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Aquaculture in Egypt
under Changing Climate
Challenges and Opportunities
January 2017
Alexandria University
Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change
(ARCA)
By
Naglaa F. Soliman (Ph.D.) Institute of Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR),
Alexandria University
Egypt
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
1 Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change (ARCA) Working Papers Series
ARCA Working Paper
Working Paper No. (4)
Aquaculture in Egypt
under Changing Climate Challenges and Opportunities
By
Naglaa F. Soliman (Ph.D.)
Institute of Graduate Studies and Research
Alexandria University
Egypt
January 2017
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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Table of contents
1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3
2. Objective ......................................................................................................................................... 4
3. Data Source .................................................................................................................................... 4
4. Aquaculture and climate change ................................................................................................... 4
4.1. Egyptian aquaculture: A situation analysis ...................................................................................................... 4
4.2. Socioeconomic aspects of Egyptian aquaculture .............................................................................................. 6
4.3. Production systems ...................................................................................................................................... 7
4.3. Sustainability constraints on Egyptian aquaculture ........................................................................................ 12
a) Water resources ............................................................................................................. 12
b) Land .............................................................................................................................. 13
c) Energy ........................................................................................................................... 14
d) Feed .............................................................................................................................. 14
e) Seeds ............................................................................................................................ 16
f) Climate change .............................................................................................................. 16
5. Vulnerability of Aquaculture to climate change .......................................................................... 16
5.1. Aquaculture effects on climate change ......................................................................................................... 17
5.2. Implications of climate change on Egyptian aquaculture activities ................................................................... 18
a) Water ............................................................................................................................ 19
b) Land .............................................................................................................................. 24
c) Feed .............................................................................................................................. 30
d) Seed .............................................................................................................................. 32
6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 33
6. References .................................................................................................................................... 35
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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1. Introduction Fish plays an important role in food security by providing an inexpensive source of nutrients, including high
quality protein, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and micronutrients (Li and Hu, 2009). Food fish currently
represents the major source of animal protein (contributing more than 25 percent of the total animal protein
supply) for about 1 250 million people within 39 countries worldwide, including 19 sub-Saharan countries (FAO,
2009). The stagnation on wild fish catch has created a gap between the supply and the increased demand for fish.
This difference has been filled by aquaculture (Delgado et al., 2003). A simple definition of aquaculture is the
farming of marine and freshwater species. Aquaculture also means the growing of aquatic organisms namely, fish,
shellfish, unicellular plants under controlled conditions (Tohmas, 1983). Aquaculture has been responsible for most
of the net growth in fish production during the last decade (Delgado et al., 2003). Aquaculture production is
playing an increasing role in meeting the demand for fish and other fishery products (Swaminathan, 2012).
Aquaculture, which accounts for nearly 50% of the world food fish, is the fastest growing food producing sector. In
this respect, it was argued that global production has increased from about 49.9 million tons in 2007 to 73.8
million tons in 2014, with most of this growth taking place in China (FAO, 2016).
Despite all debates and controversies, a global consensus has been reached that climate change is a reality
with a wide range of adverse and irreversible implications on the earth. These implications will have direct or
indirect impacts on food production systems and global biodiversity. Aquaculture is no exception (De Silva, 2012).
The impacts of climate change on aquaculture are more complex than those on terrestrial agriculture owing to
the much wider variety of species produced (Brander, 2007). Changes in rainfall will cause a spectrum of changes
in water availability ranging from droughts and shortages to floods and will reduce water quality. Also, salinization
of groundwater supplies and the movement of saline water further upstream in rivers caused by rising sea levels
will threaten inland freshwater aquaculture (IPCC, 2007).
Rising temperatures similarly reduce levels of dissolved oxygen and increase metabolic rates of fish, leading to
increase in fish deaths, decline in production and/or increase in feed requirements while also increasing the risk
and spread of disease (FAO, 2008). Moreover, climate change may indirectly affect aquaculture activities. For
example, wide areas of aquaculture ponds existing in the low laying land may be highly vulnerable to inundation by
sea level rise.
Egypt, which is considered as one of the top five countries expected to be vulnerable to sea level rise impacts
(Dasgupta, et al., 2007), is, in terms of aquaculture production, the largest African country and the 10th globally,
with about 1.14 million tons/year (FAO, 2016). Most of fish farms in Egypt, are located in the Nile Delta region and
concentrated mainly in the Northern lakes (Maruit, Edko, Burullus and Manzala) (FAO, 2010). As a result of global
sea level rise, wide areas of the Nile Delta coastal zone is expected be susceptible to saltwater intrusion and
inundation, with wide range of implications. In other words, climate change associated risks may affect
aquaculture activities in Egypt both directly by influencing fish stocks and hence production quantities and
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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efficiency, and indirectly by influencing fish prices or the cost of goods and services required by fishers and fish
farmers (World Fish Center, 2006). This consequently, may have significant impacts on aquaculture productivity
and thus may adversely food security in Egypt.
2. Objective The main objectives of this working paper can be summarized as follows:
Assessing opportunities and challenges for future aquaculture development and the likely impacts of
climate change on these activities and on food security in Egypt.
proposing possible adaptation measurements to climate change impacts on aquaculture activities in
order to ensure sustainability of this sector.
3. Data Source The situation analysis of aquaculture in Egypt is based on data from recently published United Nations
FAOSTAT (FAO, 2014, 2016) for the global and national seafood supply (in million metric tons) and data published
in reports by GAFRD (General Authority for Fish Resources Development) and Central Agency for Public
Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS). To assess climate change impacts on aquaculture and vice versa, the author
searched the relevant peer-reviewed Literature using Google Scholar and PubMed until December 2016 using the
following search terms: aquaculture, climate change, potentials, water resources, feed, seed, and energy. On the
other hand, to investigate the potential adaptive measures of aquaculture, the author searched the relevant peer-
reviewed Literature using Google Scholar and PubMed until December 2016 using the following search terms:
adaptive measures, aquaculture, ponds cages, and climate change. The author also looked for relevant articles and
reports that were cited in papers found through searching. The articles and reports used in this review cover
climate change, environment, food security and/or aquaculture.
4. Aquaculture and climate change
4.1. Egyptian aquaculture: A situation analysis Aquaculture in Egypt, which is the largest aquaculture industry in Africa, is currently considered as the main
source of fish supply accounting for almost 78.8% of the total fish production of the country (1.56 million tons) and
is expected to increase to 1.8 million tons in 2018, which will represent 85.7 percent of total fish production, an
increase of 600,000 million tons or a 50 percent growth from 2015 (Figure 1). In this respect, fish aquaculture has
increased rapidly from 0.54 million tons in 2005 to 1.23 million tons in 2015 due to rapid expansion in the
application of new technologies such as the use of extruded feed, water circulation systems, and improved farm
management practices. Small and medium scale fish farms have intensified their fish production from earthen
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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ponds using these new technologies, rendering farmed tilapia one of the cheapest sources of animal protein
available to Egyptians. This semi-intensive aquaculture system is by far the most widely-used fish farming system in
Egypt, contributing up to 80 percent of total production. Intensive systems in tanks and cages are rapidly
developing. Concomitant to that production growth, there will be an increase in fish feed demand of around
720,000 million tons, of which 302,000 million ton will be met by imported soybean meal (Wally, 2016).
Figure (1): Total annual fisheries and aquaculture production in Egypt
Source: GAFRD 2015
On the other hand, the production of capture fisheries remained stable around 0.33 million tons during the
same period (Figure 2). Capture fisheries in Egypt are in decline due to overfishing, pollution, illegal, unreported
and unregulated fishing, relaxation in the implementation of laws and regulations, lack of interest in clearing
Straits and waterways, poor sustainable management of fisheries and aquaculture, and illegal fishing operations of
fry. This is in addition to the construction of Aswan High Dam that reduced the annual flood cycle of the Nile
(Shaheen and Nouala, 2013).
The Government of Egypt believes that both fresh water and marine aquaculture have an important role to
play in creating jobs, raising incomes, lifting people out of poverty, as well as promoting healthy diets. The
government is set to reveal a number of major projects in marine aquaculture in the months ahead. Experts expect
government-led development projects will to be presented to domestic and foreign investors (Wally, 2016).
Currently there is an ambitious plan in Egypt to construct new aquaculture farms as part of the development
project in the Suez Canal Region as a governmental strategy to reduce the increasing food gap, new aquaculture
farms are planned along the eastern bank of the Suez Canal. The project intends to create large-scale basins that
extend over 120 km parallel to the Suez Canal (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015).
Wild Catch330000
21%
Aquaculture1230000
79%
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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The Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture (MALR) maintains a division dedicated to promoting and expanding the
fish industry. The General Authority for Fish Resources Development (GAFRD) drafts legislation and regulations
affecting fisheries. GAFRD also manages farm licensing, aquaculture land use regulations, as well as extension and
research services. The organization’s stated goal is to enhance the development of aquaculture, increase
production, and transfer knowledge to the fish farming community. The GAFRD’s current strategy is to raise total
fish production by 34.6 percent to reach 2.1 million tons by 2018 (Wally, 2016).
Figure (2): Fish production in Egypt over the period 2005 to 2015
Source: (GAFRD, 2015).
4.2. Socioeconomic aspects of Egyptian aquaculture Fish is an important source of dietary protein in Egypt, but a bountiful supply of fish production from natural
fishery resources does not meet the demand. Therefore, full utilization and proper management of marine and
inland fisheries is needed to increase production of fish by means of modern techniques of fish culture not only to
enhance nutrition employment and personal income, but also to reduce foreign exchange expenditures (Eassa,
2001).
Aquaculture has a role in increasing the per capita fish consumption in Egypt from 14.3kg in 2002 to be close
to or slightly exceeding the world average at about 22.4/ kg per person by 2015 representing growth in per capita
consumption of 62 percent over this period (Figure 3).
The increase in fish consumption is attributed to an increasing population, expanding domestic supply, as well
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Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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as some economically incentivized changes in consumer preferences among low-income consumers. Growth in
low-cost domestic fish production, improvements in distribution networks and increased importation of
inexpensive canned products have made fish more accessible to the lower socioeconomic strata. For higher-
income consumers, high-value salt water species are widely available including imported salmon, shrimp, and
mollusks like octopus, oysters and mussels (Wally, 2016).
Figure (3): Per capita consumption of fish in Egypt 2002-2015
Source: (Wally, 2016).
Aquaculture, also, plays an important role in the economy (Soliman and Yacout, 2015). The total market value
of the industry was US $2.2 billion in 2015 (1 USD = 8.88 Egyptian pounds) (Wally, 2016). Rapid development in
aquaculture has created a large number of jobs for farm technicians and skilled labors. Furthermore, new
industries and financial services in support of aquaculture are also providing employment opportunities (FAO
2010). Over, 580,000 people are employed in aquaculture sector in recent years (FAO, 2014). Labor costs
represent approximately 8 percent of operational costs (Macfadyen et al. 2011). Moreover, a wide range of
activities related aquaculture also provide job opportunities (Soliman and Yacout, 2015). On the other hand, this
expansion of aquaculture has succeeded in reducing and stabilizing the price of fish in Egypt allowing accessibility
to the poorer rural population to healthy and affordable animal protein (FAO 2010).
4.3. Production systems There are several aquaculture practices in Egypt that include, but not limited to, excavated earthen ponds,
pens and enclosures, concrete and raceways ponds, circular tanks and floating fish cages (Ghanem and Haggag,
2015).
Several criteria can be used to classify an aquaculture system. From an economic point of view, the most
significant criterion is intensity, i.e. the division into intensive, semi-intensive or extensive forms of culture.
Measures of intensity include stocking density, production by area, feeding regime and input costs, while the most
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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interesting features is the degree of control within the production process (Asche et al., 2008) (Table 1 and Figure
4) or according to the fish cultured species (monoculture and polyculture). In Egypt, the most prevailing
aquaculture practice is the semi-intensive earthen ponds. In last 15 years the intensive aquaculture farming has
grown increasingly, especially in the deserts of northern Sinai based on agricultural drainage waters (Ghanedm and
Haggag, 2015). Fish farms are distributed through the Nile Delta region and concentrated mainly in the Northern
lakes (Maruit, Edko, Burulus and Manzala) area (Soliman and Yacout, 2015), with most of the aquaculture
production derived from semi-intensive fish farms in earthen ponds (Figure 5). This is due to the construction of
Aswan High Dam in 1967, which controlled Nile River water flow and reduced the area of northern lakes leaving
vast area of unused land around those lakes. This meant that this land was close to lake water and/or at the end of
irrigation and drainage canals going to the lakes, which meant their sites were ideal for aquaculture use rather
than agriculture crops (CIHEAM, 2008). It is worth mentioning in this respect that more than half the farmed fish
production in Egypt is produced in Kafr El Sheikh Governorate, mainly produced in small and medium-scale
privately owned farms (Figure 6).
Table 1: types of aquaculture production systems
System type Description Production
(kg/ha/year) Efficiency of land
use (m2/ton)
Extensive On farm resources 100-500 20000-100000
On farm resource, fertilizers 100-1000 10000-100000
Semi-intensive Supplemental feeds, water exchange 4000-20000 500-2500
Semi-intensive Supplemental feeds, water exchange, night aeration 15000-35000 300-700
Intensive Complete feeds, water exchanges, constant aeration 20000-100000 100-500
Source: (Verdegem et al., 2006)
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Cage; Mohamed Hagag Fish farms in Damietta
Governorate
Earthen ponds; Ahmed Kamal Morsy fish farm in
Kafr El Shaikh Governorate
Plastic ponds, Abdelsalam Hegazy fish farm in Kafr
El Shaikh Governorate
Concrete ponds; Ismail Radwan fish farm in Kafr El
Shaikh Governorate
Figure (4): Different fish farming systems in Damietta and Kafr El Shaikh Governorate
Source: Soliman and Yacout, 2016
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
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Figure (5): Geographical distribution of Egyptian aquaculture production (million ton)
Source: (GAFRD, 2014)
Figure (6): Flow of drainage system in the coastal area of the Nile Delta
Source: (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015).
Three decades ago tilapia and mullet were the main species reared in earthen ponds. Today ten finfish
(Tilapia; Mullet spp.; Grass Carp; Silver Carp; African Catfish; Bayad; Gilthead seabream; European sea bass;
Meagre and Slia) besides four crustacean species (Macrobrachiumrosenbergii, Penaeussemisulcatus; P.japonicus
and P.indicus), are part of the aquaculture finfish production (Sadek, 2013). However, Nile tilapia alone
contributes over 67 percent to production quota followed by carp 17 and mullet 11 percent (GAFRD, 2014) (Figure
7).
Tilapia aquaculture characteristics include tolerance to poor water quality and the fact that they eat a wide
range of natural food organisms (Shaheen et al., 2013). They feed on low trophic levels (short food chain) and use
the aquatic detritus (bioflocs). They accept artificial feeds immediately after yolk-sac absorption. Tilapia are 98%
vegetarian and can obtain most of its protein requirement from the plant origin. The blue and Nile tilapias can
reproduce in salinities above 10-15 ppt, but perform better at salinities below 5 ppt. Fry numbers decline
substantially at 10 ppt salinity (Popma and Masser, 1999). They are also characterized by high growth rate, as; it
Delta West135256
Delta middle540858
Damietta125597
Delta East212106
Red Sea1440
Nile valey13266
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can grow to almost 800 g in 1 year. Tilapia is a prolific breeder; females produce about 500 eggs every second
week, in some species. They resist disease very well. Tilapia can tolerate low dissolved oxygen concentration,
high ammonia concentration, and low water quality in general. They have the ability to reproduce in captivity and
short generation time. They are environmentally friendly fish. Their musculature tissue has a scanty amount of
fat so, they accumulate a very tiny amount of the organic pollutants. They reach market size at a short period and
consequently minimize the time of exposure for the pollutants (Popma and Masser, 1999).
On the other hand, the intolerance of tilapia to low temperature is a serious constraint for commercial
culture in temperate regions. The lower lethal temperature for most species is 50 to 52F for a few days, but the
Blue tilapia tolerates temperature to about 48F (Popma and Masser, 1999).
Marine species represent only 14.5 percent of the total Egyptian aquaculture, with total salt water
production reaching around 178,000 million tons in 2015. Among the marine species, mullet is by far the most
produced at 129,000 million tons in 2015, or 10.5 percent of total aquaculture production. It remains a key
species in Egyptian marine aquaculture because of its low feed intake, and is in high demand by Egyptian
consumers. Other marine species produced are European seabass, gilt-head sea bream, meagre, and shrimp
(Wally, 2016).
Private firms make up the majority of Egyptian marine aquaculture producers. Most producers 86 percent)
raise fish using earthen ponds, while a smaller percentage (13 percent) uses cages. A limited number of producers
use concrete ponds and raceways. The bulk of marine aquaculture production (81 percent) is located in Damietta
Governorate, on the Mediterranean coast at the northeast corner of the Nile delta. The neighboring governorates
of Port Said, Alexandria, and Suez account for the remaining 19 percent of marine aquaculture (Wally, 2016).
Figure (7): Aquaculture production, by fish type
Source: GAFRD 2014
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4.3. Sustainability constraints on Egyptian aquaculture As in other animal production sectors, several important aquaculture inputs land, freshwater, feed, and
energy are associated with significant environmental impacts. At the same time, the availability of these inputs is
limited, and will likely become even more limited in the future. Unless the aquaculture industry is able to boost
productivity, the limited availability of these inputs may constrain its future growth (Waite et al., 2014).
Despite the fact that aquaculture sector in Egypt has witnessed a spectacular development, there are some
major constraints and challenges facing aquaculture industry. The future of aquaculture growth in Egypt greatly
depends upon resolving these problems. Major problems in this sector are related to resource use conflicts (water
and land), energy consumption, reliable source of fish fry and its quality, changes in the prices of main raw
materials used in fish feed industry. Consequently, there are many opportunities for future development and
improvement (Soliman and Yacout, 2016). The following section discusses different types of constraints currently
facing the Egyptian aquaculture industry.
a) Water resources
Egypt is one of the countries which has limited water resources and that reflects the quantity and quality of
water available for fish farming (CIHEAM 2008). Although aquaculture is a major industry, the sector is not
allowed to use irrigation/Nile water and is generally dependent on water from agricultural drainage channels and
groundwater (Naziri 2011). In order to conserve fresh water, aquaculture in Egypt is operated exclusively on
drainage water. Law 124 of year 1983 prohibits the use of fresh water for aquaculture production. Fish farms
which are established along the drains use pumping system to circulate the water into the farm and discharge the
water back to the drain after it reaches unbearable quality for the fish. This practice results in fish production of
extremely poor quality (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015). It is mandatory to acquire sufficient supply of water with
adequate quality for the operation of the aquaculture industry (Agoz et al., 2005). However, most of the current
production practices are carried out as run-through system with no recirculation of water or treatment of effluent
prior to its disposal. On the long term this practice results in negative impacts on the receiving water bodies.
Conventional excavated earthen aquaculture farms in the northern Nile Delta are reported to cause increase in
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and organic wastes, through the feeding inputs, leading to general
deterioration of water quality (Sipaúba-Tavares et al., 2013). In addition, the production system is not efficient in
terms of yield or resource recovery. On the national level, there is little information to predict the impact of this
conventional approach on quality of receiving water bodies for this emerging industry, and there is limited effort
to improve the management of this resource (Ghanem and Haggag, 2015).
Poor water quality results in declined fish production, increased production costs for hatchers, as well as
fish farmers, and increases the risk of disease outbreaks which may in turn reduces the opportunities for fish
export. In addition, poor water quality may have negative impacts on the environment and a negative effect on
human health for laborers as well as consumers (Mur 2014). Nowadays, farmers are requesting freshwater as
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they reuse this water for crops. Moreover, farmers argue that drainage water negatively affects quality of farmed
fish owing to the accumulation of pollutants and potential contamination of fish (FAO 2014).
As previously mentioned, underground is one of the main water sources utilized for aquaculture purposes
besides agricultural drainage water (El-Guindy, 2006), which vary in salinity from 1–30 g/litre and temperature
from 22 to 26 °C. El-Guindy (2006) raised concerns about the use of groundwater aquifer systems in Egypt,
estimating a potential safe pumping yield of 1 744 million m3 per year (Figure 8).
Figure (8): Current and potential extraction of fresh groundwater in Egypt
Source: El-Guindy 2006
In addition, El-Guindy (2006) defined several key issues that should be taken into consideration to achieve a
sustainable intensive use of underground water. Firstly, there are gaps in the existing capacities for effectively
using brackish water and no work on how these gaps should be filled. Secondly, the action plans considering
underground brackish water resources for developmental initiatives (quantity, quality, potential uses and time
perspective) need to be developed. Finally, a mechanism for inter-ministerial coordination for brackish water
utilization needs to be established.
b) Land
By law, fish farming is not allowed to be developed on agricultural lands. Salty lands are temporarily allowed
to aquaculture for a specific period and switch to agriculture once salt is leached and land suits agricultural
production (CIHEAM 2008).
On the other hand, converting the temporarily fish farms into agriculture after salt washing –if happened-
would significantly reduce the acreage of fish farms and so fish production. Furthermore, desert when used for
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aquaculture requires much higher investments (El Gamal, 2014).
Farmers usually rent lands from the government through the General Authority for Fish Resources
Development (Rothuis et al. 2013) and the land rent itself represents 62 % of fixed costs (Macfadyen et al. 2011).
Almost all suitable land for aquaculture has been taken out (limiting horizontal expansion). Owned land
represents 14.5 % of the total area; the remaining areas are either leased or utilized temporarily for aquaculture
(Soliman and Yacout, 2016). Outdated laws and difficult licensing procedures force many operators into the
informal economy (Wally, 2016).
c) Energy
The importance of optimizing energy usage in industry is increasing worldwide. Recent studies found that
one of the major problems in Egyptian aquaculture is related to energy consumption. Furthermore, with the
exponential expansion in aquaculture industry and feed production, more focus is required in this area. Eltholth
et al. (2015) reported that one of the main production constraints in the aquaculture sector is fuel and energy
sources. Fuel shortages and high price, particularly in the last 2 years, have impacted on the aquaculture farming
activities.
Many farms are not connected to the electricity grid and are prevented from installing electricity on rented
land. Hence, the cost incurred for the generation of power is more because of the need to use generators and/or
diesel pumps. Power/fuel costs have risen in recent years and are periodically unavailable in some locations. Fuel
and power constitute about 3 % of total production costs (Macfadyen et al. 2011). They are used in all the
processes of the aquaculture system including feed raw material production, feed manufacturing, hatchery,
grow-out fish cultivation and transportation of materials (Samuel-Fitwi et al. 2013). Consequently, due to the
increased production through aquaculture in the country, the energy usage increased as well by 25.9 % from
2008 till 2011 (CAPMAS 2014). Improving the efficiency of used energy in this industry is becoming a must in
order to overcome the current energy crisis in the country. Moreover, future studies should investigate the
possibility of utilizing renewable energy as an alternative to conventional one in the different processes of the
aquaculture industry (Soliman and Yacout, 2016, Eltholth et al. 2015).
d) Feed
Annual growth in the fish farming sector is currently estimated at five to seven percent (Wally, 2016). The
expansion in Egyptian aquaculture has been accompanied by a gradual shift from extensive and semi-intensive
low-input culture systems to more intensive feed-dependent system. This approach has resulted in an increase in
demand for commercial fish feeds (El-Sayed, 2014).
During the past decade, the sector has witnessed an outstanding expansion, with a significant engagement
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of the private sector. Recent surveys indicated that there are nine state-owned fish feed mills and over 50
registered private feed continued mills distributed throughout the country, particularly in the areas of, or close
to, the aquaculture production. Nonetheless, no accurate official data are available on the current fish feed
production. However, the current production has been estimated at about 900,000–1,000,000 t/year. About 80
% of this production is in the form of compressed feed, while the remaining 20 % are extruded feeds (El-Sayed
2014). The market for extruded feeds is growing, and several projects are in progress for the establishment of
extruded feed industries (Rothuis et al. 2013).
The most common recipes for fish feed production use soybean meal at 30 to 40 percent and fish meal at 5
to 22 percent, although the latter is increasingly displaced due to its high cost (Wally, 2016).
The main protein sources used for fish feed production in Egypt are soybean meal (included at 28.8–43%)
corn (17.3-24 %) and fish meal (8–12%). Egyptian production levels of major feed ingredients currently used for
animal and aquaculture feed production do not meet local demand (Wally, 2016).
Current domestic crush capacity of soybeans is estimated at 8,000 MT per day compared to 3,000 MT a
decade ago. Due to increasing animal feed demand, the soybean crush capacity is expected to increase to 15,000
per tons over the next five years. Soybean meal is the major protein source in Egyptian aquaculture. In 2015/16
Egypt’s soymeal demand amounted to 2.85 MMT out of which approximately 1.2 MMT of soybean meal was
used in aquaculture (Wally, 2016).
Rapid increase in the cost of fish feed is one of the main constrains faced by the fish feed industry and
farmers. In 2011, imports accounted for 99 % of soybean cake (988,000 t), 97 % of soybean seeds (1,116,000 t)
and 50 % (7,048,000 t) of maize used or consumed in Egypt. More than 60 % of raw materials for fish feed to be
imported in Egypt. Increasing world market prices of raw materials resulted in an increase of fish prices by 200–
250 % over the last 6–7 years. In 2012, feed prices increased from 450 to 550 Euro/MT for the feed containing 32
% protein. These prices will seriously affect the profitability of the farmers (Macfadyen et al. 2011; Rothuis et al.
2013; El-Sayed, 2014).
Producers sometimes were forced to use low quality feed or other alternatives to the expensive ingredients
such as ground small size tilapia as a substitute for fishmeal with the assumption that it would be cheaper than
fishmeal; however, as this contains 75% moisture, it is not actually cheaper. This practice could increase risks of
transmission of fish diseases between farms as there was no heat treatment for this feed. About 60% of
producers used poultry manure to fertilize fishponds which may also influence the consumption of tilapia in
people’s diets and their nutritional and food safety benefits and risks. The direct use of poultry manure without
treatment, and the presence of excreta from other animal species on a high proportion of fish farms (which
could contaminate fish ponds), are potential public health threats (Sapkota et al., 2008).
The feed industry estimates that aquaculture feed market demand will exceed 1.5 MT annually by 2020. To
meet the increase in feed required, significant investments in aquaculture feed are taking place. Two of the
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largest feed producing companies are Skretting’s Nutreco, which recently tripled its annual tilapia fish feed
capacity to 150,000 MT, followed by Aller Aqua which is doubling its marine feed production in Egypt to reach
150,000 MT by 2017. Aller Aqua is the only company that produces shrimp feed in addition to fish feed (Wally,
2016).
e) Seeds
The number of fish hatcheries has increased from 14 in 1998 to over 600 of which many are unlicensed
private hatcheries (GAFRD 2013). The production of fry from hatcheries is about 411 million units of a different
species, mainly tilapia, carp and catfish (GAFRD 2014). On the other hand, the supply of mullets, meager fry, and
to some extent sea bream and sea bass, is dependent on collection from the wild. There are several fry collection
stations in seven governorates, where wild caught and fingerlings are collected for distribution. There are also
indications of large-scale illegal collection of wild fry that may affect wild stocks considerably (Rothuis et al.
2013).
f) Climate change
Egypt is considered one of the countries that most vulnerable to the potential impacts of climate change.
Climate change will have serious repercussions for all sectors of development in the country (El Raey, 2010),
aquaculture industry is no exception. While the importance of aquaculture is often understated, the consequent
implications of climate change for aquaculture are difficult to ignore. Climate change has the potential to affect
aquaculture through changes in fish stock, species, reduced area for aquaculture, production quantities and
efficiency, water quality, and fish prices. Over and above, the impacts of climate change are also posing threats
to sustainable aquaculture development thus requiring focused implementation of mitigation and adaptation
strategies. Such measures will entail both technological and socio-economic approaches.
5. Vulnerability of Aquaculture to climate change Climate change is currently of major concern to the growing aquaculture production centers in Asia (China,
Bangladesh, India and Vietnam, etc.), and Africa (esp. Egypt). Climate change has altered the wet and dry
seasons. Over the past decade the dry season has come earlier and lingered longer for many Southeast Asian
nations (most noticeably in Vietnam, for example). Upstream dams have caused a loss of freshwaters,
salinization and subsidence in southern Bangladesh, altering valuable aquaculture farming systems in this region.
As IPCC projections call for major shifts in rainfall patterns and storm intensities, pro-active and adaptive
approaches will be required to preserve these important food production centers to accelerated climate change
(Costa-Pierce et al., 2010).
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It is increasingly recognized that social, economic and ecological systems are dynamic, interacting and
interdependent (Folke, 2006). In this respect interactions between climate change and aquaculture are two-way
–aquaculture contributes to climate change, and climate change impacts on aquaculture.
5.1. Aquaculture effects on climate change Aquaculture has a limited emission of greenhouse gas, in comparison with beef meat and with some
fisher activities. It has also a limited impact on deforestation, a limited amount of liquid and solid wastes per
kg of meat produced, and a better adaptation to the climate change due to the specific physiology of fishes. In
order to evaluate the environmental impacts pf a product or service, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), which was
developed in the early 1960s (Hendricksonet al., 2005), can be readily applied to estimate the global warming
potential (GWP) of different types of aquaculture.
As mentioned before, tilapia is the major cultured species in Egypt. Egypt is the worlds' second largest
producer of farmed tilapia after China (Mur, 2014, FAO, 2016). It is cultured in both intensive and semi-
intensive systems (Shaheen et al., 2013). Fish cage culture systems are also widely used especially in the Nile
Delta region. In a study by Yacout et al., 2016, Life cycle assessment (LCA) was employed to determine the
environmental impacts of tilapia production and compare semi-intensive and intensive production systems.
Data for life cycle inventory were collected from two case study farms for tilapia production in Egypt (Figure 9).
Results showed that global warming potentials from semi-intensive systems shows extreme variation of almost
four times higher results than intensive systems. The results obtained indicate that the 1 tone live weight
production of tilapia emitted 961 kg CO2 eq in intensive systems to the environment, which is relatively lower
than those reported by Mungkung et al. (2013): 1253–1444 kg CO2 eq from their study regarding tilapia
production (tone) in cages. However, higher values 2100 and 2960 kg CO2 eq were reported by Pelletier and
Tyedmers (2010) and Pongpat and Tonnegpool (2013), respectively.
Furthermore, Yacout et al. 2016 noted that feed production is the major contributor to global warming for
intensive aquaculture systems of tilapia rather than semi-intensive aquaculture systems in Egypt. LCA of feed
production revealed that fish meal production is one of the major hot spots affecting the environmental
performances. The major emission from feed production is CO2 to air. Additionally, energy consumption
through aeration and water pumping has high impact on cumulative energy demand. Thus, the feeding
management and the optimal operation of aerators must be given the attention in order to reduce the GHG
emissions.
Iribarren et al. (2012) reported the same results, concluding that the high impact of raw materials
production specially soya bean, fish meal, and rice is due to the demand of great amounts of these specific
materials according to the current feed formulation. They suggested that reduction in overall impacts can be
done by changing feed formula, usage of new ingredient ratios with lower impact on the environment, and at
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the same time contain proper contents of proteins, lipids, and phosphorus. For example, formulations that use
more soya beans and wheat grains but less fish meal are expected to have better environmental impacts in
acidification and global warming. They also suggest using novel raw materials for fish feed production with
better environmental performance (Iribarren et al. 2012). Alternate protein sources can lower the cost of
aquaculture diets to reduce the amount of wild fish used as protein, and potentially reduce the nutrient levels
in effluent waste. However, for most species, there is a limit to how much fishmeal can be replaced by
alternative protein sources without any adverse effects on the fish (Xu et al., 2012).
Aquaculture also offers opportunities for the reduction and mitigation of GHG production and
sequestration of carbon through good aquaculture production practices, such as use of freshwater effluents
for irrigation of rice fields and orchards and replanting of mangrove buffers for coastal protection of ponds
bordering the sea and a nutrient sink for marine and brackish water effluents (FAO/ Worldfish Workshop,
2009).
Figure(9): System boundaries of tilapia production
Source: Yacout et al., 2016
5.2. Implications of climate change on Egyptian aquaculture activities
Aquaculture depends upon resource inputs (water, energy, land, seed, and feed) that connected to
various food, processing, transportation, and other sectors of society. Outputs from aquaculture ecosystems
can be valuable, uncontaminated waste waters and fish wastes, which can be important inputs to ecologically
designed aquatic and terrestrial ecological farming systems and habitats.
The negative impacts of climate change on these inputs will have a number of implications on
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aquaculture productivity and livelihood of communities dependent on aquaculture activities. The following
subsections will discuss briefly the main implications of climate change on aquaculture inputs such in the case
of natural resources including water, land, feed and seed, and energy and the current and proposed adaptive
and mitigative options to cope with the consequences of climate change.
a) Water
As mentioned in a previous section, Egypt is considered to be one of the top five countries expected to
be vulnerable to sea level rise impacts (Dasgupta, et al., 2007). Higher sea levels may make coastal
groundwater more saline, especially in low lying areas reducing the availability of freshwater for aquaculture
(Swaminathan, 2012), particularly in desert areas where aquaculture activities rely partly on underground
water. In Egypt, there are 20 commercial Aquaculture located in desert areas with total surface area about
893 hectares producing about 13000 tons/year (El Guindy, 2006; Sadek 2011).
There is a need to move towards cage farming systems (non-consumptive water use) and mariculture to
mitigate the impact of climate change on freshwater hydrology. It should be noted that such intensive
farming technique has some deficiencies associated, which may lead to a number of environmental
implications. However, these deficiencies and their environmental implications can be mitigated, if all
necessary measures that ensure limited environmental implications, such as site selection, are undertake
(Sadek, 2013).
Research will be needed to develop new strains of aquaculture species that are tolerant of lower water
quality and higher levels of salinity to cope with changes driven by climate change.This is a relevant issue for
countries where freshwater is a limiting factor that will be exacerbated by climate change, as seems to be the
case for Egypt (FAO/WorldFish Workshop, 2009).
El-Guindy (2006) also noted that brackish water and brine could play a significant role in the sustainable
development of desert aquaculture (both environmentally and socially) by implementing: (1) economically
and technically feasible options, obtained through desalination of the underground brackish water; and (2)
cost-effective technological solutions related to underground brackish water extraction and exploitation for:
human food (crops and fish); fodder (crops and aquatic products); fuel (wood and biofuel); existing plant
species (halophytes); and new and more salt tolerant agricultural products and other commodities (oils,
lubricants, pharmaceuticals, fibres, etc.). For desert aquaculture farms to be successful, many factors must be
considered when selecting the species to be reared: low cost of feeding; ease of propagation; resistance to
disease and tolerance to adverse climatic conditions; rapid growth and high survival. These factors facilitate
management in relatively high population density culture systems such as those developed in the Egyptian
desert areas. Egyptian desert fish farms, both artisanal and commercial, produce various finfish including Nile
tilapia, hybrid red tilapia, North African catfish, common carp, silver carp, grass carp, European seabass,
gilthead seabream and ornamental species such as koi, fantail and molly. In the desert and arid lands of Egypt,
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Nile tilapia and North African catfish are the main cultured species when freshwater from underground
reservoirs is used. However, European seabass and gilthead seabream are also reared in areas where most of
the brackish and saline underground waters (>26 g/litre) are found (Sadek et al., 2011).
A preliminary study by Anonymous (2002) has shown that the brine effluent water from the desalination
plant of the El-Gouna resort that is located 22 km north of Hurghada in the Red Sea Governorate is suitable
for growing hybrid red tilapia, grey mullet, gilthead seabream and European seabass. Water is supplied from
three different sources: effluent brackish water (salinity 12 g/litre) from the desalination unit with a daily
production of 3 000 m3; groundwater (salinity 60 g/litre) with a capacity of 60 m3/hr from different wells near
the fish farm project and groundwater (4.5–6 g/litre) originating from the agriculture farm which belongs to
the Orascom Company behind the mountains. The water requirements of the fish farm can be adjusted from
the three above-mentioned water sources to meet a daily requirement of 3 000 m3. Salinity is adjusted for
each species, at 12–20 g/litre for the hybrid red tilapia during the various rearing phases (nursing, pre-growing
and growing tanks) and 4.5–6 g/litre for the brood stock maintenance and breeding tanks. Water salinity is
adjusted to a maximum of 20 g/litre for marine finfish species. The effluent from the fish farm does not drain
into the Red Sea; it is used to culture mangrove trees in artificial shallow lakes (Sadek, 2011).
A promising aquaculture technique of fish farming that can be used in Egypt is recirculation aquaculture
system (RAS). In RAS, fish is cultured under fully controlled environmental conditions independent of their
natural environment. RAS are land-based fish production systems in which water from the rearing tanks is
reused after mechanical and biological purification to reduce water and energy consumption and to reduce
emission to the environment (Schneider et al. 2010) (Figure 10).
Figure (10): Simplified recirculating aquaculture system
Source: (FAO, 2014b)
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Since water is reused, the water volume requirements in RAS are only about 20 % of what conventional
open pond culture demands. They offer a promising solution to water use conflicts, water quality and waste
disposal. These concerns will continue to intensify in the future as water demand for a variety of uses
escalates (Bahnasawy et al. 2009). RAS are particularly useful in areas where land and water are expensive
and not readily available. They require relatively small amounts of land and water. They can be located close
to large markets and thereby reduce hauling distances and transportation costs. Moreover, RAS can use
municipal water supplies (after dechlorination) and discharge waste into sanitary sewer system (Brazil 2006).
The challenge to the use of recirculation systems will be to reduce the energy costs and thereby maintain the
GHG emissions per unit production at an acceptable level, through engineering innovations (DeSilva, 2012).
A case study on developing financially viable recirculation aquaculture system for tilapia production in
Egypt was funded by the Netherland. Twenty four tanks (3x8x1 m) were modified to match the recirculation
system requirements. The tanks were arranged in two rows, each row having an irrigation channel with a
drain channel in the middle. Sufficient space was made available alongside the fish tank to build a solid waste
removal tank. A separate concrete pond was used to form the base for a trickle filter. The solid waste removal
tank was connected to a 2x2m square, concrete tank where the water was then pumped to the top of the
trickle-down filter (Radwan and Leschen, 2011) (Figure 11). The early production cycle of RAS trials revealed
great potentials for being adopted widely in Egypt, for example, the production cycle of 2010 resulted in
18935 kg of fish with total cost of L.E. 141368, which means the economic feasibility of such a system (Van der
Heijden, 2011).
Figure (11): Concrete ponds; Ismail Radwan fish farm at Kafr El Shaikh Governorate
Source: (Radwan and Leschen, 2011)
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Furthermore, the use of brackish groundwater for integrated production of fish and salt tolerant crops
is another prerequisite of the sector. At Wadi El Natroun in El Beheira Governorate, an experimental farm is
growing sea bass, sea bream and red tilapia, using saline underground water. The saline fish farm effluent is
used to develop an integrated aquaculture horticulture system. Currently, salt-tolerant species (Samphrie
Salicorina europaeae), Mediterranean salt bush (Atriplex halimus) and sea blite (Suaeda vermiculata) are
tested (van der Heijden et al. 2012) (Figure 12).
Figure (12): Pioneer aquaculture projects in The Egyptian desert (Recycle Aquaculture System-RAS):
Rula For Land Reclamation, Wadi Group, Wadi El-Natroun
Source: (Van der Heijden et al. 2012)
Another promising technique that is environmental friendly aquaculture system called “Biofloc
Technology (BFT)” Biofloc systems (also called Activated Suspension Ponds or Aerated Microbial Reuse
systems) are intensive systems to grow detritus-eating fish species like Nile tilapia and some species of
shrimps like Litopenaeus vannamei with reduced use of water if compared with common culture in ponds.An
important difference with recirculation systems is that in biofloc systems the waste that is generated during
fish farming (sludge, carbon dioxide and ammonia) are treated in the pond or fish tank itself while in
recirculation systems the waste is treated outside the fish basins.
In biofloc systems the water is aerated intensively and mixed continuously to create optimum
conditions for bacteria (that treat the waste) and good conditions for fish to grow. Intensive aeration, proper
design of the ponds and proper location in the ponds of the paddlewheels and other aerating devises keep
the water moving in all parts of the pond and avoid settlement and accumulation of sludge (all the feed and
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manure particles are kept in suspension). The sludge particles that drift in the water column are quickly
covered with bacteria and other small creatures (protozoans, algae, etc). This layer of bacteria and other
micro-organisms is a protein-rich coating around the particle. When eaten by the fish or shrimp the coating is
digested and is a protein-rich feed. The particle itself my leave the fish again as part of manure, and once in
the water it will soon be covered again with a layer of bacteria, eaten again by the fish, etc (van der Heijden
et al., 2013).
Biofloc technology is considered as an efficient alternative system since nutrients could be continuously
recycled and reused. The sustainable approach of such system is based on growth of microorganism in the
culture medium, benefited by the minimum or zero water exchange (Crab et al., 2009).
Bioflocs are aggregates (flocs) of algae, bacteria, protozoans, and other kinds of particulate organic
matter such as feces and uneaten feed. Each floc is held together in a loose matrix of mucus that is secreted
by bacteria, bound by filamentous microorganisms, or held by electrostatic attraction. The biofloc
community also includes animals that are grazers of flocs, such as some zooplankton and nematodes. Large
bioflocs can be seen with the naked eye, but most are microscopic (Hargreaves, 2013). These
microorganisms (biofloc) has two major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen
compounds generating “in situ” microbial protein; and (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing
feed conversion ratio and a decrease of feed costs (Crab et al., 2009).
Biofloc technology is a technique of enhancing water quality through the addition of extra carbon to the
aquaculture system, through an external carbon source or elevated carbon content of the feed (Hargreaves,
2006). This promoted nitrogen uptake by microbial growth decreases the ammonium concentration more
rapidly than nitrification (Hargreaves, 2006). Immobilization of ammonium by heterotrophic bacteria occurs
much more rapidly because the growth rate and microbial biomass productivity per unit substrate of
heterotrophic organisms are a factor 10 higher than that caused by the nitrifying bacteria (Crab et al., 2012).
As a closed system, BFT has primordial advantage of minimizing the release of water into rivers, lakes
and estuaries containing escaped animals, nutrients, organic matter and pathogens. Also, surrounding areas
are benefitted by the “vertically growth” in terms of productivity, preventing coastal or inland area
destruction, induced eutrophication and natural resources losses. Drained water from ponds and tanks often
contains relatively high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous, limiting nutrients that induce algae
growth, which may cause severe eutrophication and further anaerobic conditions in natural water bodies. In
BFT, minimum water discharge and reuse of water prevent environment degradation and convert such
system in a real “environmentally friendly system” with a “green” approach. Minimum water exchange
maintain the heat and fluctuation of temperature is prevented (Crab et al., 2009), allowing growth of tropical
species in cold areas.
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Compared to conventional water treatment technologies used in aquaculture, biofloc technology
provides a more economical alternative (decrease of water treatment expenses in the order of 30%), and
additionally, a potential gain on feed expenses (the efficiency of protein utilization is twice as high in biofloc
technology systems when compared to conventional ponds). Therefore, biofloc technology is a low-cost
sustainable constituent to future aquaculture development (Avnimelech, 2009). It could also be used in the
specific case of maintaining appropriate water temperature, good water quality and high fish/shrimp survival
in low/no water exchange, greenhouse ponds to overcome periods of lower temperature during winter (Crab
et al., 2012). In addition, Crab et al. (2010) have recently shown that biofloc technology constitutes a
possible alternative measure to fight pathogens in aquaculture.
Figure (13): Biofloc pond
Source: (Suloma et al., 2015)
According to the first biofloc trial at Wadi El Natroun red tilapia can indeed be grown in this very
water-efficient growing system and valuable lessons were obtained that will be used to improve the
technique. The biofloc method uses very little water per kg of fish produced when compared with other
intensive fish culture methods. This method can also be applied in freshwater tilapia culture and contributes
to the reduction of the use of freshwater, a resource with limited availability in Egypt at the moment and
becoming more scarce in the near future as result of population expansion and agricultural developments.
Contrary to expectations the Egyptian consumers were willing to pay more for this type of tilapia than for
the commonly produced grey tilapia (van der Heijdenet al., 2013).
b) Land
The Nile Delta, like all world deltas, is considered to be vulnerable areas to sea level rise. Potential
impacts of SLR on the delta may include increased coastal erosion, overtopping of coastal defenses and
increased flooding, damage to urban centers, retreat of barrier dunes, decreased soil moisture, increased
soil and lagoon water salinity, and decreased agriculture and fisheries productivity (MSEA 2001). Sea level
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rise (SLR) leads to loss of land due to inundation and would lead to reduced area available for aquaculture,
loss of freshwater fisheries and aquaculture due to reduced freshwater availability, changes in estuary
systems and shifts in species abundance and the distribution and composition of fish stocks and
aquaculture seed. Seawater intrusion into freshwater aquifers is an increasing problem with rising sea level
(Moore, 1999).
Yet, it was argued that inundation of wetlands cannot be seen as a net economic loss. Rather, if
proper adaptation options are carried out, it could turn into a good opportunity for increasing fisheries
productivity (Hassan and Abdrabo, 2013). This in turn entails an integrated analysis for the impacts of
different risks associated with climate changes.
As sea levels rise, flooding of low lying areas and salinization of groundwater and soil will create ideal
conditions for aquaculture in many areas (MAB, 2009), while simultaneously rendering them unsuitable for
regular agriculture (WorldFish Center, 2007). Aquaculture diversification due to a shift to brackish water
species resulting from reduced freshwater availability is a possibility. Increased areas might be suitable for
the brackish water culture of high-value species such as shrimp and mud crab.
Saline water intrusion and associated flooding are likely to make a large acreage of current
agricultural activities, primarily rice cultivation, untenable in such areas. However, such areas can continue
to be utilized for aquaculture, thereby continuing to provide alternative livelihoods and much-needed food
production (De Silva, 2012).The major challenge confronting aquaculture, therefore, is to commence new
farming systems in salinity-intruded areas. In order to meet this challenge, the planning processes have to
be put in place soon (De Silva, 2012).
On the other hand, traditional farming is risky and farmers invest heavily in crop production to get
maximum return. With increasing pressure from the growing human population, only vertical expansion is
possible by integrating appropriate farming components, requiring lesser space and time and ensuring
periodic income to the farmer. The integrated farming system therefore, assumes greater importance for
the sound management of farm resources to enhance the farm productivity, reduce the environmental
degradation, improve the quality of life for poor farmers and to maintain sustainability.
Aquaculture provides opportunities to adapt to climate change by integrating aquaculture and
agriculture. A combination of aquaculture (raising fish in a controlled environment) and hydroponics
(growing plants without soil, providing the nutrients to the plants mixed into the water fed to the plants)
called Aquaponics is a way forward to utilize available land and water efficiently.
Aquaponics is a sustainable food production system that combines a traditional aquaculture with
hydroponics in a symbiotic environment (Figure 14). The water is efficiently recirculated and reused for
maximum benefits through natural biological filtration and recirculation. The waste that is excreted by
aquatic species or uneaten feed is naturally converted into nitrate and other beneficial nutrients in the
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water. Those nutrients are then absorbed by the vegetables and fruits in a “natural fertilization way”
(Emerenciano et al., 2013).
Figure (14): Simple aquaponic unit
Source: (FAO, 2014b)
Aquaponics is ideal for developing countries because the fish provide much-needed protein and a
second source of income. High value cash crops, such as vegetables, can be grown with aquaponics in
areas where conventional farming methods can only produce grains. Additionally, aquaponics produce is
entirely organic (and thus can be sold for a higher price) because no pesticides are needed in this closed-
water system. Aquaponics is also less labor intensive than conventional farming and requires less water
because it can be recycled using a circulatory pump (INMED, 2015). Therefore, aquaponics is ideal for
drought-prone and water-scarce regions. Because the system is usually enclosed in a greenhouse,
aquaponics is resistant to climate and weather changes.
The benefits of aquaponics are huge. Aquaponics can grow ten times more crops per unit area than
conventional methods, (PELUM, 2013) uses 75% less energy than mechanized agriculture, and consumes
80-90% less water (INMED, 2015). Aquaponics is growing woods in the desert and yielding harvests in the
city. In practice, Nile tilapia is the most popular fish chosen for this system. In Egypt, few trials have been
experienced. One of these trials was transferred from Virgin Islands University and brought the technique
to Egypt, where the country’s first commercial aquaponics farm started. Water circulates through tanks full
of Nile tilapia, then the fish-waste laden water was treated and filtered and then flows over through trays
where vegetables grow, and eventually out to irrigate the olive trees that line the farm (Shaheen et
al.,2013). El Bustan Aquaponics farm is another example of aquaponics in Egypt. It is a 1,000 m2 operation
located on the outskirts of Cairo, and is the first and only commercial aquaponics farm in Egypt, producing
pesticide-free tilapia fish, four varieties of lettuce, baby spinach, purple kale, swiss chard, celery, etc. (FAO,
2015).
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Integrated aquaculture and agriculture has expanded rapidly in the Egyptian desert since 2000. This is
the most common farming system and a large number of desert land owners have established fish rearing
facilities. Desert aquaculture began with growing fish in the tanks that are used as water reservoirs for
irrigation. Success in this activity encouraged some farm owners to seek technical support towards
integrating fish farming with their agriculture businesses. Recently, as the efficient and economical
utilization of water sources becomes a necessity, aquaculture production systems are being developed.
Integrated systems are particularly attractive to farmers, as water sources enriched with organic fish
wastes from intensive aquaculture ponds serve as a fertilizer for land crops (such as corn and alpha-alpha),
as well as providing water for breeding sheep and goats, thus, resulting in the production of three different
crops from the same quantity of water (Sadek, 2011).
The Qattara Depression and the Egyptian Sand Sea in the Libyan Desert, nearly 560 km from Cairo, are
well known for their agriculture cultivation systems, as well as their medicinal and restorative properties.
More than 1 500 water reservoirs with a total water volume of 1 million m3 are used for irrigation,
particularly in the cultivation of dates, olives and basketry. A few farmers have cultivated tilapia in 400 m3
tanks and have succeeded in producing between 350 to 400 kg of tilapia per tank over a period of 6 to 7
months (Sadek, 2011).
El-Keram, a trading investment company that is located between Cairo and Alexandria in the desert of
Beheira, about 100 km northwest of Cairo, has applied a methodology that involves nutrient sharing and
waste recycling. Since 1990, El-Keram has demonstrated the efficient utilization of every drop of water
pumped from its desert wells (100 m3/hr). The El-Keram aquaculture systems have been carefully
designed so that each output stage forms the input for the next stage, as summarized by El-Guindy (2006)
(Figure 15 and Table 2).
Figure (15): El-Keram agriculture system in the Egyptian desert
Source: (Sadek, 2011)
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Adopting this strategy, thefarm has been able to integrate the production of two different fish crop
types each year, as well as arable, animal and biogas production. One hundred tonnes of tilapia can be
produced alongside 100 tonnes of catfish annually. The effluent water from the fish farm is used to
produce 7 800 tonnes/year of Egyptian clover, which provides fodder for 1 300 sheep/year. Ultimately, the
manure of the livestock is used to produce biogas to heat water for the tilapia hatcheries (Figure 16).
Figure (16): The integration of El-Keram agriculture system in the Egyptian desert
Source: (Sadek, 2011)
Figure (17): El Keram fish farm
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Source: (Feidi, 2013)
Table (2): Comparison between the non-integrated agriculture system and El-Keram agriculture integration project
system (fish/clover/sheep/organic-fertilizer/biogas) in the Egyptian desert
Item Non-integrated agriculture
production systems El-Keram integration system
Water units 3 1
Tilapia 100 tons 100 tons
Catfish 100 tons 100 tons
Clover 4500 tons 7800 tons
Sheep (Head) 1000 1300
Warm water Nil Yes
Organic fertilizer Nil Yes
Waste Variable Nil
Irrigated land (hectares) 42 55
Water conservation 0% 67%
Source: (Sadek, 2011)
Integrated crop and livestock production systems are highly efficient; potentially crop residues are
used as livestock feed; the waste products (e.g. feces and urine) are fed into biogas digesters and the
effluent used to fertilize ponds for aquatic plant/algae production, with fish farming as the terminal
activity. These systems are very worthwhile pursuing as a means of providing nutrients/fuel for the family,
minimizing fossil fuel combustion and methane generation and, thus, reducing environmental pollution
(Preston, 1990).
Van der Heijden and Verdegem (2009) reported that the commercial tilapia desert farm El-Wataneya
Fish Farm began in 1998 on 25 hectares of unused land as an integrated farm producing tilapia, chicken,
vegetables (cucumbers, tomatoes, bananas, wheat, peppers, mangos, etc.) and flowers, mainly gladiolas.
For crop production, freshwater is used from the Ismailia Canal, which is connected to the Nile River,
together with groundwater and fish farm effluent. The only difference between these three sources is
that the groundwater is used entirely for fish culture. Water in the concrete fish basins is normally
replaced at a rate of 25–35 percent/day but can be as high as 60 percent/day in the latter stages of the
fish production cycle. Even though water is already available at a depth of 3 m, the farm pumps water
from 70 m. All fry and nursery tanks are aerated with blowers, while grow-out tanks are equipped with 2
HP paddlewheels which maintain constant levels of oxygen. In terms of profitability, tilapia is on top of
the list, followed by bananas, vegetables and flowers (Sadek, 2011).
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Tilapia, grass carp, common carp and silver carp are placed in the drainage ponds; this results in a
yield of 2 000 kg/year without any supplementary feeding. The waste water flows from the drainage
ponds to the sprinkler irrigation systems, which are maintained in good working condition by the laborers.
Until two years ago, the El-Wataneya farm also raised ducks, although this activity was then terminated,
as the demand for ducks is only seasonal (holidays, special events, etc.) (Sadek, 2011).
According to Sadek (2011) integrated aquaculture systems seem to be the most cost-effective in
Egypt for several reasons:
• They allow the farm to store water; an important factor, since ordering water from the irrigation
district can take time.
• They aid irrigation in pressurized systems like drip or sprinkler systems.
• The fish wastes provided crops fertilization. Farmers have used fish water effluent for many crops,
from vegetables and fruits to wheat.
• Productivity and income can be increased by using the same volume of water for two, or possibly even
three crops (fish, plant and animal products).
Integration is done to recycle resources efficiently. In Asia, the integration of livestock, fish and
crops has proved to be a sustainable system through centuries of experience. In China, for example, the
integration of fishpond production with ducks, geese, chickens, sheep, cattle or pigs increased fish
production by 2 to 3.9 times (Chen, 1996), while there were added ecological and economic benefits of
fish utilizing animal wastes.
According to Al Mamun1 et al., 2011 the more recent integration of Fish with the Livestock and
Crop has helped to improve the fertilizer and feed supplies, plus the high market value of fish as feed
and/or food increasing the incomes substantially. Technically, this important addition of a second cycle
of nutrients from fish wastes has benefited the enhanced integration process, and has improved the
livelihoods of many small farmers considerably.
However, the next years will see an increase in the efficient use of land, water, food, seed and
energy through intensification and widespread adoption of integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming
ecosystems approaches. However, this will not be enough to increase aquaculture production as these
will improve only the efficiency of use, and increase aquaculture yields per unit of inputs.
c) Feed
Aquaculture depends heavily on capture fisheries for fishmeal. Climate change could have dramatic
impacts on fish production which would affect the supply of fishmeal and fish oil. Tacon et al.(2006)
estimated that in 2003, the aquaculture sector consumed 2.94 million tonnes of fishmeal globally,
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
31 Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change (ARCA) Working Papers Series
considered to be equivalent to the consumption of 14.95 to 18.69 million tonnes of forage fish/trash
fish/low-value fish, primarily small pelagics. The potential for adverse impacts of climate change on
global fishmeal production is well illustrated by periodic shortages associated with climate fluctuations
such as El Nino. Expansion of aquaculture industries is placing increasing demand on global supplies of
wild-harvest fishmeal to provide protein and oil ingredients for aqua-feeds. About 30 percent (29.5
million tonnes) of the world fish catch is used for non-human consumption, including the production of
fishmeal and fish oil that is employed in agriculture, in aquaculture and for industrial purposes.
Depending on the species being cultured, they may constitute more than 50 percent of the feed. So,
here is an urgent need to find plant protein-based alternatives to fishmeal (Swaminathan, 2012).
Aquaculture expansion in Egypt has been accompanied by a gradual shift from extensive and semi-
intensive low-input culture systems to more intensive feed-dependent system. This approach has
resulted in an increase in demand for commercial fish feeds (El-Sayed 2014). Depending on the
formulations used, between 50% and 99% of feed ingredients used in aquafeed production in Egypt are
imported (Tacon et al., 2012; FAO, 2013). As international prices for feed raw materials have risen and
with a declining exchange rate for the Egyptian pound against major currencies, prices of feed
ingredients and processed feeds have increased substantially in recent years (El-Sayed et al., 2015).
Furthermore, feed represents 70–95% (85% in average) of total farm operating costs. The development
of commercial aquafeeds or complete formulated diets has usually been based upon the use of fishmeal
as the main source of dietary protein; the nutritional characteristics of fishmeal protein approximating
almost exactly to the nutritional requirements of cultured finfish (Tacon, 1993). Increasing fish meal
cost, decreasing availability, irregular supply and poor quality of fish meal have put forward emphasis on
its partial or complete replacement with alternative protein sources (Ramachandran and Ray,
2007).Plant proteins might be the most viable alternative in this respect as these are widely available and
reasonably priced. Therefore, there is continuing interest in identifying and developing ingredients as
alternatives to the high feed cost of fish meal for the thriving global aquaculture industry (Goda et al.,
2014) and to limit the use of fish meal in the other hand.
Researchers in The WorldFish Center, Abu Hammad, Abbassa, Egypt, carried out a successful field
trial on replacement of fishmeal with locally produced fish meal and soybean meal in diets for Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis Niloticus L.) in pre-fertilized ponds. They obtained results which demonstrated clearly a
significant increase in tilapia production from the ponds that were fed with soybean-based diets in
comparison with those fed with the commercial feed containing fishmeal as the sole animal protein
source. Feed conversion ratios (FCR) from the trial were very encouraging and demonstrated very
strongly the significant improvement of the FCR values for the soybean-based diets over that for the
commercial fishmeal-based diet (Shaheen et al. 2013).
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32 Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change (ARCA) Working Papers Series
On the other hand, the production cycle is about six-to-eight months (April/May-
September/October) (El-Sayed, 2014). The seasonal nature of aquaculture production systems in Egypt
means that there is much higher demand for feeds in summer and autumn than in winter and spring.
Although feed mills are operating at full capacity for half the year they stand idle at other times but this
does not mean that there is spare capacity. As fish farm production continues to grow the peak feed
requirement and employment opportunities will also grow, for both full-time and seasonal staff. There
are potential strategies to smooth out feed production through the year, thereby increasing the ratio of
permanent to seasonal workers. One option would be to produce more feeds in the off-season and store
finished feeds in temperature controlled stores for sale in the peak season. However, prolonged feed
storage is undesirable and is likely to be more expensive than just increasing peak capacity of existing
feed mills (El-Sayed et al., 2015). There may be opportunities to improve the efficiency of feed mills,
particularly in inefficient public sectormills, through training and rationalization. There may also be
opportunities to extend the feed processing season by supplying export markets. Egyptian feeds appear
to be competitive with international feed prices. As aquaculture is set to grow in other parts of Africa,
Egyptian feed mills could target new markets (El-Sayed et al., 2015).
d) Seed
Climate change is predicted to have impacts on ocean productivity, fish migration and recruitment.
This together with continued habitat deterioration, overfishing, etc. will affect the availability of seeds
from the wild. Therefore, increased efforts should be made to increase the production of seeds in
hatcheries. Other adaptation advantages could include research and genetic selection of seeds better
adapted to new environmental conditions.
Expansion of Egypt’s aquaculture industry has been matched by the development of a large number
of tilapia hatcheries all producing sex-reversed all-male fry and fingerlings (Nasr-Allah eta l., 2014).
One of the main challenges faced by Egyptian aquaculture is the seasonality of the climate seasonality.
While summer temperatures are very suitable for growth and reproduction of the main farmed species,
Nile tilapia, winter temperatures fall below optimal levels for growth and propagation (25-30 °C). In
order to meet the high demand for seed by fish farmers early in the season (Macfadyen et al., 2012), an
increasing number of tilapia hatcheries in Egypt advance and extend their breeding season by warming
the water in their systems (Naiel et al., 2011). The most common technique is to use solar heating
(enclosing breeding tanks or ponds in greenhouse tunnels), but this may be augmented by heating using
a boiler or using underground water which has a higher temperature than surface water. This allows the
hatchery to meet high demand for seed at the start of the season (Nasr-Allah et al., 2014).
On the other hand, the aquaculture production of seeds and larvae for the establishment of
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
33 Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change (ARCA) Working Papers Series
new/additional fish resource for fisheries and livelihoods is an important positive output of the process.
Hatchery-produced larvae can also contribute to the conservation and improvement of endangered
species. Restocking to enhance fisheries or to recover endangered stocks can provide important
opportunities also under climate change threats.
All of the above climate change elements could impact aquaculture directly and/or indirectly. As
previously mentioned, such impacts cannot always be attributed to one single facet of climatic change,
in most cases the impacts due to being a combination of many factors (De-Silva, 2012).
6. Conclusion Aquaculture industry is the fastest growing sector in Egypt. It is considered as the main source of
fish supply accounting for nearly 85.7% of total fish production. Egypt's aquaculture production (1.23
million tons in 2015) and is expected to increase to 1.8 million tons in 2018. The expansion in
aquaculture production has been accompanied by a gradual shift from extensive and semi-intensive to
intensive fish farming with the rapid expansion in the application of new technologies such as the use of
water circulation systems and improved farms management practices. This approach has resulted in an
increase in demand for fish feeds, seeds, energy, water, and land.
Despite the fact that aquaculture sector in Egypt has witnessed a spectacular development, there
are some major constraints facing aquaculture production that is related to resource use conflicts
(water and land), energy consumption, feed and seeds. By reviewing the current aquaculture situation
and the expected future development it was noted that water, energy and land usage in aquaculture
are all interactive and challenges to the sustainability of aquaculture sector.
Climate change is considered as one of those constraints, as it may have negative implications on
aquaculture productivity that dependent upon such inputs (water, land, feed, and seeds). Consequently,
a potential adaptation option to improve Egyptian aquaculture resilience to climate change impacts is a
must for future development and sustainability of the sector. The paper in hands addressed the
potential impacts of climate change on aquaculture and aquaculture contribution to climate change,
and the possible solutions for adaptations which may be summarized as follows:
The marine aquaculture and the integrated aquaculture and agriculture through the use of ground
water and effluent discharge should be developed in order to overcome the present and future
anticipated limitations of fresh water and brackish water.
Water and land resources would be limiting factor for aquaculture development and intensification
of existing production system is must to meet resources limitation (CHIEAM, 2008). Increase in the
efficient use of land, water, food, seed and energy through intensification (recirculation systems
and biofloc), which use less land and freshwater, but have higher energy and feed requirements
Naglaa F. Soliman Working Paper (4) Aquaculture in Egypt under changing climate
34 Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change (ARCA) Working Papers Series
with exception of biofloc which safe feed requirement through reuse. The use of alternative
renewable energy systems and (non-marine) feed sources could improve the sustainability of reuse
considerably.
Reducing the amount of imported fishmeal and feed ingredients through the usage of local ones is
another important thrust area to be taken care.Research on the use of agricultural meals and oils to
replace use of fish meals and fish oil is a major subject of aquaculture research and development.
Development of new strains specific to certain farming systems, for example, increased salinity
tolerance or increased temperature tolerance is also highly recommended. On the other hand,
increase the production of seeds in hatcheries and genetic selection of seeds better adapted to new
environmental conditions is needed.
Focus should be addressed toward reducing the impact of aquaculture industry on climate change
and fossil fuels depletion by investigating how to reduce energy use through energy conservation,
proper energy management in feed manufacturing, and introduce possible renewable energy
approaches in aquaculture industry.
Awareness and capacity building by providing climate change education and create greater
awareness among all stakeholders is highly recommended. Many farmers have the technical skill or
able to make joint venture with international consultant office to develop high intensive production
system (CIHEAM, 2008).
Finally, aquaculture may offer opportunities for the reduction and mitigation of GHG production
and sequestration of carbon through good aquaculture production practices, such as use of water
effluents for irrigation of certain crops and orchards.
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35 Alexandria Research Center for Adaptation to Climate Change (ARCA) Working Papers Series
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