arch 219 landscape design1

ARCH 219 LANDSCAPE DESIGN

Course content 2010-2011 Fall

This course consists of two parts; theory and practice

compiled from

INTRODUCTION TO LANDSCAPE DESIGN-John L. MOTLOCH (2001)

and

FROM CONCEPT TO FORM IN LANDSAPE DESIGN- Grant W. REID (2007)

LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND SITE ASSESSMENT: KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL PLANT SELECTION–Rick BATES PENN State University Department of

Horticultureby

Prof. Dr. Nur Sözen

for

EUL Faculty of Architecture and Engineering

Department of Architecture

ARCH 219 LANDSCAPE DESIGN

EUL Faculty of Architecture and Engineering Department of Architecture

Compiled by

Prof. Dr Nur SÖZEN

2010-2011 Fall

Theoretical part of the course

What is landscape?

Landscape is everything surrounding us and everywhere, place, entity and phenomenon we can see, feel, sense, conceive and live in either almost untouched (natural) or shaped mostly by human (cultural).

What is landscape?

NATURAL

Untouched or

almost untouched

National parks,forests, mountains, deserts, rain forests, polar caps

LANDSCAPE and/or environment

CULTURAL

Shaped by human activities

URBANBuildings,streets,commercial areas, parks, gardens, squares, bridges etc.

RURALFarms, fields, holiday

Villages, summer houses, highways, railways, airports, recreation areas, arche logical/ historical sites etc.

What is landscapeNatural Landscapes are created and shaped by natural processes

What is landscapeCultural landscapes are altered or shaped by human

Urban landscapes

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What is landscapeUrban landscapes

vegitecture

What is landscapeUrban landscapes

What is landscapeCultural landscapes are altered or shaped by human

Rural landscapes

What is landscapeRural landscapes: Agricultural

What is landscapeRural landscapes: Transportation, vacation

Landscape is an integrated system

• Requires systematic and holistic approach in terms of management, planning and design.

• Systems (wholes) consist of entities and relationships and function accordingly.

• Landscape designers must manage, plan and design landscape to optimize the health and productivity of diverse physical, ecological and human systems.

• Landscape designers must aspire to manage, plan and design people environment relations to promote sustainability and regenerative capacity.

• Landscape management, planning and design must integrate into the dynamic of systems operating under dynamic equilibrium


• The science of chaos explains how eqilibrium provide order in static and slowly changing systems.

• This order is short lived and based on fundamental randomness.

• Systems sooner or later move into dissipative states.

• As aresult of this dissipation new states of equilibrium emerge.

• Chaos explains the complexity including the dynamics of natural and human systems.


• Landscape managers, planners and designers must understand the equilibrium conditions.

• Sensitive designers towards chaos, complexity and equilibrium issues can interpret this kind of knowledge to create integrated, complex and diverse landscapes.

• It must be clearly understood that “the nature of nature is change”.

• In the traditional design approach we tried to stop change through engineering instead of integration with change through ecology.


•Planning and design decisions often fail to integrate into larger environmental, human and technological systems.

•This paradigm failed to synergize place, people and technology.

•Also failed to provide a positive sense of place (people connecting mentally with context) and sense of community (feeling of connection with others) or place specific sense of community (people connecting to the place and others in that place).


• The change in the landscape architecture profession towards systems management (managing the health and productivity systems of the systems) in 1970s reemerged in 1980s as sustainable development (synthesis of conservation and development) and evolved into regenerative planning and design (solutions from system dynamics regenerate these systems) in 1990s reconnecting people place and other people


Through knowledge based design (synergy of art and science) the designers can create responsible humane places with strong identity that promote:

• human interaction and involvement• enrich human experience• maximize quality of life• improve ecological, physiological,

psychological health.

Landscape interpretation

• Landscape as nature: 18. Century romantic movement considers landscape as wilderness areas without people. Designers who follow this view strongly focus on conserving, nurturing and protecting the environment.

• Landscape as habitat: This view considers landscape is home for human. Accordingly quality of life is integrally linked to a healthy habitat.


• Landscape as artifact: This anthrophomorphic sees landscape as an entity created by people; people have conquered nature and reshaped it to their purposes because human is seen as ecologically dominant and superior to nature. This view is a short-term, ego-driven being unaware and insensitive to the the problems created by its implementation.


• Landscape as system: In this holistic view landscape consists of interdependent subsystems and underlying processes. It started as a reaction o reductive Newtonian science. Since 1930 it accepts science of relativity as the view of reality. Emhasize the interelations of landscape elements instead of elements. People and landscape are expressions of systemic oneness. Contrasting the previous view this approach promotes sustainable, culturally relevant landscapes, integrates form and function with landscape dynamics, and maximizes long term health and productivity of the physical and cultural landscape. Designers with this viewpoint consider landscape design as the management of the systems.


Landscape as a system: A building is an element within the urban system but it is also an integral part of a spatial system and it is a part of a climatic system and can be designed for optimal energy and water exchange with landscape. This approach leads to systems sensitive regional/urban planning, architecture and landscape architecture.


• Landscape as problem: This view sees landscape (with its natural and man-made elements) as a situation needing correction. All the environmental problems are seen as evidences of this problematic landscapes. This view is promoted by education and publicity of 1970s adressing landscape design as functional, infrastructural, behavioral, or aesthetic problem solving. Landscape designers apply professional skills, scientific knowledge and aesthetic sensitivity to the correction of environmental ills. If applied with a short-term perpective resulting landscapes may become prolematic than the original condition. This approach may also create boring landscapes and fail to provide the enrichment necessary to sustain the human spirit and promote psychological health.

• Landscape as wealth: It is based on that people “own” land. Primary value of land is its economic worth; everything else is secondary to investment potential. This real-estate approach is based on “highest and best use”. This materialistic 20th Century view makes decisions in accordance with economic value instead of carrying capacity and have profound impact on landscape efficiency and sustainability. This approach served well during the period of resource abundance (e.g. exploitation of fossil fuels). But it is useless during resource scarcity which we are experiencing.



Landscape as wealth:This abstract, geographic view translates landscapes into economic units such as square metre. It considers everything that influence the market value. Accesibility, availability and capacity of support systems and infrastructure are more important than the physical characteistics. Sense of place, context and even thePeople present are important (e.g. Where the rich and poor congregate affect the status and economicvalue. Image is a valued economic resource.

• Landscape as ideology: Landscape is sen as a symbol of values, ideals, aspirations, hopes and dreams of a culture; it is the physical expression of culture. In homogenous and slow changing cultures this can produce landscapes with strong and integrated sense. In diverse societies of contemporary settlements the result is landscapes in which elements relate poorly to one another and lack a strong sense. The result is very often chaotic and psychologically unhealthy landscapes.


• Landscape as history: In this view eveything is positioned in time and sequence. Landscape is layers of history, it is the physical record of past cultures and ecological processes structured in time.

• Landscape as place: This approach focuses on sensual gestalt (sound, smell, tactile, feel, flavor and ambiance) and ability of space to be remembered over time. Immense variety, uniqueness, individuality of places are important. This view focuses on gestalt rather than on elements.Landscapes generated by this view reflact landscape characteristics and tend to be visually coherent, exciting and sensually rewarding environments.


• Landscape as aesthetic: Emphasizes artistic and visual qualities of landscape features; it interprets visual forms on the basis of art language such as line, form, color, texture, rhythm, proportion, balance, symmetry, harmony, tesion, unity, variety etc. The landscape is seen as an object and endowed with high viewing value. Whether they function properly or high cultural meaning is of little importance. The manner in which we manage, plan and design landscape is profoundly affected by how we see it which is based on our world view and this affects the potentials we see or don’t see and also the problems we solve.


• Development of human-systems foundation: Value systems, interdisciplinary planning and design,integrating the four foundations of landcape design; aesthetic, technological, natural and human systems

• Reconnecting people to place: Embracing participatory processes, promoting place specific sense of community

• Realizing the potential of digital technology: Design curricula, Construction curricula

Crucial issues in landscape design

Landscape processes

Landscapes are expressions of ongoing processes and environmental remains left behind by ecological and cultural forces

• Ecological forces: Geological processes (tectonic, hydrologic, glacial, wind and weathering); Soil-forming processes; biologic processes. These processes interact to form ecosystems

• Landscape form and pattern recognition provides valuable information for designers about the forces that are responsible of the forms and patterns.

• Geologic processes are predictable sequences of events powered by geological forces.

Uplifted landscape-positive landform

Erosional landscape-negative landform

Landscape processes

Landscape processesGeologic processes: Tectonics

Young mountains

Old mountains

Landscape processesGeologic processes: Hydrology

SinkholeKarstic pool

Landscape processesGeologic proceses:Hydrology

Stream erosion


Stream aging

Landscape processes

o

Gelogic processes: Hydrology

Direction of stream erosion


Variation in stream pattern

Variation in stream pattern

Landscape processesGeologic process: Glacial forces

Hanging valleys and waterfalls

Drumlin

Landscape processes

Drumlins

Geologic processes: Glacial forces

Landscape processesGeologic forces: Wind

Saltation transfer of sand by wind

Dune formation

Landscape processes

Geologic processes: Weathering

Landscape processesSoil forming processes

Landscape processes

Earth ispowered by energy:• Tectonic processes are povered by thermonuclear energy

as the core of the earth decays radioactively.

• Surface processes are powered primarely by solar energy (solar radiation stored in wood, coal and petroleum).

• Biological systems (negentropic) increase the stored energy for later use (convertion of solar energy by plants through photosynthesis).

• Energy is transmitted through food chain and web of life (biotic aspect).

Nonliving (abiotic) and living (biotic) components interact to form ecosystems in which parts relate holistically.

Biologic processes

Landscape processes

Early and late succesional ecosystems

Biologic processes

Available resources and technology

• Land is solid part of earth’s surface; its 3-D relief is called topography or land form. This form develops as ecological, cultural and technological forces operate, over time, on the earth’s surface. Severity of forces and resistance of surface influence the form.

• Each physiographic region has its own set of ecological forces and materials, over time these promote the physical character of that region.

Land and landform


Land and landform

Terraced landform Rolling landform


Generally 2-D graphic techniques are used to represent 3-D landforms.

Landform in plan– Hachures (lines drawn in the direction of steepest

slope connecting consecutive undrawn lines of elevation) are powerful drawing tools to express landforms in 2-D plans. Hachure lines are usually evenly spaced, but this spacing can change to reflect the amount of sunlight that falls on the surface (a combination of slope angle and orientation, and the direction of the sun) producing a greater 3-D effect.

Land and landform: How to communicate landform


Land and landform: How to communicate landform

Hachure lines


The most common way to represent landform on a 2-D plan is the contour plan.

-Contour lines are lines of equal elevation consecutive lines on the plan have a consistentvertical separation, referred as to contour interval. To understand a contour or topographic map typical landforms and their contour signatures must be properly understod.

Land and landforms: How to communicate landform


Land and landforms: How to communicate landforms

Contour lines Ridge and valley structure


Landform in section and profile – Section and profile : A landform can

also be in 2-D by imagining that it is cut through and then it is drawn the side showing the vertical configuration. When the drawing shows only the existing and proposed form it is called section, and it is called profile when itoverlays both existing and proposed conditions. These are generally scaled drawings.

Land and landform: How to communicate landforms


Land and landform

Landform in section


Land and landform

Landform manupilation:When representing landform manupilations existing existing contour lines must be indicated with dashed and proposed ones with solid lines. Existing contour lines are shown with their entire length, but proposed ones are drawn only where they deviate from the existing conditions.Grading is the general term used to refer to modifications to existing landform and is performed to provide drainage, to create visual effects etc.


Land and landforms: How to communicate landforms

Landform manupilation: cut and fill



Slope:The amount of incline of a surface is referred to as its slope. There are two methods for quantifying the slopes:-According to ratio method, slope steepness is the ratio of horizontal dimension to vertical elevation difference 3:1, 2:1, 1:1 etc.-The percentage method describes slopes as a percentage; determined by dividing the difference in vertical elevation by the horizontal distance and then converting this decimal to a percentage.



Slope


Land and landform: Design

Landform issues must necessarily be fully considered in landscape design: Line and enclosure, slope conditions, drainage characteristics, and comfort are among the major considerations.Landform as line:Perceptual efefcts of a landform are affected by its line characteristics; angular line produces feeling of energy, power and boldness whereas sinuous line evokes a sense of calmness, passivity and restfulness.


Architectonic versus naturalistic form

Land and landform:Design



Landform as enclosure:Flat, level landscapes give the feeling of expansiveness. To compose a space in these landscapes the designer can reshape the land or manupilate the landform with plants, walls or other design elements. As landform rises above the eye level it blocks the vision and the space becomes enclosed.

Grain and enclosure


Landscape grain

Ridgelines and military crests

Land and form: Design


Site and design slopes:Existing site slopes have major implications in terms of allowable land uses, densities and site impacts associated with development.


Landform modification as a factor of slope

Available resources and technologyLand and landform: Design

Landform, drainage and infrastructure:Ridges are topographic divides that seperate the landscape into a series of drainage areas called watersheds; water flows away from ridges and concentrates its flow in swales. Watersheds are important units for environmental management and land use planning.

Watersheds and waterflow



In most landscapes water is the primary ecological and erosional force. Managing this force as well as the resulting stream erosion and soil loss is best achieved with proper watershed management.Land use planning determines land use and density of develoment and most uses must be aided by support systems called utilities or infrastructure which include circulation, power, stormwater, and waste water management, communication etc.Infrastructural systems consist of two basic types: Gravity flow systems and pressure flow systems.


Gravity flow systems including storm and sanitary sewerage systems are tied directly to topography. They depend on topographic differences for their motive force and their form must closely relate to landform. Pressure flow systems including networks for potable water, electricity, natural gas, communication, transportation etc. Are freed from constraints of topography.At the site scale the designer wants surface water to flow around rather than through buildings and site-use areas. Grading a site to affect site drainage is a major design concern. It must be considered at the early stage and throughout the design process.

Land and landform: design

Gravity flow system




Landform and comfort:Comfort is the sensation resulting from a preferred combination of temperature, radiated energy, humidity and wind speed. Comfort is largely determined by climate: At the regional scale it is called macroclimate; at the land planning scale mezzoclimate and at the site scale microclimate. The shape of land significantly affects local conditions and comfort, primarily through its effect on seasonal incoming solar radiation (insolation) and airflow.



Slope aspect or slope orientation (slope and direction of land surface):Combined with vertical angle and planar direction of the sun this orientation determines the relative amount of incoming solar radiation incident on the ground surface at any given time. This information is useful when considering time-specific building and site uses. The designer avoids high use activities in areas subject to large amounts of afternoon summer sun (the area is already over heated).In winter solar radiation is desirable; the designer searches sunny areas to locate the activities. On slopes that turn their back to the sun vertical elements further reduce solar energy. On slopes facing the sun the same elements reflect more energy into these areas creating heat-sinks.


Land and landform: design

Slope aspect and incident radiation


Slope aspect and insolation



Slope aspect and vertical site elements


Ventilation:Topographic relief functions as a barrier and as wind blows along the surface its velocity is affected by the shape of the surface. The designers searches locations to funnel desirable summer breezes into the area while protecting the same areas from undesirable winter winds.

Ventilation and valley alignment

Ventilation around a Knoll

Available resources and technologyLand and landform: design


Resculpting the builging site for seasonal air flow


Water as process

Water in its various forms comprises water cycle or hydrological cycle.


Water as resource

Surface water:Water is used for drinking, cleaning irrigation, industrial, climate control, recreation and transportation purposes. Throughout history settlements are located along or near water bodies to meet the needs, but very often destructive floods were inevitable which in time resulted in construction of water management structures such as dams and reservoirs.Resource management based on a strong land and ate ehic would recognize the ability of water to serve our needs and the need for water management. Accordingly development must be located away from prime agricultural lands of the flood plain allowing periodic flooding and again replenish the lanscape through nature’s regenerative power.

Available resources and technologyWater as resource

Drainage pattern:This pattern in a watershed evolves in response to surface flow of water. Over time, this pattern aatains an equilibrium with site forces providing various opportunities for use. Changes to the equilibrium adversely affect this equilibrium, thus ability, and therefore must me avoided.For fully utilizing water resource any development shoul avoid reshaping the land near the natural drainageway.Development often replaces permeable ground condition with impervious ones causing significant increase in water volume and velocity; the result is destruction. Detention or retention reservoirs are constructed to accomodate increasing water volume. Other common problem is sedimentation which requires filtering structures.

Preservation of existing drainage ways


Water as resource


Water as resource

Detention and retention structures


Water as resource

Groundwater:Retention structures are also important groundwater management tools helping to maintain the water volume in underground aquifers. Designers take care that adequate water must infitrate must equal the amount discharged naturally; plus the amount removed for irriation, industrial/process use, and other withdrawals; plus the amount prevented by development from entering the groundwater reservoir. The quality of water infiltrated after development must also beno less than that entering before development.


Water as resource

Wetlands:Stream banks, lake shores and wetlands are rich habitats and very valuable to ecological system, and provide food and shelter for wildlife.Their contuinity with their animal and plant communities depends upon hydrological supportive relationships.Flood control and waste treatment are among other vital functions of wetlends. Design approaches and development plans should never adversely affect them.


Water as resource

Recreation:Water is a very important recreation source. It provides opportunities for SPA, swimming, fishing, boating etc and related activities such as hiking, camping and many others.Design and development approaches should not limit public access and maintain its quantity and quality for health, safety, welfare and pleasure.

Available resources and technologyWater as resource

Comfort:In overheated conditions when the air dry, evoparative cooling can effectively improve the site comfort. In these conditions locating development dawnwind from water bodies, irrigated lawns, or water sprays can reduce air temperatures. Vegetation can provide shade and also cooling through evopotranspiration of water from plant surface.


Water as resource

Site ponds and cooling

Water sprays and evoparative cooling


Water as resource

Sensual value:Water has stimulating power to mind through sight and sound. The lapping wave, gurgling brook, thunder of waterfalls, splash of fish, crash of surf etc contribute to the healing power of water. The sight, sound, smell, and feel of water on skin are stimuli that enrich sensation of place. These features of water are invaluable for landscape design and place making process.


Water as resource

Land values and land use:Water in te environment commands a price; proximity to water is a marketable commodity. Water edge creates high degree of competition among land uses. Such land is valued for parks, housing hotels, resorts, restaurants, cafes, commercial areas and other uses. Each use or combination of uses has a degree of suitability along the water edge based on complex consderations that affect quality of life, system carrying capacity, and limits beyond which water resource will suffer significant degradation. Although wetlands are highly valued resources only water-dependent uses must be allowed in wetland areas and all development impacts must necessarily be mitigated.

Available resources and technologyWater as design: Elements of visual design; line, form, color, texture

Line:The character of line formed by water-land interface has a major impact upon the images.A soft textured line can avoke unbridled nature.A highly controlled sinuous line can refer to a controlled or symbolic nature.A rectlinear line can allude to architecture.Angular line confer energy.The edge can be obstructed by aquatic plants to give a sense of mystery or be crisp and decisevely bulkheaded.Water surface can also be expressed as line; rythmic lines of waves.By shaping the edge over which water falls water can become a series of vertical lines connecting water and sky.


Water as design: Elements of visual design: Line, form, color, texture

Water as rhytmic/directional line

Controlled nature at wate edge

Water as design: Elements of visual design: line, form, color, texture


Form:Water features can be linear, accentuating the flow of water, or compact in form conveying a sense of centrality or arrival. Form can be a complex combination of differing characters pulling together disparate elements, or coversely can be consistent and convey a unified sense.



Water as simple form Water as complex form



Color:Good quality water is relatively clear and takes color imparted by reflections carried upon its surface, by its diffusing character, and by the color of its container.White and mirrored containers express the transparency of water and create the illusion of shallowness.Light blue containers impart the clarity, cleanliness, and purity of water.Dark blue and black containers gives the illusion of shadowy depth. Water in dark containers especially wet!!



Texture:The surface of moving water is determined by depth and flow characteristics and by the shape and texture of its container. A sthe layer of water becomes thin even minor differences in container alingment can cause surface texture.When a thin sheet of water moves down a near vertical surface, minor ripples in the surface can impart interesting textures and aeration to the water.A stair shaped container can convert a smooth sheet of water to dancing droplets, each reflecting the sun,and together creating a frolicking cascade(as widely used in Mughal gardens of India).


Water as design: Elements of visual design; Line, form, color, texture

Visual effects of vertical wall textures


Water as design: Elements of sensual quality: Design process

To optimize the sensual effect of water in landscape, designers need to focus on design intent including function, mood, aesthetics and sensual character. These isuues vary in content. The figure on the next slide nshows a fountain designed to enhance street character from one side and to provide visual amenity, screening and evaporative cooling from the other. The series of fall of the fountain masks the street noise and provides aeration to enhance evaporation and its cooling effect.


Water as design: Elements of sensual quality: Design process

Multipurpose waterfall and cascade


Water as design: Water as movement

Still (unmowing) water is visually and pcychogically reflective. The slightest breeze dissolves its visual effect. It has little power to mask the disruptive sounds.Moving water can be subtle and dynamic. It can be just audible or gurgling, can be laoud and splattering. It can covey brute force and mask even the loudest urban noises


Water as design: Water as allusion and symbol

Water can also be used as allusion and symbol. Mowing water implies instability, mowement towards equilibrium, and unresolved gravity. Still water conveys stability, resolution and peacefulness.Natural landscapes are not found in the cities; expressing nature and its forms in a city park, interpretation of a mountain stream, river, flood plain may provide powerful forms for the designers. These can symbolize, concentrate and transpose meanings of nature to the urban context.


Water as design: Water as allusion and symbol

Symbolic stream


Water as design: Water as ethic

Landscape interventions communicate an ethic. Great velocities and volumes of water that over-power the observer symbolize the anthopomorphic world view: Man is the controller and conqueror of nature (such as water plays of villa d’Este in Italy).Small volumes of water extended through a series of sensual experiences convey appreciation for scarcity and value of water (as in islamic gardens of Alhambra in Granada-Spain).


Water as design: Pools and ponds

Pools (architectonic) and ponds (natural) are still water bodies.Pools serve as reflecting surfaces. Pools are most effective when reflecting something of visual interest. The reflecting pool must also be of proper size, have adequate depth and have dark colored container.Ponds have naturalistic line quality often reinforced by naturalized plantings. They are generally located at the lowest elevation of the landform and they contribute markedly to the pastoral mood of a place.


Water as design: Pools and ponds

Reflecting pool


Water as design: Channels

Channels are linear water conduits that convey movement and decentralize the meaning. The sensual effect of a channel depends upon wolume of water, rate of flow, and channel size, shape and steepness. Slick channels produce smooth flows, rough ones create turbulance.

Channel flow


Water as design:Cascades and watefalls

The falling water effect of waterfalls and cascades are unlimited. This effect varies with the volume of water, rate of flow, the condition of the edge over which water falls, the height and nature of the fall and the surface terminating the fall. As the volume increases flow tends to be more regular and effect of other variations (such as character of the edge) become less visual.Rate of flow affects the inertia of water. Water falling over a smooth edge forms a sheet-like cascade; flowing over a rough edge, water is turbulent and aerated. If falling water hits a hard surface the sound is loud, if it falls into a pool the sound has a deeper tone and more muted.


Water as design: Water jets

Relatively large volumes of water forced through small aperatures result in high flow velocities that overcome gravity. The result is stream of water flowing thin and fast then slowing and falling to earth upon itself (vertical jet), or in another place (directional jet).Vertical jets usually draw attention to specific points, punctiating the landscape. Non-vertical jets can connect points and lead the eye and they can be used to add energy, movement and direction to a space.There are various types and technologies involved for thhe both.


Water as design: Water jets

Water jet as pointand punctuation


Water as design: Frozen water

Water that appears dark and transparent when liquid becomes light and opaque upon freezing. Frozen reflecting pools can also become recreational resources for ice skating and other ice related outdoor activities if properly designed and constructed.Fountains if left running can produce wonderlands of ice when temperatures drop. But for such a function maintenance and safety issues must be kept in mind. Especially in cold climates frozen water and relevant uses add joy and pleasure to the lives of people.

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as process

Plant materials are the ptoducts of biolological processes operating in a specific placeand time. For these processes plants need sunlight, water, nutrients and appropriate tempetatures. Basic life form (desert, short grass prairie, tall grass prairie, savannah or forest) is determined by available water.Species that can survive in an area are determined bytemperature. Actual plant materials on-site are ultimately determined by by resident soils, as these soils affect water, nutrients, soil gases available to plants.All these and other rlevant factors holistically define habitat.Plants and habitats change interdependently in a state of dynamic equilirium.

Basic life form and available water



Succession refers to natural tendency of biological systems to change over time in response to available energy and resources.Early successional plants are pioneers and they colonize harsh environments (e.g. after fires, old mining areas etc). They rapidly grow in the disturbed areas and tolerate wide range of difficult environmental conditions.Late successional plants depend on efficiency and they maximize production of biomass (energy processed).Successional processes alsohave spatial implicatioms. As plant communities and environments change together over time, they evolve interrelated and interesting spatial patterns.


Early succession

Late succession

Plants: Plant material as process

Desert plant community


Plants: Plant material as resource

Planning resource: Plants capturing solar energ and make it available to food chain aremost valuable global resources. Managing regional/local character and sense of place involves the management of plant material and vegetative patterns.Interfaces of two or more ecological zones called ecotones are vegetative corridors, valuable for wildlife habitatsand movements. Preservation of these zones and vegetative corridors is essential for environmental management (compulsory due to European Landscape Convention).



Design resource:On the site design scale pants provide many sensual benefits. They provide enclosure; defineand articulate the space; screen, enframe or serve as backdrop for the elements; contribute to the color of the environment; provide shelter from the sun and winds but provide soft breeze; influence microclimate and human comfort; by evopotranspiring water they cool the air and induce small amounts of air flow. Each of these characteristics can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the climatic and seasonal conditions, thus ey must be known and understood by the designers.



Plant material and microclimate


Land value:Significant vegetation can contribute to economic worth of land. There are some economic formulas usually consider plant size, species, condition, and environmental location and then apply to weighing factors applicable to the region.The worth of plant material varies with context and and cultural significacance. For example the same tree is worth several times its open field value if growing in the city. Especially long living old trees due to their hstorical significance carry an added value.



Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Elements of visual design

Line:The character of line, form, color, texture exhibited by plant material is instrumentai in determining sense of place.Line characteristics of plant material can range from the sinuous, evolving lines of nature to regularly spaced straight and gemetrical lines of architeture.Plant material organized as straight lines usually indicate the presence of people; the birds siting on the power lines or fences seed the plants on lines.The site designer creates allees to direct the mowement and lead the eye; rows of trees along streets reinforce the linear character.



Edge of planted mass as line



Plant material as line that links elements

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Elements of visual design

Form: Plant form is a combination of overall plant shape and habit of growth. Each shape has its own unique characteristics and design potentials

Various plant forms

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Elements of visual design

Fastigiate plants accentuate the vertical and serve as focal points in design.Columnar plants are similar to fastigiate but rounded at the top.Round plants are non-directional and can provide unity in planting composition.Spreading forms reinforce the horizontal direction. They can be effective in extending architectural forms into the site.Pyramidal forms have a formal architectonic character and they give rigidity and permanence to the composition.Weeping plants generally occur in wet areas. They are more effectice when cascade over architectural forms.Picturesque forms are irregular or contorted and serve as evocative specimens.



Designers are concerned with the form of individual plants as well as plant groupings. The aggregate form of plant communities changes with succession. Early successional communities show random distributions organized as points in the space. Late successional communities organized as masses, fine tuned to environmental variables.Naturalistic plant masses are designed as loosely organized responses to environmental criteria. In contrast, the bosque is organized on a grid creating formal space articulated by a coloumn of tree trunks and it read as a rectlinear mass from a distance.



Early successional plant distribution

Late successional plant distribution



Bosque



Color:Plant color plays a major role in the mood of the place. Light green foliage creates an airy feeling; therefore spring deciduous landscapes, lighter incolor seem more lively. Bright colors seem cheerful, dark colors somber. Normal foliage varies in value from light to dark and in hue from yellow-green to blue- green, bronze, rust and purple. Fall color is more dramatic with greater range of hues, but short-lived.Plant color is supplied by flowers, fruit, foliage, bark, twigs and branches.In landscape design color combines with line, form and texture to display plant material.



Texture:It refers to the visual grain or coarsness of perceived surface. It is influenced by leaf size, edge character, twig and branch size, bark articulation, growth habit and viewing distance.Coarse textured plants are characterized by large leaves, massive branching, few twigs and massive growth habit. They are dominant when used in composition with medium and fine textured plants creating focal points. They are most effective when displayed against fine textured backgrounds. Because they make the space seem smaller they shouldn’t be used in small and tight places.



Most plants are medium textured; their role in planting is usually that of neutral mass, and as backdrop within which fine or coarse material are displayed as accents.Fine textured plants have many small leaves, dense and full growth habit and many thin branches an fine twigs. They are most effectively viewed at very close range and do not overpower small spaces. They make the small spaces seem larger.Perceived texture changes with viewer’s location.


Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Plant strata and size

Strata (canopy, understory, shrub and groundcover) refers to the various horizontal layers that constitute a plant community.Size usually refers to the height to the top of the plant. Large and intermediate trees:Large trees are taller than 30m, intermediate trees are between 25-30m together they form a vegetated canopy. From outside they form mass, from within, they form canopied space. Their trunks imply but do not enclose space. The spaces they create seem to have ceiling but no walls. A canopy changes the character of sunlight from hard and glaring to soft and dappled. When such canopy is fairly continuous a break in the canopy becomes an outdoor room, open to the sky.



Plant strata Trees and enclosure

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Plant strata and size

Outdoor room



Large and intermediate trees are effective microclimate modifiers. They provide high and mid-angle sun. If closed at their edge by lower branching material they can reduce ventilation. Otherwise they can accelerate the air flow.In planting design, large and intermediate trees can provide mass and contribute large scale. If planted to extend the lines and rhythm of architecture into exterior space, tree trunks can give an architectural character to the site.


Large trees and microclimate



Large and intermediate trees provide bulk to plant mass

Tree trunks as landscape coloumn


Small and flowering (understorey) trees:They grow 5-7m in height. Their form and intensity of flower can differ substantially if they are grown beneath the canopy of large/intermediate trees or in the open sun. In the open sun they growth is thicker/rounder and flowering is more intense.When canopies occur above head height small and flowering trees imply intimate space. When canopies are at the eye level, they enclose the space. These trees are effective in small and intimate courtyards because they provide color and shade. They are also used as accent plants or focal points. They are effective screening mid to low-angle sun and often used on the southwest side of the buildings or on the west and northwest sides if augmented by low branching shrubs.


Small trees and spatial enclosure

Small trees and shade


Small accent tree to lead the eye


Tall shrubs:They grow to up to 5m. Their foliage usually extends close to the ground. They provide a strong sense of enclosure and a high degree of privacy. They are effective screens. Tall shrubs can serve as sculptural elements in a large space and provide backdrop against smaller plants and sculptures.Intermediate and low shrubs:Intermediate shrubs grow 1-3m, and low shrubs to 0.30-0.90m high. They define and physically separate spaces without blocking the vision. Low shrubs provide weak seperation whereas intermediate ones provide strong one.


Intermediate shrubs can become disconserting if their topsoccur at eye level. It is best to avoid materials that top out in between 1.5-2m, unless backed by taller materials.Low shrubs can effectively link groups of larger plants while alloving vision between the groups, unifying the composition effectively.Ground covers:They define planted areas and they can unify groups of larger plants into one composition. They also create spatial edge and create lines that can lead to focal points, building entries. They are very beneficial for slope stabilization especially steeper than 4:1 (25%) which are difficult to mow and subject to erosion.


Tall shrubs as screening/backdrop

Low shrubs and enclosure

Intermediate shrubs at eye level

Low shrubs linking plant masses


Ground cover as line

Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Plant size, unity and variety


A simplified palette limited to canopy trees and ground cover can be effective in unifying disparate design elements. Coversely, a multi-tiered planting scheme can provide variety and interest to an otherwise boring and sterile architecture.

Complex planting to add variety to a boring composition


Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Plant size, unity and variety

Unified planting to consolidate disparate elements

Plants: Plant material as design: Spatial issues: Enclosure, type, depth, enfamement, plant material and landform


Spatial enclosure:It is the perceived degree of seperation of space. Plant material bloking the vision provide enclosure whereas non-blocking ones only imply. Plants at eye level enclose space. Solid plant masses provide strong enclosure. Porous masses produce only partial enclosure. Overall spatial definition and enclosure are the net visual effect of various strata working together.

Spatial definition

Density of edge and degree of enclosure

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design: Spatial issues: Enclosure, type, depth, enfamement, plant material and landform


Spatial type:In scale spaces range from intimate to public, in direction from horizontal to vertical and in closure from fully enclosed to open and unarticulated.


Spatial depth:Spatial composition is more effective if it incorporates foreground, middle ground and an background. Foreground places the viewer into the space, while the middle ground usually serves as subject matter and is displayed in the context of background. A foreground of plants can be used to frame or enclose subject matter and can provide a high degree of contrast (in color, texture etc) between the subject and its background. The relationship between foreground and background can be designed to accentuate or mitigate depth. Coarse grained plant material in the foreground and the fine grained ones in the back ground extends the visual depth. The opposite foreshoten space.


Depth and composition


Enfamement:Plant material can enframe a view and can, by their shape, enhance the form of subject matter or focal point of the composition.

Plant material to enframe view


Plant material and landform:Plant material ca strenghten or obfuscate landform. Dense plantings along ridgelines add visual height to the form and can increase enclosure. Conversely, planting the hollows makes landforms less apparent. Swales that are necessary for drainage (around a structure) can be consealed and the horizontal line of the building extended into the site by selecting ground covers and shrubs that establish a horizontal plane. On large sites with significant landforms plant material can be selected to express the slope aspect.


Planting to intensify landform

Planting to imply flat form

Slope aspect and plant material

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design: Other sensual issues

In addition to visual effect the designer can use smells, sounds and tactile characteristics of plants. For example the beauty of spring colors can be reinforced by flower aroma.In most cases nonvisual stimuli are secondary in impact to visual ones.Physiological comfort is a major sensory issue in planting design. Tree canopies can protect from the overhead summer sun and can divert the wind. Low branching trees and shrubs screen low-angle (early morning and late afternoon) sun and deflect air. Pavings absorb sunshine and reflect energy, but plants convert energy to chemical bonds and don’t re-reflact. And, due to evopotranspiration vegetated sites are cooler in summer than the non-vegetated sites.


Evergreen vegetation and winter airflow: Evergreen plant material can be planted to divert winter winds from the north-west and to block west and nort-west late afternoon summer sun.


Vegetation and relative summer temperature

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design: Temporal aspects

Plants are living organisms; they grow, change in size, change their character over time, and chang e in leaf condition, texture, color etc.Seasonal character:Based on form and seasonal foliage plants are grouped into three types: Deciduous, coniferous evergreen, broadleaf evergreen. Each type has its own behavior and design potential.Deciduous plants; are primary plant materials in temperate climates and exhibit 4 different characters; in spring their foliage is yellow-green and they can display flower color. Summer foliage is darker. Fall colors can be very beautiful. In winter the effect of their bare branches and trunk texture can last a long time.

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design:Temporal aspects

Evergreen conifers; have neddle–like leaves that remain in winter. They don’t have flowers, the foliage is dark and their growth is heavy. Their massive and solemn appearance convey a feeling of solidity into a site. Conifers block views permanently providing high degree of privacy. When branching near the ground they block the wind. To exclude cold winter winds they are planted on the north or northwest sides where they can also block low angle summer afternoon sun.

Conifers and privacy


Broad leaf evergreens look like deciduous plants but they keeptheir foliage in winter. Their foliage is dark, opaque and glassy looking. They have vivid spring color. Most of them require acid soils. They don’t tolerate wide ranges of temperature and generally need protection from cold winter winds and may require partial shade in summer.Mixed plantings; deciduous plants seem dead in winter; evergreens seem somber and lack sesonal variety. These disadvantages can be overcome by mixed plantations.

Mixed planting

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design:Temporal aspects

Growth and successionBecause large plants are costly, they are planted small. Early successional material mature quickly but are short-lived. Late successional ones are slower growing but longer-lived. Therefore planting a mixture of them is desirable. Early ones provide a mature look quickly and dominate the composition for the first year. Late succession becomes dominant later.

Available resources and technologyPlants: Plant material as design: Plant materials and design process

Environmentally responsible designers understand and respond to site conditions. Accordingly the designer must:1.Determine on site plant materials and their characteristics.2.Based on these materials make reasonable estimations about site conditions. Identify and resolve areas of concern.3.Analyze existing plant material in terms of health, ability to tolerate abuse, aility to satisfy program requirements.4.Determine the plants to be saved.5.Design for program, human and plant needs. When making decisions consider construction-induced microclimatic changes and resultant effects on the existing and proposed plant material.

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