aquafina distilled water culver

7/31/2019 Aquafina Distilled Water Culver

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Aquafina distilled water Culver's Frozen custard

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MINERAL ELEMENTSThe importance of mineral elements in human, animaland plant nutrition has been well recognized (Underwood,1971; Darby, 1976). Deficiencies or disturbances in thenutrition of an animal cause a variety of diseases and canarise in several ways (Gordon, 1977). When a trace

element is deficient, a characteristic syndrome is producedwhich reflects the specific functions of the nutrientin the metabolism of the animal. The trace elements areessential components of enzyme systems. Simple orconditioned deficiencies of mineral elements thereforehave profound effects on metabolism and tissuestructure. To assess the dietary intake and adequacy ofminerals, information needs to be collected on mineralelement content of foods, diets and water (Rao and Rao,1981; Simsek and Aykut, 2007). There is limited

information on the trace element content of water andnumerous plant foods consumed in some less developedcountries.The significance of the mineral elements in humans,animals and plants nutrition can not be overemphasized.The presence of mineral elements in animal feed is vitalfor the animals metabolic processes. Grazing livestock

from tropical countries often do not receive mineralsupplementation except for common salt and mustdepend almost exclusively upon forage for their mineralrequirements (McDowell et al., 1984). Mineraldeficiencies or imbalances in soils and forages accountpartly for low animal production and reproductiveproblems. Soil acidity and season are factors affecting


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mineral uptake by plants. Plants use these minerals asstructural components in carbohydrates and proteins;organic molecules in metabolism, such as magnesium inchlorophyll and phosphorus in ATP; enzyme activatorslike potassium, and for maintaining osmotic balance.Calcium is highly implicated in the maintenance offirmness of fruits (Olaiya, 2006) and its requirements infruits are related to cell wall stability and membraneintegrity (Belakbir et al., 1998). Mineral e lements playimportant roles in health and disease states of humans

and domestic animals. For example, iron deficiencyanaemia and goitre due to iodine deficiency are reportedto be problems of public health importance in somecommunities (Partwardhan, 1961; Deosthale andBelavady, 1978). Trace elements of significance topeople with HIV are zinc and selenium. Selenium is anantioxidant that increases immune function. Z inc, usuallytaken to stimulate the immune system, has been reportedto weaken immune system function and lower calcium202 Afr. J. Food Sci.levels in HIV positive men (O Connor, 1995; Wood,2000).of plants as shown in Table 1.Table 1. Functions and deficiency symptoms of macro- and micro- elements in plants.

Biochemical functions of mineral elements inhumans and animalsCalcium (Ca)Calcium functions as a constituent of bones and teeth,regulation of nerve and muscle function. In blood coagulation,

calcium activates the conversion of prothrombin tothrombin and also takes part in milk clotting. It plays avital role in enzyme activation. Calcium activates largenumber of enzymes such as adenosine triphosphatase(ATPase), succinic dehydrogenase, lipase etc. It is alsorequired for membrane permeability, involved in musclecontraction, normal transmission of nerve impulses and inneuromuscular excitability. A reduced extracellular bloodcalcium increases the irritability of nerve tissue, and verylow levels may cause spontaneous discharges of nerveimpulses leading to tetany and convulsions (Hays andSwenson, 1985; Malhotra, 1998; Murray et al., 2000).Calcium absorption requires calcium-binding proteins andis regulated by vitamin D, sunlight, parathyroid hormoneand thyrocalcitonin. Thyrocalcitonin decreases plasmacalcium and phosphate levels whereas parathyroidhormone increases them. Dietary calcium and phosphorusare absorbed mainly in the upper small intestine,

particularly the duodenum and the amount absorbed isdependent on source, calcium-phosphorus ratio,

intestinal pH, lactose intake and dietary levels of calcium,phosphorus, vitamin D, iron, aluminium, manganese andfat.Sources of calciuminclude Beans, lentils, nuts, leafy vegetables, dairyproducts, small fishes including sardines, bones, etc.Phosphorus (P)Phosphorus is located in every cell of the body and isvitally concerned with many metabolic processes,including those involving the buffers in body fluids (Haysand Swenson, 1985). It functions as a constituent ofSoetan et al. 207bones, teeth, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), phosphorylatedmetabolic intermediates and nucleic acids. It servesbuffering action, that is, phosphate buffers, functions in

the formation of high energy compounds, that is,adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and is involved in thesynthesis of phospholipids and phosphoproteins.Practically, every form of energy exchange inside livingcells involve the forming or breaking of high-energybonds that link oxides of phosphorus to carbon or tocarbon-nitrogen com-pounds (Hays and Swenson, 1985;Malhotra, 1998; Murray et al., 2000). Vitamin D isprobably involved in the control of phosphorus absorptionand serum levels are regulated by kidney reabsorption.Phosphorus is an essential macronutrient for plants andone of the three nutrients generally added to soils infertilizers because of its vital role of energy transfer inliving organisms and in plants. Adequate phosphorusavailability stimulates early growth and hastens maturityin plants (Sharma et al., 2008).Phosphorus is also needed for soil fertility. In plants, asgrasses mature, phosphorus is transferred to the grain.Also, the phosphorus content of the plant is influenced


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markedly by the availability of phosphorus in the soil. Asa result of this, low-quality pastures devoid of legumesand range plants tend to be naturally low in phosphorus,as the forage matures and the seeds fall; characteristically,the range soil is also deficient in phosphorus(Merck, 1986). A large percentage (60-80%) of the totalphosphorus of cereal grains and oil seeds existsorganically bound as phytic acid. Phytic acid, thehexaphosphoric acid ester of inositol, is present in cerealand legume seeds primarily as the Ca-Mg salt called

phytin. The organically bound phosphorus, phytinphosphorus, is largely unavailable to monogastricanimals, whereas ruminants can utilize it relatively verywell. This species difference is explained by the presenceof the enzyme phytase from rumen microorganisms,which hydrolyzes the organically bound phosphorus andrenders it available for absorption. This partly, coupledwith the slower growth rate of ruminants, accounts for therather large difference in phosphorus requirements ofruminant and nonruminant animals (Hays and Swenson,1985).Decrease in serum phosphorus is found in rickets,hyperparathyroidism, De Toni-Fanconi Syndrome. Deficiencydisease or symptoms in children causes ricketsand in adults, it causes osteomalacia. Increase in serumphosphorus is found in chronic nephritis and hypoparathyroidism.Toxicity disease or symptoms include lowserum Ca2+ : P ratio. It may also lead to bone loss(Malhotra, 1998; Murray et al., 2000). Sources ofphosphorus include phosphate food additives, green

leafy vegetables and fruits, especially banana.Sodium (Na)Sodium is the principal cation in extracellular fluids. It208 Afr. J. Food Sci.regulates plasma volume and acid-base balance,involved in the maintenance of osmotic pressure of thebody fluids, preserves normal irritability of muscles andcell permeability, activates nerve and muscle functionand involved in Na+/K+-ATPase, maintenance ofmembrane potentials, transmission of nerve impulsesand the absorptive processes of monosaccharides,amino acids, pyrimidines, and bile salts. The changes inosmotic pressure are largely dependent on sodiumconcentration (Hays and Swenson, 1985; Malhotra, 1998;Murray et al., 2000). Its metabolism is regulated byaldosterone.Commonly used vegetable foodstuffs do not containsufficient quantities of sodium to meet the animals

dietary need. This inadequacy is compensated for byincluding sodium chloride, common salt, in their diet or by

allowing them to consume salt ad libidum. Sodium isreadily absorbed as the sodium ion and circulatesthroughout the body. Excretion occurs mainly through thekidney as sodium chloride or phosphate. There areappreciable losses in perspiration, and the quantities lostby this route vary rather markedly with the environmentalhumidity (Hays and Swenson, 1985). Sodium deficiencyin young chicks cause growth retardation. Egg productionand hatchability in laying chickens are depressed (Merck,1986).Toxicity usually occurswhen animals are deprived of salt and then have accessto a brine solution or loose salt without access tosufficient water (Hays and Swenson, 1985). Low level ofsodium in the serum is hyponatraemia and this occurs inacute Addisons disease, vomiting, diarrhea, nephrosissevereburns and intestinal obstruction (Malhotra,1998). Toxicity disease or symptoms may causehypertension in susceptible individuals. Sources includetable salt, salt added to prepared foods and most naturalfoods contain sodium.Potassium (K)Potassium is the principal cation in intracellular fluid andfunctions in acid-base balance, regulation of osmoticpressure, conduction of nerve impulse, muscle contractionparticularly the cardiac muscle, cell membranefunction and Na+/K+-ATPase. Potassium is also requiredduring glycogenesis. It also helps in the transfer ofphosphate from ATP to pyruvic acid and probably has arole in many other basic cellular enzymatic reactions. Itsmetabolism is regulated by aldosterone. Hyperkalaemiais increased level in serum potassium and this occurs inAddisons disease, advanced chronic renal failure, shockand dehydration. Toxicity disease or symptoms include


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dilatation of the heart, cardiac arrest, small bowel ulcers.Hypokalaemia is low level of serum potassium and thisoccurs in diarrhoea, metabolic alkalosis and familialperiodic paralysis. When lactating dairy cows havehypokalaemia, the milk production is markedly lowered.Deficiency disease or symptoms occurs secondary toillness, functional and structural abnormalities includingimpaired neuromuscular functions of skeletal, smooth,and cardiac muscle, muscular weakness, paralysis,mental confusion (Hays and Swenson, 1985; Malhotra,

1998; Murray et al., 2000). Others are cardiac arrythmias,impaired carbohydrate tolerance, altered electrocardiogramin calves. Potassium deficiency affects thecollecting tubules of the kidney, resulting in the inability toconcentrate urine, and also causes alterations of gastricsecretions and intestinal motility (Streeten and Williams,1952). The rapidly growing animals apparently have ahigher requirement for potassium, and increasing theprotein level increases the requirement. Plant productscontain many times as much potassium as sodium.Sources include vegetables, fruits, nuts.Magnesium (Mg)Magnesium is an active component of several enzymesystems in which thymine pyrophosphate is a cofactor.Oxidative phosphorylation is greatly reduced in theabsence of magnesium. Mg is also an essential activatorfor the phosphate-transferring enzymes myokinase,diphophopyridinenucleotide kinase, and creatine kinase.It also activates pyruvic acid carboxylase, pyruvic acidoxidase, and the condensing enzyme for the reactions in

the citric acid cycle. It is also a constituent of bones,teeth, enzyme cofactor, (kinases, etc) (Murray et al.,(2000). The health status of the digestive system and thekidneys significantly influence magnesium status.Magnesium is absorbed in the intestines and thentransported through the blood to cells and tissues.Approximately one-third to one-half of dietary magnesiumis absorbed into the body. Gastrointestinal disorders thatimpair absorption such as Crohn's disease can limit thebody's ability to absorb magnesium. These disorders candeplete the body's stores of magnesium and in extremecases may result in magnesium deficiency. When amagnesium-deficient diet is fed to young chicks, it leadsto poor growth and feathering, decreased muscle tone,ataxia, progressive incoordination and convulsionsfollowed by death (Merck, 1986).Chronic or excessive vomiting and diarrhea may alsoresult in magnesium depletion. Deficiency diseases or

symptoms is secondary to malabsorption or diarrhoea,alcoholism. Acute magnesium deficiency results in

vasodilation, with erythemia and hyperaemia appearing afew days on the deficient diet. Neuromuscularhyperirritability increases with the continuation of thedeficiency, and may be followed eventually by cardiacarrhythmia and generalized tremours. A common form ofmagenesium-deficiency tetany in ruminants is calledgrass tetany or wheat wheat-pasture poisoning. Thiscondition occurs in ruminants grazing on rapidly growingyoung grasses or cereal crops and develops very quickly.The physiological deficiency of magnesium can beprevented by magnesium supplementation of a salt orgrain mixture and adequate consumption is also veryimportant (Hays and Swenson, 1985). Toxicity disease orsymptoms of magnesium deficiency in humans includedepressed deep tendon reflexes and respiration (Murray

et al., 2000). Sources include leafy green vegetables(containing chlorophyll)..Cobalt (Co)Cobalt is required as a constituent of vitamin B12 and itsmetabolism is the same as for vitamin B12. In addition toits role in vitamin B12, cobalt is also a cofactor of enzymesinvolved in DNA biosynthesis and amino acid metabolism(Arinola et al., 2008c). In cattle and sheep, bacteria in therumen can use metallic Co to synthesize vitamin B12 andare thus the ultimate source of the vitamin in humandiets. Vitamin B12 also plays a role in methylating choline210 Afr. J. Food Sci.and thamine. The latter is required for the synthesis ofDNA, which regulates cell division and growth. Co isreadily absorbed into the bloodstream and excretedprimarily in the urine. Deficiency disease or symptoms ismanifested in vitamin B12 deficiency. Co deficiency inruminants have been successfully alleviated by the use of


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cobalt oxide pellets, which remain in the reticulum orrumen fluid (Hays and Swenson, 1985). In humans,toxicity disease or symptoms include goitre,hypothyroidism and heart failure (Murray et al., 2000). Inanimals, excessive intake results in polycythaemia,apparently due to the inhibition by cobalt of certainrespiratory enzyme systems, for example, cytochromeoxidase and succinic dehydrogenase. Deficiencies ofcobalt in ruminants cause anorexia, wasting of skeletalmuscle, fatty livers, haemosiderosis of the spleen and

anaemia (Hays and Swenson, 1985). Dietary sources ofcobalt are the same as for vitamin B12, such as foods ofanimal origin or fermented foods where the bacteriaproduce the vitamin. Organ meats are the best source ofvitamin B12 (liver, kidney, heart, and pancreas), followedby clams, oysters, extra-lean beef, seafood, eggs, milkand yogurt, chicken, cheese, and miso (a fermentedsoybean product).Copper (Cu)Copper is a constituent of enzymes like cytochrome coxidase, amine oxidase, catalase, peroxidase, ascorbicacid oxidase, cytochrome oxidase, plasma monoamineoxidase, erythrocuprin (ceruloplasmin), lactase, uricase,tyrosinase, cytosolic superoxide dismutase etc. and itplays a role in iron absorption (Chandra, 1990). Cu is anessential micro-nutrient necessary for the haematologicand neurologic systems (Tan et al., 2006). It is necessaryfor the growth and formation of bone, formation of myelinsheaths in the nervous systems, helps in theincorporation of iron in haemoglobin, assists in the

absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) andin the transfer of iron from tissues to the plasma(Malhotra, 1998; Murray et al., 2000).It is transported by albumin; bound to ceruloplasmin.Ceruloplasmin has oxidase activity and thereby facilitatesthe incorporation of ferric iron into transferrin. Thecopper-containing protein in red blood cells (rbc) iserythrocuperin, in liver, it is hepatocuperin and in brain, itis cerebrocuperin. In the monogastric animals, copper isabsorbed mainly in the upper part of the small intestine,where the pH of the contents is still acidic. In general, Cuis poorly absorbed, and under normal conditions >90% ofthe ingested copper appears in the faeces. Most of thefaecal copper is unabsorbed dietary copper, but some ofit comes from the bile, which is the major pathway of Cuexcretion. Biliary obstruction increases the excretion ofcopper through the kidney and intestinal wall (Hays andSwenson, 1985). Increased levels of copper are seen in

acute infections and in chronic conditions such ascirrhosis, rheumatoid arthritis and in post-operative

stages. Increased level is also found in malnutrition(Malhotra, 1998). Clinical disorders associated with Cudeficiencies include anaemia, bone disorders, neonatalataxia, depigmentation and abnormal growth of hair, furor wool, impaired growth and reproductive performance,heart failure and gastrointestinal disturbances. Theincidence of these disorders varies widely among animalspecies. Cu deficiency has also been associated withcardiac hypertrophy and sudden cardiac failure. Gardea-Torresdey et al. (1990) reported that carboxyl groupsfound on the cell walls of dead algal biomass arepotentially responsible for copper binding. Toxicitydisease or symptoms are rare and is secondary toWilsons disease (Murray et al., 2000).In Wilsons disease, a large amount of copper is

deposited in liver, brain, etc. Total copper content in theplasma and ceruloplasmin-bound copper contentdecreases and there is an increased excretion of copperin the urine. Sometimes, Cu may be deposited in therenal tubules giving rise to renal tubular degeneration andthis is manifested as glycosuria and amino aciduria(Malhotra, 1998). Excess dietary Cu causes anaccumulation of Cu in the liver with a decrease in bloodhaemoglobin concentration and packed cell volume. Liverfunction is adversely affected in copper poisoning.Jaundice results from erythrocyte haemolysis and thismay lead to death un less treatment is started. In animals,sheep are more susceptible than cattle to the toxic effectsof copper (Merck, 1986). Deficiency disease or symptominclude anaemia (hypochromic, microcytic). Sourcesinclude liver, whole grains, molasses, legumes, nuts,shell fish and other seafoods.Iodine (I)Iodine is a basic component of the thyroid hormones,


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thyroxine and mono-, di-, and tri-iodothyronine and it isstored in thyroid as thyroglobulin (Hays and Swenson,1985; Murray et al., 2000). A few cases of goiter, orenlarged thyroids, have been observed in poultry,probably because it is difficult to observe the glands.Goitre has been produced experimentally in chickens byfeeding a diet exceedingly low (about 0.025 ppm) iniodine to laying hens. Iodine ion is freely diffusible, isreadily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, and isexcreted mainly in the urine at a relatively constant rate

provided the dietary intake is sufficient. Some oldervarieties of rapeseed meal, which were high ingoitrogenic factors, invariably resulted in birds withenlarged thyroids if large quantities were used in theration. Goitrogens have been demonstrated in the milk ofcows following their ingestion of cruciferous plants ingrazing or as fodder. Iodine deficiency was reported tobe the most widespread of all mineral deficiencies ingrazing livestock. A deficiency of iodine can be preventedby feeding stabilized iodized salt to animals or in poultryby supplementing the feed with as little as 0.35 mg/kg ofiodine (Merck, 1986). Plants are highly variable in iodinecontent depending on the species, soil type including itsiodine content, fertilizer, and climate. In children,deficiency causes cretinism and in adults, goiter andhypothyroidism and myxedema. The toxicity diseases orsymptoms of iodine are thyrotoxicosis, goiter. Sourcesinclude iodized salt, sea food.Iron (Fe)Iron functions as haemoglobin in the transport of oxygen.In cellular respiration, it functions as essential component

of enzymes involved in biological oxidation such ascytochromes c, c1, a1, etc (Malhotra, 1998). Fe is animportant constituent of succinate dehydrogenase as wellas a part of the haeme of haemoglobin (Hb), myoglobinand the cytochromes (Chandra, 1990). Iron is required forproper myelination of spinal cord and white matter ofcerebellar folds in brain and is a cofactor for a number ofenzymes involved in neurotransmitter synthesis (Larkinand Rao, 1990). Iron is involved in synthesis andpackaging of neurotransmitters, their uptake anddegradation into other iron-containing proteins which maydirectly or indirectly alter brain function (Beard, 2001).Iron exists in the blood mainly as haemoglobin in theerythrocytes and as transferrin in the plasma. It istransported as transferrin; stored as ferritin orhaemosiderin and it is lost in sloughed cells and bybleeding (Murray et al., 2000). Fe is required for makingHb and it is a prooxidant which is also needed by

microorganisms for proliferation (Galan et al., 2005).Biologically important compounds of iron are haemoglobin,

myoglobin, cytochromes, catalases and peroxidase(Malhotra, 1998). Factors effecting the absorption of ironare: low phosphate diet which increases iron absorption,whereas high phosphate diet decreases iron absorptionby forming insoluble iron phosphates. Adrenocorticalhormones (glucocorticoids) play a role in regulating thelevel of plasma iron. During stress, when thehypothalamus, adenohypophysis, and adrenal cortex areactivated, regardless of the source, the plasma irondecreases (Hays and Swenson, 1985). Iron in ferrousform is more soluble and is readily absorbed than theferric form. Phytic acid and oxalic acid decreases ironabsorption by forming iron phytate and iron oxalate. Theabsorption of iron is inhibited by profuse diarrhoea,malabsorption syndrome, achlorohydria, dissertion of

small intestine and partial or total gastrectomy (Malhotra,1998).The plasma iron content is determined by the extent ofblood losses, role of erythropoeisis, rate of apoferritinsynthesis, rate of iron absorption from intestines and rateof red blood cell destruction. Deficiency disease orsymptoms include anaemia, (hypochromic, microcytic).Fe deficiency has been reported to have a role in braindevelopment and in the pathophysiology of restless legsSoetan et al. 211syndrome (Tan et al., 2006). Also, Fe deficiency isassociated with alterations in many metabolic processesthat may impact brain functioning, among whom areneurotransmitter metabolism, protein synthesis, organogenesisetc (Beard, 1999). Early iron deficiency has alsobeen reported to affect GABA metabolism in adult rats(Youdim et al., 1989; Taneja et al., 1986). Fe accumulationhas been related to some neurologic disorderssuch as Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, type-1


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neuro-degeneration with brain iron accumulation andother disorders (Sadrzadeh and Saffari, 2004). Brain isquite sensitive to dietary iron depletion and uses a host ofmechanisms to regulate iron flux homostatically (Batraand Seth, 2002). The pig is born with low iron stores anddevelops an iron deficiency anaemia if not provided withsupplementary iron. The factors causing the onset ofanaemia in piglets are its re latively low iron stores atbirth, its high growth rate early in life, and the low level ofiron in sow milk. If the pig is given iron supplements at

birth, the total red cell mass or volume per unit of bodyweight increases from birth to three weeks of age (Haysand Swenson, 1985).Iron deficiency anaemia also occurs at birth in otheranimals like dogs, cats, cattle, etc but it is morepronounced in pigs. Excessive accumulation of iron in theliver, pancreas, heart, lungs and other tissues causehaemosiderosis and when this is accompanied by bronzepigmentation of the skin, the condition is calledhaemochromatosis (Malhotra, 1998; Murray et al., 2000).Sources include red meat, spleen, heart, liver, kidney,fish, egg yolk, nuts, legumes, molasses, iron cookingware, dark green leafy vegetables.Manganese (Mn)Manganese is a cofactor of hydrolase, decarboxylase,and transferase enzymes (Murray et al., 2000). It isinvolved in glycoprotein and proteoglycan synthesis andis a component of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase.Manganese is a co-factor in phosphohydrolases andphosphotransferases involved in the synthesis ofproteoglycans in cartilage. Mn is a part of enzymes

involved in urea formation, pyruvate metabolism and thegalactotransferase of connective tissue biosynthesis(Chandra, 1990). Mn activates several important enzymesystems and in this capacity it is required for thesynthesis of acid mucopolysaccharides, such aschondroitin sulphate, to form the matrices of bones andegg shells. Consequently skeletal deformities and defectsin shell quality occur when the manganese intake isinadequate (Gordon, 1977). The fact that Mn isconcentrated in the mitochondria has led to thesuggestion that, in vivo, manganese is involved in thepartial regulation of oxidative phosphorylation. Absorptionof Mn is inhibited by the presence of excessive amountsof calcium and phosphorus in the diet.The absorption and retention of manganese from foods212 Afr. J. Food Sci.low in iron, such as milk, are relatively high. If milk issupplemented with iron, the percentage of manganese

absorbed is reduced (Gruden, 1977). Increased absorptionof manganese has been reported during pregnancy

in sows (Kirchgessner et al., 1981) and with coccidiosisinfection in chickens (Southern and Baker, 1983). Mndeficiency has been demonstrated in several animalspecies including laboratory animals, pigs, poultry, andpossibly in cattle. Its severity depends greatly on thedegree and duration of the deficiency and on the maturityof the animal (Hays and Swenson, 1985). Manganesedeficiency presents with the following signs; in pigs,lameness, enlarged hock joints, and shortened legs, incattle, leg deformities with overknuckling, in chicks, poultsand ducklings, perosis or slipped tendon; and in chickembryos, nutritional chondrodystrophy. In laboratoryanimals, effects of deficiency include deformities of bone,poor growth, impaired reproduction, egg shell formation,and blood clotting. Some of these defects are related to

the role of the manganese ion as the most effectiveactivator of glycosyl transferase enzymes in the synthesisof mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins (Leach,1974).Other deficiency disease symptoms are ataxia andabnormal formation of otoliths in the inner hear. In otherspecies, congenital defects in embryonic bone developmentresult from Mn deficiency. Birds are much moresusceptible to manganese deficiency than mammalsbecause their requirements for this element areconsiderably higher and this is attributable partly torelatively poor absorption from the intestine (Gordon,1977). Deficiency disease or symptoms is unknown inhumans. Mn overexposure reportedly may have anadverse effect on central nervous system (CNS) functionand mood (Tan et al., 2006). Toxicity disease orsymptoms by inhalation poisoning produces psychoticsymptoms and parkinsonism. Corn is extremely low inmanganese (4-12 ppm) and so animals fed high-corn


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diets especially if supplemented with animal by-products,which are also low in manganese content, may receiveinadequate amounts. The high requirement of poultry andthe low levels of Mn in many of the ingredients of poultrydiets make Mn supplementation highly important (Haysand Swenson, 1985). Sources include whole grains, tea,legumes, nuts and seeds.Zinc (Zn)Zinc is distributed widely in plant and animal tissues andoccurs in all living cells. It functions as a cofactor and is aconstituent of many enzymes like lactate dehydrogenase,

alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase,alkaline phosphatase, carbonic anhydrase, carboxypeptidase,superoxide dismutase, retinene reductase, DNAand RNA polymerase. Zn dependent enzymes areinvolved in macronutrient metabolism and cell replication(Hays and Swenson, 1985; Arinola, 2008). Carbonicanhydrase is present in erythrocytes, kidney tubules,gastrointestinal mucosa and glandular epithelium. The214 Afr. J. Food Sci.primary roles of zinc appear to be in cell replication andgene expression and in nucleic acid and amino acidmetabolism. Vitamins A and E metabolism and bioavailabilityare dependent on zinc status (Szabo et al., 1999). Itis necessary for fertility of mice. It is also required fornormal testicular development (Merck, 1986) and forfunctions of the taste buds. It is needed for tissue repairand wound healing, plays a vital role in protein synthesisand digestion, and is necessary for optimum insulinaction as zinc is an integral constituent of insulin. It is animportant constituent of plasma (Malhotra, 1998; Murray

et al., 2000).In birds, zinc is required primarily for the growth anddevelopment of the skeleton, the formation and maintenanceof epithelial tissue and for egg production (Gordon,1977). Elemental zinc prevents and cures parakeratosis(thickening or hyperkeratinization of the epithelial cells ofthe skin and oesophagus) in swine and it prevents asimilar disease in chicks. Excess calcium in diet howeverhastens the onset of parakeratosis. Formation of zincfingers in nuclear receptors for steroid-thyroid, calcitriolreceptors, gene expression, essential in proteinsynthesis, involves in the storage and release of insulin,growth and repair of tissues, development of sex organs,needed in the enzymes required for the synthesis of DNAand RNA, mobilization of vitamin A from the liver andstabilization of cell membranes. It is present in meat andother protein foodstuffs, but intestinal absorption isaffected by other dietary constituents. Absorbed zinc

enters the liver where it is incorporated into zincmetalloenzymes and exported to peripheral tissue in

plasma, bound to albumin. A large percentage, about90%, of the total plasma zinc concentration is associatedwith albumin,


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shortened, fused thoracic and lumbar vertebrae (Merck,1986).Zinc deficiency in pigs causes a marked depression ofappetite, growth rate and parakeratosis. In the youngbirds a deficiency of zinc is characterized by poor growth,severe dermatitis, especially of the feet and poorfeathering, abnormal respiration, skeletal abnormalitiescausing leg weakness and ataxia. The long bones areshortened and thickened and are sometimes crooked andthe joints are enlarged and rigid (Gordon, 1977). A

necrotic dermatitis appears, particularly on the legs andfeet, and feather development is impaired by hyperkeratinizationof the epidermis. In severely deficient embryos,there are gross faults in the development of the skeletonand entire limbs may be absent. The biochemical lesionscausing this syndrome in the osteogenic processes areprobably due partly from a reduction in the activity ofalkaline phosphatase which is a zinc enzyme (Gordon,1977). Toxicity disease or symptoms of zinc in humansinclude gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, decreasedimmune function and a reduction in high densitylipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Higher dietary levels of Znare required in the presence of phytic acid to preventparakeratosis and allow for normal growth (Sidhu et al.,2004).The oxide, carbonate, and sulfate forms of zinc areefficiently utilized, whereas the sulfide form is poorlyutilized. Zn, either ingested or injected, is primarilyexcreted in the faeces. The Zn found in the faecesconsist mainly of unabsorbed dietary Zn, and the balance

is from pancreatic excretions. Urinary excretion of Zn andseveral other metals are increased if chelating agentssuch as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) areadministered in combination with zinc (Hays andSwenson, 1985). Sources include red meat, fish meals,liver, eggs, dairy products, vegetables and some seafoods.Sulfur (S)Sulfur is present in three amino acids which are cystine,cysteine and methionine. Connective tissue, skin, hairand nails are rich in sulfur. Also, thiamine and biotin(member of vitamin B complex) and coenzyme A containsulfur in their molecules (Malhotra, 1998). Proteins varywidely in sulfur content, depending on their amino acidcomposition. The preformed amino acid and sulfurdeficiencies are reflected as sulfur-containing amino aciddeficiencies. Ruminants, that depend largely onnonprotein nitrogen sources, such as urea, biuret, orammonium phosphate, may need supplemental inorganic

sulfur, which is utilized by the microorganisms forsynthesis of methionine and cystine. Inadequate sulfur

intake reduces the feed intake, digestibility, rate of weightgain, and milk production (Hays and Swenson, 1985).Taurine and sulfuric acid are the end products of sulfurmetablosim. The sulfuric acid is either neutralized andexcreted as inorganic sulfates in the urine or conjugatedwith phenol, glucuronic acid, or indoxyl. The taurine isconjugated with cholic acid and excreted in the bile. Theother sulfur compounds of biological significance arecyanate (SCN) in saliva and other fluids, ergothioneine ofthe red blood cells, glutathione, present in all cells, andchondroitin sulfate, which serves a structural function inSoetan et al. 215cartilage, bone, tendons, blood vessel walls etc. Theprimary function of sulphur is as the disulfide linkage, -SS-,of such organic compounds (Hays and Swenson,

1985). Dietary sources of sulfur are diets which areadequate in protein and these meet the daily requirementof sulfur.Iodine (I)Iodine is a trace element that is essential for thesynthesis of thyroid hormones in vertebrates, althoughiodoproteins are are present in invertebrates (Frieden,1984). Some regions of the world are naturally deficientin iodine due to the low availability of iodine from their soilor other climatic and environmental factors affectingiodine availability.Several goiter, cretinism and the other iodine deficiencydisorders (IDD) have their main cause in the lack ofavailability of iodine from the soil which is linked to asevere limitation of food exchanges (Thilly et al., 1992).Severe selenium deficiency have also been associatedwith IDD in the human population, whereas in animals, ithas been proven to play a role in thyroid function eitherthrough a thyroidal or extrathyroidal mechanism. Theformer involves oxidative damages mediated by free


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radicals, whereas the latter implies an inhibition of thedeiodinase responsible for the utilization of T4 and T3 andis then concluded that: (i). goiter has a multifactorialorigin (ii). IDD are an important public health problem and(iii). IDD are a good model to study the effects of othertrace elements whose actions in many human metabolismshave been somewhat underestimated. Not lessthan 5% of the worlds population have goiters and manyof these are associated with other disorders andconstitute a major public health problem (Gaitan, 1990).

Ballet

Ballet is a type of performance dance, that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century, and which was further developed in France and Russiaas a concert dance form. The early portions preceded the invention of the proscenium stage and were presented in large chambers with most of the audienceseated on tiers or galleries on three sides of the dance floor. It has since become a highly technical form of dance with its own vocabulary. It is primarily performedwith the accompaniment of classical music and has been influential as a form of dance globally. Ballet has been taught in ballet schools around the world, whichuse their own cultures and societies to inform the art. Ballet dance works (ballets) are choreographed and performed by trained artists, include mime and acting,and are set to music (usually orchestral but occasionally vocal). It is a poised style of dance that incorporates the foundational techniques for many other danceforms. This genre of dance is very hard to master and requires much practice. It is best known in the form of late Romantic ballet or Ballet Blanc, whichpreoccupies itself with the female dancer to the exclusion of almost all else, focusing on pointe work, flowing, precise acrobatic movements, and often presentingthe dancers in the conventional short white French tutu. Later developments include expressionist ballet, neoclassical ballet, and elements of modern dance.

[edit] Etymology

The word balletcomes from the French and was borrowed into English around 1630. The French word in turn has its origin in Italian balletto, a diminutive ofballo(dance) which comes from Latin ballo, ballare, meaning "to dance",

[1][2]which in turn comes from the Greek "" (ballizo), "to dance, to jump about".[3][4]

[edit] History

Main articles:History of balletandTimeline of ballet

Harlequin and Columbina from the mime theater at Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen, Denmark.

The history of ballet began in the Italian Renaissance courts of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries as a dance interpretation of fencing[citation needed]. It quickly

spread to the French court ofCatherine de' Medici where it was developed even further. The creation of classical ballet as we know it today occurred under LouisXIV, who in his youth was himself an avid dancer and performed in ballets by Pierre Beauchamp and Jean-Baptiste Lully. In 1661 Louis founded the AcadmieRoyale de Danse (Royal Dance Academy) which was charged with establishing standards for the art of dance and the certification of dance instructors. In 1672,following his retirement from the stage, Louis XIV made Lully the director of the Acadmie Royale de Musique (Paris Opera) in which the f irst professional balletcompany, the Paris Opera Ballet, arose.[5]This origin is reflected in the predominance of French in the vocabulary of ballet. Despite the great reforms ofJean-Georges Noverre in the eighteenth century, ballet went into decline in France after 1830, though it was continued in Denmark, Italy, and Russia. It wasreintroduced to western Europe on the eve of the First World War by a Russian company: the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev, who came to be influential

around the world. Diaghilev's company came to be a destination for many of the Russian trained dancers fleeing the famine and unrest that followed theBolshevik revolution. These dancers brought many of the choreographic and stylistic innovations that had been flourishing under the czars back to their place oforigin.

In the 20th century, ballet had a strong influence on broader concert dance. For example, in the United States, choreographer George Balanchine developed

what is now known as neoclassical ballet. Subsequent developments now include contemporary ballet and post-structural ballet, seen in the work of WilliamForsythe in Germany.

Dance.

Dance is a type ofart that generally involves movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music,[1]performed in many different cultures and used as a form ofexpression, social interaction and exercise or presented in a spiritual or performance setting.

Dance may also be regarded as a form ofnonverbal communication between humans, and is also performed by other animals (bee dance, patterns of behavioursuch as a mating dance). Gymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are sports that incorporate dance, while martial arts kata are often compared todances. Motion in ordinarily inanimate objects may also be described as dances (theleavesdanced in thewind).

Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as folkdance) to virtuoso techniques such as ballet. Dance can be participatory, social or performed for an audience. It can also be ceremonial, competitive or erotic.Dance movements may be without significance in themselves, such as in ballet or European folk dance, or have a gestural vocabulary/symbolic system as in manyAsian dances. Dance can embody or express ideas, emotions or tell a story.

Dancing has evolved many styles. Breakdancing and Krumping are related to the hip hop culture. African dance is interpretative. Ballet, Ballroom, Waltz, andTango are classical styles of dance while Square Dance and the Electric Slide are forms ofstep dances.

Every dance, no matter what style, has something in common. It not only involves flexibility and body movement, but also physics. If the proper physics are nottaken into consideration, injuries may occur.
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Choreography is the art of creating dances. The person who creates (i.e., choreographs) a dance is known as the choreographer.

Origins and history

Main article:History of dance

Ancient Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 3rd - 2nd century BC, found in Alexandria, Egypt.

Dance does not leave behind clearly identifiable physical artifacts such as stone tools, hunting implements or cave paintings. It is not possible to say when dancebecame part of human culture.

Joseph Jordania recently suggested, that dance, together with rhythmic music and body painting, was designed by the forces ofnatural selection at the early stageof hominid evolution as a potent tool to put groups of human ancestors in a battle trance, a specific altered state of consciousness. In this state hominids werelosing their individual identity and were acquiring collective identity.[2]Jonathan Pieslak's research shows, that some contemporary military units use loud groupsinging and dancing in order to prepare themselves for the dangerous combat missions.

[3]According to Jordania, this trance-inducing ability of dance comes from

human evolutionary past and includes as well a phenomenon of military drill[4]

which is also based on shared rhythmic and monotonous group activity.

Dance has certainly been an important part ofceremony, rituals, celebrations and entertainment since before the birth of the earliest human civilizations.Archeology delivers traces of dance from prehistoric times such as the 9,000 year old Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka paintings in India and Egyptian tomb paintingsdepicting dancing figures from c. 3300 BC.

One of the earliest structured uses of dances may have been in the performance and in the telling of myths. It was also sometimes used to show feelings for one ofthe opposite gender. It is also linked to the origin of "love making." Before the production of written languages, dance was one of the methods of passing thesestories down from generation to generation.[5]

Another early use of dance may have been as a precursor to ecstatic trance states in healing rituals. Dance is still used for this purpose by many cultures from theBrazilian rainforest to the Kalahari Desert.

[6]

Sri Lankan dances goes back to the mythological times ofaboriginal yingyang twins and "yakkas" (devils). According to a Sinhalese legend, Kandyan dancesoriginated 250 years ago, from a magic ritual that broke the spell on a bewitched king. Many contemporary dance forms can be traced back to historical,traditional, ceremonial, and ethnic dance.

The Elements of Dance

What is Dance?

Dance is the art form in which human movement becomes the medium for sensing, understanding, and communicating ideas, feelings, and experiences. Da nce

provides a way of learningone that develops communication abilities, problem solving techniques, and creative and critical thinking skills along with kinesthetic

abilities. At its core, the goal of dance education is to engage students in artistic experiences through the processes of creation, performance and response.

The Elements of Dance

Dance has its own content, vocabulary, skills, and techniques, which must be understood and applied to be proficient in the art. The elements of dance are the

foundational concepts and vocabulary for developing movement skills as well as understanding dance as an art form. All these elements are simultaneously

present in a dance or even in a short movement phrase.

Body

Action

Space

Time

Energy

Body
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The art of dance takes place in and through the human body. The renowned dance critic Walter Terry commented: No paints nor brushes, marbles nor chisels,

pianos or violins are needed to make this art, for we are the stuff that dance is made of. It is born in our body, exists in our body and dies in our body. Dance,

then, is the most personal of all the arts . . . it springs from the very breath of life. *

In dance, the body is the mobile figure or shape, felt by the dancer, seen by others. The body is sometimes relatively still and sometimes changing as the dancer

moves in place or travels through the dance area. Dancers may emphasize specific parts of their body in a dance phrase or their whole body.

When we look at a dancer's whole body we might consider the overall shape design; is it symmetrical? twisted? Another way to describe the body in dance is to

consider the body systemsmuscles, bones, organs, breath, balance, reflexes. We could describe how the skeletal system or breath is used, for example. The body is

the conduit between the inner realm of Intentions, ideas, emotions and identity and the outer realm of expression and communication. Whether watching dance

or dancing ourselves, we shift back and forth between the inner~outer sense of body.

Action

Action is any human movement included in the act of dancingit can include dance steps, facial movements, lifts, carries, and catches, and even everyday

movements such as walking. Dancers may choose movement that has been done before, or they may add their own original movements to the existing dance

movement vocabulary. Dancers may also revise or embellish movement they have learned from others. Dance is made up of streams of movement and pauses, so

action refers not only to steps and sequences, but also to pauses and moments of relative stillness. Movement that travels through space is broadly called

locomotor movement in contrast to axial movement, which occurs in one spot.

Understanding and discussing action does not require extensive dance terminology since movement can be categorized and described according to its qualities.

For example, while a sashay in American Square Dance might be called a chass in Ballet or an undercurve in Modern Dance technique, we can also

describe it as a slide since that essential characteristic is present in all those steps.

Space

There are countless variations and combinations of ways that movement can occur in space. Dancers interact with space in myriad ways. They may stay in one

place and move parts of their body or their whole body, or they may travel from one place to another. They may alter the dire ction, level, size, and pathways of

their movements. Dancers may focus their movement and attention outwardly to the space or inwardly, into themselves. The line of travel may be quite direct

towards one or more points in space or indefinite and meandering. The dance may take place in one corner of a stage or in a big open circle outdoors with the

entire community surrounding the dancers.

Dancers may also orient their movement towards objects or in relation to natural settings. Sometimes dances are created for specific locations such as an elevator

or on a barge for site-based performances. Spatial relationships between dancers or between dancers and objects are the basis for design concepts such as beside,

in front of, over, through, around, near or far

Time

The keyword for the element of time is when. Human movement is naturally rhythmic in the broad sense that we alternate activity and rest. Breath and waves

are examples of rhythms in nature that repeat, but not as consistently as in a meter. Spoken word and conversation have rhythm and dynamics, but the patterns

are characteristically more inconsistent and unpredictable.


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Rhythmic patterns may be metered or free rhythm. Much of western music uses repeating patterns (2/4 or 3/4 for example), but the concepts of time and meter

are used very differently throughout the world. Dance movements may also show different timing relationships such as simultaneous or sequential timing; or brief

to long duration; fast to slow speed; or accents in predictable or unpredictable intervals.

Time may also be organized in other ways including clock time, sensed time, and event-sequence. Dancers may take sight cues from each other to start the next

phrase or use a shared sense of sensed time to end a dance. They may even take cues from an event such as a train whistle during an outdoor dance

performance. The inherent rhythms in our movement and our aural landscape are a rich source of variation in dance.

Energy

Energy is about howit refers to the force of an action and can mean both the physical and psychic energy that drives and characterizes movement.

Choices about energy include variations in movement flow and use of force, tension, and weight. A run might be free flowing or easily stopped, and it may be

powerful or gentle, tight or loose, heavy or light. A dancer may step into an arabesque position with a sharp, percussive attack or with light, f lowing ease. Energy

may change in an instant, and several types of energy may be concurrently in play.

Energy choices may also reveal emotional states. For example, a powerful push might be aggressive or playfully boisterous depending on the intent and situation.

A delicate touch might appear affectionate or uncertain, or perhaps suggest concern.

Some types of energy can be expressed in words, others spring from the movement itself and are difficult to label with language. Sometimes differences in the use

of energy are easy to perceive; other times these differences can be quite subtle and ambiguous. Perhaps more so than the other elements, energy taps into the

nonverbal yet deeply communicative realm of dance.

Terms:

Warm-up: Doing exercises that stretch and loosen the muscles to prepare your body for dancing.

Barre: A horizontal wooden hand rail that runs around the wall of a ballet studio.

Alignment: The lining up of parts of your body to make a balanced and graceful line.

Posture: The position and carriage of the body.

Pointe:A position of the foot in which your heel is held up, your big toe is stretched downtoward the ground, your leg is turned out, and your foot is in line with your leg.

Positions of the feet: Five different positions in which your weight is evenly distributed over yourfeet no matter what position you body is in, with your legs turned out from the pelvis.

Port de bras: Carriage of the arms. Set movements of the arms from one position to the other.

Plie: An exercise in which, standing erect and with back straight, you move down and up withthe bend of the knees.

Demi-plie: A half knee-bend. Nearly every step begins and ends with a demi-plie.

Grand plie: A full knee-bend with heels off the floor.

Eleve: A movement in which you rise up high on to the balls of your feet. A similar position isalso referred to as Releve.

Coupe: A position of your foot, lifted and held flexed, tight against your ankle.


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Battement:A generic term which describes the various movements in which the leg makesa beating motion.

Battement tendu: An exercise in which you stretch your foot along the floor and end in a point.

En croix: In the shape of a cross (front, side, back)

Degage:An exercise similar to a tenduthat finishes with the foot lifted from the groundin a point.

Rond de jambes a terre: Circle of the leg, on the ground (`a terre). An exercise inwhich you mark out a semi-circle on the floor with your pointed foot.

Balance: In dance, a term which describes the holding of your body in a stable position.

Centre Practice: a group of exercises similar to those la barrebut performed in the centreof the room without the support of the barre. These exercises areusually performed with alternate feet and are invaluable for obtaining good balance and control

Balance: In dance, a term which describes the holding of your body in a stable position

Passe:A movement that resembles a pass.

Arabesque: A position in which you balance on one straight leg (or bent leg) with the otherstretched out behind you.

Grand Battement: Meaning large beats. An exercise in which you raise your pointed foothigh off of the ground keeping both legs straight.

Allegro: An Italian musical term meaning quick and lively. In ballet, allegrosteps arecompleted in fast tempo without your arms flapping about.

Petit Allegro: Small jumping and turning steps.

Glissade: Gliding or sliding steps. A traveling step in which you glide your foot alongthe floor with your front knee bent and you transfer your weight. During the moment

of transition, your legs are fully stretched.

Demi-pointe: Half point, meaning standing on the balls of your feet.

Bourree: A linking step in which you rise up on the balls of your feet (on to your half point) and glide across the floor with quick, tiny steps.

Pas de Bourree: A small stepping movement, executed on the balls of the feet or on pointe, in which the you either skim smoothly across the floor or transfer theweight from foot-to-foot three times as a transition into another movement. A pas-de-bourre consists of bending both legs, extending one, then stepping up, up,down, finishing with bent knees.

Pas de chat: A traveling step-of-the-cat in which you bring one foot up along youleg to the knee, and transfer your weight to the other leg with a spring in the air, landing

with your feet in 5th position.

Routine: In dance, a term meaning a sequence of steps.

Marking: Going through the movements of a dance routine without dancing them fully,in order to familiarize yourself with the steps before performing.

Finale: The concluding part of a performance.

Grand Allegro: A combination of large traveling steps and jumps.

Pas Marche: The graceful walk to center stage to take a curtsey or bow.

Curtsey: A movement by the female dancer (ballerina)that acknowledges theinstructor at the end of a class, or an audience at the end of a performance.


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Bow: A movement by the male dancer (danseur noble)that acknowledges theinstructor at the end of a class, or an audience at the end of a performance.

Reverence: A movement, generally made by the sweep of an arm to acknowledgethe rest of the ensemble cast (corps), the instructor, the choreographer, and/or the orchestra.

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