applied performance

7/24/2019 Applied Performance

1/33

Chapter 6 Applied Performance Practices

APPLIED PERFORMANCEPRACTICES

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain how money and other financial rewards affect our needs, attitudes, and social identity.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the four reward obectives.

!dentify two team and four organi"ational level performance#based rewards.

Describe five ways to improve reward effectiveness.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of ob speciali"ation.

Diagram the ob characteristics model of ob design.

!dentify three strategies to improve employee motivation through ob design.

Define empowerment and identify strategies to support empowerment.

Describe the five elements of self#leadership.

Explain how mental imagery improves employee motivation.

CHAPTER GLOSSARY

autonomy $he degree to which a ob gives employees

the freedom, independence, and discretion to scheduletheir wor% and determine the procedures used in

completing it.

balanced scorecard A reward system that pays

bonuses to executives for improved measurements on a

composite of financial, customer, internal process, and

employee factors.

employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) A reward

system that encourages employees to buy shares of thecompany.

empowerment A psychological concept in which

people experience more self#determination, meaning,

competence, and impact regarding their role in the

organi"ation.

6

163


2/33

Part & !ndividual 'ehaviour and Processes

gainsharing plan A reward system thatrewards team members for reducing costsand increasing labour eciency in theirwork process.

job characteristics model A ob design model that

relates the motivational properties of obs to specific

personal and organi"ational conse(uences of those

properties.

job design $he process of assigning tas%s to a ob,

including the interdependency of those tas%s with other

obs.

job enlargement !ncreasing the number of tas%s

employees perform within their ob.

job enrichment Employees are given more

responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and

planning their own wor%.

job evaluation )ystematically evaluating the worth ofobs within an organi"ation by measuring their re(uired

s%ill, effort, responsibility, and wor%ing conditions. *ob

evaluation results create a hierarchy of ob worth.

job feedback $he degree to which employees can tell

how well they are doing based on direct sensory

information from the ob itself.

job rotation $he practice of moving employees from

one ob to another.

mental imagery +entally practicing a tas% and

visuali"ing its successful completion.

motivatorhygiene theory er"berg-s theory statingthat employees are primarily motivated bygrowth and esteem needs, not by lower-level needs.

O open-book management Involvessharing nancial information withemployees and encouraging them torecommend ideas that improve thosenancial results.

proft sharing A reward system that paysbonuses to employees based on theprevious years level of corporate prots.

scientifc management Involvessystematically partitioning work into itssmallest elements and standardiing tasks

to achieve ma!imum eciency.

sel-leadership"he process of in#uencingoneself to establish the self direction andself-motivation needed to perform a task.

sel-talk"alking to ourselves about ourown thoughts or actions for the purpose ofincreasing our self-ecacy and navigatingthrough decisions in a future event.

skill variety"he e!tent to whichemployees must use di$erent skills andtalents to perform tasks within their %ob.

skill-based pay &ay structures in whichemployees earn higher pay rates accordingto the number of skill modules they havemastered.

stock options A reward system that givesemployees the right to purchase companyshares at a future date at a predeterminedprice.

task identity"he degree to which a %obre'uires completion of a whole or anidentiable piece of work.

task signifcance"he degree to which the%ob has a substantial impact on theorganiation and(or larger society.

job specialiation $he result of division of labour in

which each ob includes a subset of the tas%s re(uired to

complete the product or service.

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

+oney and other financial rewards are a fundamental

part of the employment relationship. $hey potentially

fulfil existence, relatedness, and growth needs. +oney

generates various emotions and attitudes, which vary

164


3/33


across cultures. People particularly men/ also tend to

identify themselves in terms of their wealth.

0rgani"ations reward employees for their

membership and seniority, ob status, competencies, and

performance. +embership#based rewards may attract

ob applicants and seniority#based rewards reduce

turnover, but these reward obectives tend todiscourage turnover among those with the lowest

performance. 1ewards based on ob status try to

maintain internal e(uity and motivate employees to

compete for promotions. owever, ob status#based

rewards are inconsistent with mar%et#responsiveness,

encourage employees to compete with each other, and

can lead to organi"ational politics. Competency#based

rewards are becoming increasingly popular because

they improve wor%force flexibility and are consistent

with the emerging idea of employability. 'ut

competency#based rewards tend to be subectively

measured and can result in higher costs as employees

spend more time learning new s%ills.Awards2bonuses, commissions, and other individual

performance#based rewards have existed for centuries

and are widely used. +any companies are shifting to

team#based rewards such as gainsharing plans, and to

organi"ational rewards such as employee stoc%

ownership plans E)0Ps/, stoc% options, profit sharing,

and balanced scorecards. E)0Ps and stoc% options

create a ownership culture, but employees often

perceive a wea% connection between individual

performance and the organi"ational reward.

3inancial rewards have a number of limitations, but

there are several ways to improve reward effectiveness.

0rgani"ational leaders should ensure that rewards are

lin%ed to wor% performance, rewards are aligned with

performance within the employee-s control, team

rewards are used where obs are interdependent,

rewards are valued by employees, and rewards do not

have unintended conse(uences.

*ob design refers to the process of assigning tas%s to

a ob, including the interdependency of those tas%s with

other obs. *ob speciali"ation subdivides wor% into

separate obs for different people. $his increases wor%

efficiency because employees master the tas%s (uic%ly,

spend less time changing tas%s, re(uire less training,

and can be matched more closely with the obs best

suited to their s%ills. owever, ob speciali"ation may

reduce wor% motivation, create mental health problems,

lower product or service (uality, and increase coststhrough discontentment pay, absenteeism, and turnover.

Contemporary ob design strategies reverse ob

speciali"ation through ob rotation, ob enlargement,

and ob enrichment. $he ob characteristics model is a

template for ob redesign that specifies core ob

dimensions, psychological states, and individual

differences. 0rgani"ations introduce ob rotation to

reduce ob boredom, develop a more flexible

wor%force, and reduce the incidence of repetitive strain

inuries. $wo ways to enrich obs are clustering tas%s

into natural groups and establishing client relationships.

Empowerment is a psychological concept

represented by four dimensions4 self#determination,meaning, competence, and impact regarding the

individual-s role in the organi"ation. !ndividual

characteristics seem to have a minor influence on

empowerment. *ob design is a maor influence,

particularly autonomy, tas% identity, tas% significance,

and ob feedbac%. Empowerment is also supported at

the organi"ational level through a learning orientation

culture, sufficient information and resources, and

corporate leaders who trust employees.

)elf#leadership is the process of influencing oneself

to establish the self#direction and self#motivation

needed to perform a tas%. $his includes personal goal

setting, constructive thought patterns, designing natural

rewards, self#monitoring, and self#reinforcement.

Constructive thought patterns include self#tal% and

mental imagery. )elf#tal% refers to any situation in

which a person tal%s to him# or herself about his or her

own thoughts or actions. +ental imagery involves

mentally practicing a tas% and imagining successfully

performing it beforehand.

POWERPOINTSLIDES

Canadian Organizational Behaviourincludes a complete set of +icrosoft PowerPoint5files for each chapter. Please

contact your +craw#ill 1yerson representative to find out how instructors can receive these files./ !n the lecture

outline that follows, a thumbnail illustration of each PowerPoint slide for this chapter is placed beside the corresponding

165


4/33


lecture material. $he slide number helps you to see your location in the slide show se(uence and to s%ip slides that you

don-t want to show to the class. $o ump ahead or bac% to a particular slide, ust type the slide number and hit the Enter

or 1eturn %ey./ $he transparency masters for this chapter are very similar to the PowerPoint files.

166


5/33


LECTURE OUTLINE (wit P!w"#P!i$t%&i'"%

A))&i"' P"#*!#+,$-"P#,-ti-"%

S&i'" 1

W"%tJ"t .!ti/,t"%E+)&!0""%

S&i'"

T" .",$i$2 !* .!$"0

S&i'" 3

!PP"#E$ PE%&O%'!E P%!*#ES

OPE#+ ,#+E**E- .ES*/E*0S S1ESS

.est/et employees are highly motivated through profit sharing and

stock options2 empowerment2 job design2 and self3leadership7 1ewards4 )hare corporate rewards

7 Empowerment4 ave autonomy to serve guests

7 *ob Design4 Perform a variety of tas%s

7 )elf#leadership4 +anage their own performance

*4E 'E!#+ O& 'OE5

&inancial rewards are a fundamental part of the employment

relationship

7 Concept of economic exchange can be found acrosscultures

'oney and Employee eeds

7 +oney affects our existence, growth needs as well as our

innate drive to ac(uire

7 $hose with a need for achievement ## value money as a

source of feedbac% and indicator of goal achievement

7 +oney identified as one of the top three factors that attract

individuals to wor% for an organi"ation

16


6/33


'oney !ttitudes and ,alues

7 +oney brings out strong emotions 8mainly negative e.g.

anxiety, depression, anger and helplessness

7 Cultural values influence attitudes toward money e.g.Australia-s egalitarian values discourage people from

tal%ing about money and displaying wealth

7 +oney ethic ## the extent to which people believe4

## money is not evil

## money is a representation of success

## money should be budgeted carefully

'oney and Social3#dentity

7 People identify themselves in terms of how much money

they have ac(uired and dispersed

+oney tends to be a higher priority for men than women

T0)"% !* R"w,#'% i$ t"W!#)&,-"

S&i'" 4

."+"#%i)S"$i!#it0R"w,#'%

S&i'" 5

*5PES O& %E.!%$S # *4E .O%6P"!E7 3our types ## membership2seniority, ob status,

competencies, and performance

7 0rgani"ations use a variety of rewards to attract, motivate

and retain employees.

'E'7E%S4#P !$ SE#O%#*537!SE$%E.!%$S

'ost common reward 33 fi8ed wages2 seniority increases

!dvantages

7 uaranteed wages may attract ob applicants

7 )eniority#based rewards reduce turnover

$isadvantages

7 Do not directly motivate ob performance

7 Discourage poor performers from leaving voluntarily +ay act as golden handcuffs

167


7/33


J! St,t8% R"w,#'%

S&i'" 6

/O7 S*!*1S37!SE$ %E.!%$S7 *ob evaluation 8 estimates ob worth by measuring the

ob9s re(uired s%ill, effort, responsibility, and wor%ing

conditions to7 )ome ob status per(uisites ## exec. dining room, larger

office, company#paid car

!dvantages-

7 *ob evaluation tries to maintain pay e(uity

7 +otivates employees to compete for promotions

$isadvantages-

7 Employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources

7 Creates psychological distance from executives

!nconsistent with mar%et#responsive organi"ations with

few layers of hierarchy that encourage initiative from all

employees

C!+)"t"$-09,%"'R"w,#'%

S&i'"

O'PE*E537!SE$ %E.!%$S

Pay increases with competencies ac9uired and demonstrated

7 0rgani"ations are shifting from ob status to rewarding

employees for their s%ills, %nowledge and other

competencies that lead to superior performanceSkill3based pay 33 pay increases with number of skill modules

learned2 even though only one skill area performed at a time

!dvantages

7 +ore flexible, multis%illed wor% force

7 'etter product2service (uality

7 Consistent with employability

$isadvantages

7 Competencies may become subective personality

assessments ## s%ill#based plans are more obective

7 !ncreases training costs

16:


8/33


P"#*!#+,$-"9B,%"'R"w,#'%

S&i'" 7

PE%&O%'!E37!SE$ %E.!%$S

#ndividual %ewards

7 Awards and bonuses ## achieving a performance goal or for

individual tas% accomplishment

7 Commissions ## earnings based on sales volume

7 Piece rate pay ## pay per number of units produced

*eam %ewards

7 'onuses ## team paid lump sum for reaching targets

7 ainsharing plans 8 paid to the team based on cost

reductions and increased labour efficiency

0pen#boo% management 8 encourages employees to thin%

of financial performance as a game they can play and win

Organiational %ewards

7 Employee share ownership plans ## employees own

company stoc% ## some employees own company

7 Profit sharing ## employees receive share of profits

7 )toc% options ## right to purchase company stoc% at a

future date at a predetermined price

: 'alanced scorecard8 rewards for improving composite

results financial, customer, internal processes, employee/

E**"-ti/"$"%% !*P"#*!#+,$-" R"w,#'%

S&i'" :

Effectiveness of Performance3based %ewards

7 E)0Ps, share options and balanced scorecard create an

:ownership culture; 8 employees feel aligned to the

organi"ation-s success

7 Profit sharing ## automatically adusts pay with the firm9s

prosperity

1;


9/33


Problems .ith Performance37ased %ewards

. 1ewards discourage ris% ta%ing

## people do only what is needed to attain reward

I+)#!/i$2 R"w,#'E**"-ti/"$"%%

S&i'" 1;

#mproving %eward Effectiveness

< ?in% rewards to performance better performers should be

rewarded more than those with poorer performance/

## increases P#to#0 expectancy

## problems with organi"ational politics and difficulty

measuring performance

& Ensure rewards are relevant

## reward outcomes within employee-s control

## adust for situational factors ## e.g. effect of economy

on sales

=. @se team rewards for interdependent obs

## easier to measure team output than individual

## increases cooperation and reduces competitiveness

## increases employee preferences for team#based wor%

>. Ensure rewards are valued

## people have different needs and wants

. Batch out for unintended conse(uences

## difficult to anticipate effect of rewards on behaviour

11


10/33


J! D"%i2$

S&i'" 11

E/,&8,ti$2 J!S)"-i,&i hours per wee% and doubled

salaries of employees

1


11/33


Problems with job specialiation doesn0t always improve job

performance due to-

. Bor% (uality ## small part of total ob performed, so can-t

identify with customer needs

. Bor% motivation ## overloo%s ob content as motivator

/O7 $ES#+ !$ .O%6 'O*#,!*#O

&rederick 4erberg

7 Proposed the idea that ob content motivates, whereas

extrinsic conditions hygienes/ prevent dissatisfaction

J! C,#,-t"#i%ti-% .!'"&

S&i'" 13

/ob haracteristics 'odel (4ackman and Oldham)

#dentifies five core job characteristics2 three psychological states2 and

individual moderators

ore job characteristics


12/33


>. Autonomy ## freedom, independence, and discretion

# e.g. employees not boss/ ma%e decisions

. *ob feedbac% ## degree that employees receive ob

performance information from the ob itself# e.g. airline pilots %now good landings

ritical Psychological States


13/33


J! R!t,ti!$ /%>E$&,#2"+"$t

S&i'" 16

B; /ob enlargement

7 Combines several tas%s into one ob

7 !mproves wor% efficiency and flexibility

7 !mproves ob satisfaction and performance when combinedwith more autonomy and ob %nowledge

C; /ob enrichment

7 !ncreasing employee meaningfulness and responsibility

: Establishing client relationships 8 putting employees in direct

contact with their clients

$ends to improve (uality, ob satisfaction, wor% motivation

and reduce absenteeism and turnover

Di+"$%i!$% !*E+)!w"#+"$t

S&i'" 1

E'PO.E%'E* P%!*#ESEmpowerment is a psychological concept with four dimensions-


14/33


S"&*9L",'"#%i)

S&i'" 17

SE"&3"E!$E%S4#P

*he process of influencing oneself to establish the self3direction and

self3motivation needed to perform a task


15/33


TRANSPARENCY .ASTERS

$ransparency 6#


16/33


employee factors i.e. a balanced, systemic

approach vs. over#emphasi"ing only one or two of

the above factors.

1esponses will vary, however, following are some

sample measurements4

&inancial;# !ncreasing enrolment

# !ncreasing revenue

ustomer;

# !mproving student satisfaction

# !ncreasing student retention

#nternal Processes;

# !mproving timeliness of information availability

e.g. Access to student records

Employee;

# !mproving staff2instructor satisfaction

# !ncreasing staff retention2reducing turnover

=. !nuvi% $ire Corp. has redesigned its production

facilities around a team#based system. owever,

the company president believes that employees will

not be motivated unless they receive incentives

based on their individual performance. ive three

explanations why !nuvi% $ire should introduce

team#based rather than individual rewards in this

setting.

!nuvi% $ire should definitely use team rather than

only individual rewards in this situation. 0ne

reason is that the company probably won-t be able

to identify or measure individual contributions very

well in the redesigned production facility.

Even if !nuvi% $ire could distinguish individual

performance, it should use team incentives because

they tend to ma%e employees more cooperative and

less competitive. People see that that their bonuses

or other incentives depend on how well they wor%

with cowor%ers, and they act accordingly.

$he third reason for having team rewards in team

settings is that they influence employee preferences

for team#based wor% arrangements. !f !nuvi% $ire

wants employees to accept and support the team#

based structure, a team#based reward system would

help to increase that acceptance.

>. Bhat can organi"ations do to increase the

effectiveness of financial rewardsI

"ink rewards to performance; @se obective

performance criteriaF ensure rewards are timely and

significant enough to create positive emotions.

Ensure rewards are relevant; 1eward people for

performance within their control2influence and be

ready to adust performance measures due to

factors beyond employees- control.

Ensure rewards are valued; now your

employee and what you need and want.

.atch out for unintended conse9uences; @se

pilot proects to test the impact the reward will

have on employees and ma%e changes before

implementing throughout the organi"ation.

. +ost of us have watched pi""as being made while

we are waiting to pic% up a pi""a from a pi""a

shop. Bhat level of ob speciali"ation do you

usually notice in these operationsI Bhy does this

high or low level of speciali"ation existI !f some

pi""a shops have different levels of speciali"ation

than others, identify the contingencies that might

explain these differences.$he answer to this (uestion partly depends on how

pi""as are made in your area. 0ur nonsystematic

observations of pi""a#ma%ing is that, in busy pi""a

places, several people are assigned to specific

tas%s. 0ne person prepares the doughF one or more

people fill the orders puts ingredients on the pi""a

and places it in the conveyor or fixed oven/F

someone else unloads, cuts, and boxes the coo%ed

pi""as. $he person operating the cash register

usually has the pi""a unloading tas%. 0ther people

perform the pi""a delivery tas%.

$his relatively high level of speciali"ation occursbecause it increases efficiency. $ime is saved

because employees don-t change tas%s. $hey

develop their s%ills (uic%ly in their assigned tas%

an important issue where pi""a shops rely on

students and other temporary part#time staff/. $his

speciali"ation also allows the store to assign people

to tas%s for which they demonstrate the best s%ill..

3or example, some people have better coordination

at tossing the pi""a dough so it spreads out evenly.

0thers have good physical strength to cut pi""as.

)tudents will probably identify different degrees of

speciali"ation than we have noted here. )mallerpi""a shops may be operated by two people who

share most tas%s except delivery/. $hey might

both prepare the pi""as as well as load and unload

them from the oven.

$echnology may also play a role in the division of

labour. Conveyor#type ovens uncoo%ed pi""a is

placed on one end and coo%ed pi""a comes out the

other end/ would allow two people to load and

17


17/33


unload the pi""as, respectively. A fixed oven

where the pi""a is loaded in and pulled out/ might

wor% better with one person because he2she %eeps

trac% of the coo%ing time.

?astly, some students might note that obs are

generally speciali"ed but there is ob rotation

throughout the shift. $his might occur to minimi"e

boredom and avoid repetitive strain inuries.

6. Can a manager or supervisor :empower; an

employee. Discuss fully.

Empowerment refers to a feeling of control and

self#efficacy that emerges when people are given

power in a previously powerless situation.

Empowered people are given autonomy ## the

freedom, independence, and discretion over their

wor% activities. $hey are assigned tas%s that have

high levels of tas% significance ## importance to

themselves and others. !n summary, empowermentis a psychological concept. A supervisor or

manager cannot directly empower an employee,

however, they can create a wor% environment

where employees are more li%ely to experience

empowerment. )ome of these initiatives include4

# Ensuring employees have the necessary

competencies to be effective

# 1educing bureaucratic control

# Designing obs that provide tas% significance

and tas% identify

# Ensuring employees have the information andresources they need

# Appreciating learning and recogni"ing mista%es

are part of the learning employees

# $rusting employees

G. Describe a time when your practised self#

leadership to successfully perform a tas%. Bith

reference to each step in the self#leadership

process, describe what you did to achieve this

success.

$his (uestion provides the opportunity for students

to reflect on their own application and experience

with self#leadership. !ncreasingly, corporate

leaders desire to hire employees with the ability to

demonstrate self#leadership. 1eflecting on a time

when you demonstrated self#leadership and

describing your behaviours will prepare you torespond to an interview (uestion designed to assess

this valued competency.

1esponses will vary. 3ollowing are some

considerations that an organi"ational recruiter may

loo% for4

Personal goal setting; Establishing goals that

were specific, results#oriented and challenging.

onstructive thought patterns; Engaging in

positive self tal% and2or using mental imagery to

visuali"e successful completion of a tas%.

$esigning natural rewards; Considering yourown needs and preferences to ma%e your ob more

motivating and satisfying.

Self3monitoring; eeping trac% of your progress

and2or ensuring you received feedbac% needed to

enhance your performance.

Self3reinforcement. @sing self#induced forms of

positive reinforcement to reward yourself for

completing a tas% or achieving a goal.

H. Can self#leadership replace formal leadership in an

organi"ational settingI

)elf#leadership is an applied performance practice

that enhances and supports formal leadership in an

organi"ation.

)elf#leadership is a process where people regulate

their own actions and manage themselves most of

the time. Effective formal leadership practices will

still be needed in certain situations to ensure

alignment of individual and team results with

organi"ational goals.

1:


18/33

PHOTO CAPTION CRITICAL THIN@ING

?UESTIONS

I@EA R"w,#'%

K4 @nder what conditions would money notmotivate

employeesI

A4 $his is an interesting (uestion for class discussion

because it brings out the complex meaning of money

compared with nonfinancial rewards. $he answer partly

depends on what needs are related to money. )tudents

should identify that money fulfills physiological and

safety needs. )ome will also point out that money can

relate to status, so fulfills some aspects of relatedness

needs. !t is more difficult to see how money fulfills

growth needs, so people with high growth needs would

be less motivated by money. !ndeed, research on peoplewith high need for achievement supports this view ##

high need achievers might value money as an indicator

of their success, but money is a wea% motivator for

them.

.i" J8%t Wi$"+,"#K4 'ased on the ob characteristics model, why is +i%e

*ust highly motivated by his wor%I

A4 +i%e *ust is motivated because his ob is enriched

rather than ust enlarged. $he tas%s have more than ust

s%ill variety. $hey also cluster together as a natural

wor% unit. *ust is involved in the entire process of winema%ing, from planting grapes to selling the wine to

customers. e has strong tas% identity and apparently

tas% significance from this wor%.

R,$' ."#-,$t B,$

K4 !n what way does 1and-s :'oo% of 1ules;

symboli"e and support empowermentI

A4 $he blan% :'oo% of 1ules; symboli"es the notion

that rand merchant 'an% gives employees the autonomy

to ma%e their own rules when serving clients. $he tas%

characteristics of autonomy is one of the most

important influences on employee feelings of

empowerment.

Si#i8% C!$%8&ti$2 G#!8)

K4 Along with self#set goals, what other self#leadershippractices would improve the ob performance of

account managersI

A4 $o answer this (uestion, students need to thin% about

all elements of the self#leadership model in the context

of account managers. 'asically, every element applies

to some degree. Account managers can benefit from

constructive thought patterns by building their self#

efficacy through positive self#tal% and clarifying the

tas% through mental imagery. $hey can try to re#arrange

their obs to maximi"e rewards, and can engage in self#

reinforcement by :ta%ing; rewards after completing

tas%s. )elf#monitoring can also occur, although this isless clear.

.


19/33

ACTIVITY 6>1 CASE ANALYSIS

THE REGENCY GRAND HOTEL

C,%" S0$!)%i%

$he 1egency rand otel was one of 'ang%o%-s most

prestigious hotels when it was recently sold to a large

American hotel chain. *ohn 'ec%er, an American with


20/33

empowered ob. ?ow self#efficacy results in a

lower E#to#P expectancy.

P#to#0 expectancy also had an adverse effect on

employee motivation. Employees who tried

empowerment experienced negative outcomes

from their supervisors, and possibly from

customers. Bhile 'ec%er initially supported

employee empowerment, he later retreated to his

office, thereby providing less favorable outcomes

to employees to too% initiative. 0verall, employees

stopped ta%ing initiative because both their E#to#P

and P#to#0 expectancies decreased.

E%+Feeds 4ierarchy theories. )ome students

might apply content motivation theories to explain

part of this case. )pecifically, they might suggest

that most regency employees have low growth

needs because they were comfortable with the

previous leadership, which did not offer much ob

challenge. $his point may be true for someemployees, but several regency staff members D!D

try to apply empowerment, suggesting that they

had some degree of growth need strength.

+oreover, content theories generally explain what

needs people possess, not what behaviours they

engage in.

7ehaviour modification. $his case can also be

discussed in terms of behaviour modification

covered earlier in this boo%/. $he supervisors

either punished or provided extinction

reinforcement to employees who engaged in

empowerment practices.

Stress management. )ome employees (uit or

increased their absenteeism because they

experienced higher levels of stress. )everal

stressors explain the causes of this stress4

#ole$related stressors## ambiguous expectations

and practices about how to engage in

empowerment

%nterpersonal stressors8 Employees experiencedincreasing conflict with management.

Organizational stressors8 !t is possible that the

purchase of the regency as well as subse(uent

changes probably added to stress, but this issue

isn-t certain.

=; 1ecommend solutions that overcome or minimi"e

the problems and symptoms in this case.

)tudents might identify a variety of

recommendations for this content#rich case. )ome

might suggest that 'ec%er or his successor, as

some students doubt that 'ec%er has any credibilitynow/ re(uires sessions in cultural sensitivity.

0thers suggest that empowerment will wor% at the

regency if employees are given clearer instruction

and training, and employees see role model

examples of empowerment. !t might also be useful

to introduce the process slowly so employees have

time to adust with less stress.

$he empowerment intervention is a maor form of

organi"ational change, so students who have read

that chapter would recommend a number of change

management initiatives, including coercion to

supervisors who do not :get on board; the change

effort.


21/33

ACTIVITY 6> TEA. EERCISE

IS STUDENT WOR@ ENRICHED

P8#)!%"$his exercise is designed to help students learn how to

measure the motivational potential of obs and to

evaluate the extent that obs should be further enriched.

I$%t#8-ti!$%

'eing a student is li%e a ob in several ways. )tudents

have tas%s to perform and someone such as your

instructor/ oversees their wor%. Although few peoplewant to be students most of their lives the pay rate is

too lowM/, it may be interesting to determine how

enriched is a student-s ob.

Step A- )tudents are placed into teams preferably > or

people/.

Step B- Bor%ing alone, each student completes both

sets of measures in this exercise. $hen, using the

guidelines provided, they individually calculate the

score for the five core ob characteristics as well as the

overall motivating potential score for the ob.

Step C- +embers of each team compare theirindividual results. $he group should identify differences

of opinion for each core ob characteristic. $hey should

also note which core obs characteristics have the

lowest scores and recommend how these scores could

be increased.

Step D- $he entire class will now meet to discuss the

results of the exercise. $he instructor may as% some

teams to present their comparisons and

recommendations for a particular core ob

characteristic.

C!++"$t% t! I$%t#8-t!#%

$his exercise is self#explanatory. $he answer %ey is

provided in the textboo% for students to score their ownresults.

)tudents tend to enoy this exercise because it forces

them to evaluate something that is central to them

particularly full#time students/. 'e prepared for some

searching (uestions about why some instructors don-t

ma%e student wor% more enrichedM ere are some

discussion activities for this exercise.

4>6 5>4 4>:

MPS 156 1;6 146 17


22/33

ACTIVITY 6>3 SEL9ASSESS.ENT

WHAT IS YOUR ATTITUDE TOWARD .ONEY

P8#)!%"$his exercise is designed to help students to understand

the types of attitudes toward money and to assess their

attitude toward money.

O/"#/i"w+oney is a fundamental part of the employment

relationship, but it is more than ust an economic

medium of exchange. +oney affects our needs, our

emotions, and our self#perception. People hold a variety

of attitudes towards money. 0ne set of attitudes,

%nown as the :money ethic;, is measured in this self#

assessment.

I$%t#8-ti!$%)tudents are as%ed to read each of the statements in the

survey instrument and circle the response that they

believe best reflects their position regarding each

statement. )tudent then use the scoring %ey in Appendix

' to calculate their results., or they can have the results

self#scored by using the student CD.

Feed#ack fr t$e Mney Attitude ScaleNL0$E4 $he following information is also provided in Appendix ' and2or the )tudent CD.O $his self#assessment

generates considerable interest among my students, not surprising given the interest that most people have about money.

$his money attitude scale estimates the person-s overall :money ethic; as well as scores on its three dimensions4

money as power2prestige, retention time, and money anxiety. Each subscale has a potential score ranging from > to &

pointsF the overall money attitude scale has a range from to &. $he average score among a sample of

+'A students was


23/33

.!$"0 A$Fi"t0People with higher scores on this dimension tend to

view money as a source of anxiety. )cores on this

subscale range from > to &. $he average score among

a sample of +'A students was


24/33

S-!#" I$t"#)#"t,ti!$

41 t! 6; Hi2 +!$"0 "ti- %-!#"

35 t! 4; .!'"#,t" +!$"0 "ti- %-!#"

16 t! 34 L!w +!$"0 "ti- %-!#"


25/33


26/33

ACTIVITY 6>4 SEL9ASSESS.ENTASSESSING YOUR SEL9LEADERSHIP

P8#)!%"$his exercise is designed to help students understand

self#leadership concepts and to assess their self#leadership tendencies.

O/"#/i"w ,$' I$%t#8-ti!$%)elf#leadership is the process of influencing yourself to

establish the self#direction and self#motivation needed

to perform a tas%. !t recogni"es that individuals mostly

regulate their own actions through various behavioural

and cognitive thought/ activities.

)tudents are as%ed to individually read each of the

statements in the instrument and select the response that

they believe best reflects their position regarding each

statement.

Feed#ack fr t$e Self%Leaders$i& ScaleNL0$E4 $he following information is also provided in the )tudent CD.O $he six components of self#leadership measured

in this scale are personal goal setting, mental practice, designing natural rewards, self#monitoring, self#reinforcement,

and cueing strategies. !t is very useful for students to complete this self#assessment before any lecture or discussion of

the topic because students pay much more attention to the details after estimating their own score.

$he following table applies to all self#leadership

subscales.

S-!#" I$t"#)#"t,ti!$

13 t! 15 Hi2 %-!#"

7 t! 1 A/"#,2" %-!#"

3 t! L!w %-!#"

P"#%!$,& G!,& S"tti$2)elf#leadership includes the practice of setting your

own performance#oriented goals and, more specifically,

establishing specific, challenging, and relevant goals.)cores on this subscale range from = to


27/33

."$t,& P#,-ti-"+ental practice called mental imagery in the textboo%/

involves mentally rehearsing future events. +ental

practice includes thin%ing through the activities

re(uired to perform the tas%, anticipating obstacles to

goal accomplishment, and wor%ing out solutions tothose obstacles before they occur. +entally wal%ing

through the activities re(uired to accomplish the tas%

helps us to see problems that may occur. )cores on this

subscale range from = to


28/33

ACTIVITY 6>5 SEL9ASSESS.ENT

STUDENT E.POWER.ENT SCALE

P8#)!%"$his exercise is designed to help students understandempowerment and to assess their own empowerment as

a student.

O/"#/i"w ,$' I$%t#8-ti!$%Empowerment is a psychological concept represented

by feelings of self#determination, meaning,

competence, and impact. $he empowerment concept

applies to people a variety of situations not ust thewor%place. $his self#assessment is specifically adapted

to the position of student at this college or university.

)tudents are as%ed to read each statement in this

instrument and select the response that best indicates

the degree to which they personally agree or disagree

with that statement. )tudents need to complete each

item honestly to get the best estimate of their level of

empowerment. $his instrument has


29/33


30/33

SUPPLE.ENTAL LECTURE THE TROUBLE

WITH REWARDS

Performance#based reward systems have become

tremendously popular, but a few scholars claim that

these incentives might do more harm than good for

organi"ations. 0ne strong critic of wor%place rewards is

Alfie ohn, an educational researcher and writer.

Although ohn identifies many concerns, he mainly

lin%s reward systems to the behaviour modification

problems that we discussed earlier in this boo%. e

even suggests that praise is unhealthy when applied as

reinforcer. ohn-s five main arguments against the use

of performance#based rewards are as follows4

& #ewards punish## ohn suggests that there are

punitive features built into every reward. 3irst,

when rewarding people, we are also demonstrating

our control over them. $his can eventually assume

a punitive (uality by ma%ing the reward recipient

feel subservient. )econd, after being rewarded,

employees come to expect that reward in the

future. !f their expectation is not met, they feel

punished.

& #ewards rupture relationships## ohn complains

that individual rewards create ealousies and

competition. $eam rewards aren-t any better,

because they encourage peer pressure. !n other

words, rewards usually lead to feelings in ine(uity

see Chapter =/ because people invariably compare

their rewards to others. 1ewards also create a

psychological distance between the person giving

and receiving the reward. $a%en together, rewards

disrupt the collaboration needed for organi"ational

learning.

& #ewards ignore reasons## Employers need to

spend time discovering the cause of behaviour

problems. !nstead, according to ohn, they use

incentives as (uic% fixes. Be can see this in

situations where companies use incentives for the

most trivial reasons. 3or example, an Ari"onacompany hands out cash to employees who arrive

early at company meetings and fines those who

arrive late. $he company would be better off

identifying the causes of lateness and changing the

conditions, rather than use money to force a

solution to the problem.

& #ewards discourage risk$taking## ohn cites

evidence that rewards motivate people to do

exactly what is necessary to get the reward and

nothing more. !ncentives dampen creativity

because employees no longer explore new

opportunities outside the realm of rewarded

behaviour or results. !n other words, rewardsmotivate employees to get rewards, not to discover

better ways to help the organi"ation.

& #ewards under'ine intrinsic 'otivation## ohn-s

greatest concern with reward systems is that they

%ill a person-s motivation found in the wor% itself.

$his intrinsic motivation relates to fulfilling growth

needs, which are the most powerful and sustaining

sources of motivation see Chapter =/. ohn

reports studies indicating that employees are less

intrinsically motivated to perform a tas% after they

have received an extrinsic reward for performing

the tas%. Critics point out that these studies werenot conducted in real wor% situations. owever,

until more precise research indicates otherwise, we

should be concerned about the ris% of losing

intrinsic motivation when extrinsic rewards are

introduced.

)ources4 A. ohn, :Challenging 'ehaviorist Dogma4

+yths About +oney and +otivation,; Co'pensation

and Benefits #eview, = +arch


31/33

SUPPLE.ENTAL LECTURE TAS@ VERSUS

@NOWLEDGE ENLARGE.ENT

*ob enlargement involves increasing the number of

tas%s employees perform within a ob. $his is a well

%nown concept in organi"ational behaviour, yet few

scholars have considered that there are at least two

ways to enlarge a ob, and that these different strategies

can have dramatically different effects on employee

motivation and performance.

+ichael Campion and Carol +cClelland have

introduced the distinction between knowledge

enlarge'entand task enlarge'ent. $hey define tas%

enlargement as :adding re(uirements for doing other

tas%s on the same product.; $his is the type of

enlargement we typically thin% about when discussing

the concept of ob enlargement. 0ur textboo% example

## an assembly line wor%er performs seven or eight

tas%s rather than ust two ## refers to tas% enlargement

because the employee engages in new behaviours

around the same product.

nowledge enlargement is a different ## and

appropriately contemporary ## way of thin%ing about

ob enlargement. nowledge enlargement is defined as

:adding re(uirements to the ob for understanding

procedures or rules relating to different products sold

by the organi"ation;. !n other words, %nowledge

enlargement involves giving employees moreinformation to thin% about in their obs. A customer

service representative, for example, might have a

:%nowledge enlarged; ob if he2she is given more

product groups to sell or describe to clients.

Lotice that %nowledge enlargement does not

specifically involve performing additional behaviours.

1ather, the employee must thin% about additional

information when performing the ob. $he customer

service representative still calls clients, fills out order

forms, etc., but now must thin% about features of the

product groups added to his2her list

Effects on 'otivation and Performance

Be %now from previous research that ob enlargement

tends to increase the motivating potential of obs by

increasing s%ill variety. 'ut do %nowledge and tas%

enlargement have different effectsI

According to Campion and +cClelland-s research,

there are important differences. !n a study of clerical

employees in a large financial services company, they

reported that tas% enlargement had mainly adverse

effects whereas %nowledge enlargement had mainly

positive effects on employee motivation and

performance. $as% enlargement reduced employee

satisfaction, efficiency, and customer service. !t

increased mental overload and the number of errors.

nowledge enlargement had the opposite effects.

ere are four possible reasons why %nowledge

enlargement has positive effects on employee

motivation and performance.


32/33


VIDEO SUGGESTIONS

Along with the video cases for this part of the textboo%, the following videos and films generally relate to one or more

topics in this chapter. $hese programs may be available at your college2university or rented from the distributor. Please

contact your film librarian to determine the availability of these programs at your institution. $his list was compiled

from library holdings of several universities. Due to the variety of video material, this is not a comprehensive list. Lor

can we say that all of the programs below are suitable for your class.

.hatGs ew in Empowerment- Peter Huarry

interviews $ennis /affe;


33/33

NOTES

applied performance

Documents