: encouragement of sustainable Conservation of forests: encouragement of sustainable use of forestsuse of forests

Governments must be persuaded that more money Governments must be persuaded that more money can often be made by exploiting forests on a can often be made by exploiting forests on a sustainable basis than by destroying themsustainable basis than by destroying them

ConservationConservation

SummarySummary DiversityDiversity Effects of Pollution on DiversityEffects of Pollution on Diversity Structural, Physiological and Behavioural Structural, Physiological and Behavioural

Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given NicheNiche

Agricultural EcosystemsAgricultural Ecosystems Harvesting from a Natural EcosystemHarvesting from a Natural Ecosystem ConservationConservation

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