architecture and interior design_19th century_ch02

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1751 Denis Diderot begins publishing the first encyclopedia

1778 La Scala opens in Milan with Salieris LEuropa riconosciuta

1789 George Washington becomes president

French Revolution begins

1791 U.S. Bill of Rights ratified

1792 France declared a republic and heads roll

United States Capitol begun

1793 First powered textile mill in Pawtucket, RI

1796 Asher Benjamin writes first U.S. pattern book,The Country Builders Assistant

1797 Hannah Foster writes first American best-seller, The Coquette.

1800 Thomas Jefferson elected president of United States

1803 Louisiana Purchase dramatically increases

size of United States

1804 Napoleon becomes emperor in France

1807 Industrial employment overtakes agriculture in England

1808 Beethoven composes the Fifth Symphony

1812 Greece loses the Elgin Marbles to England

War of 1812 begins between United States and Britain

First gas company starts in London

1813 The waltz is performed in ballrooms

around the world

1815 Napoleon defeated at Waterloo

East Indies Mount Tambora casts a pall everywhere

Congress accepts Thomas Jefferson library to begin the Library of Congress

1817 Baltimore adopts gas street lighting

1819 L cole des Beaux-Arts opens in France

1822 First steam railways serve Britain

1824 British stone mason Joseph Aspdin

patents Portland cement

1830 First U.S. locomotive goes into service in South Carolina

1832 Mrs. Trollope notes the Domestic Manners of Americans

Luman Reed builds the first gallery for art

in the United States

1837 The Commission for Historic Monuments begins in France

Victoria becomes queen of the United Kingdom

1840 Thomas Cole, The Architects Dream

1842 First Christmas cards are printed in England

1845 Robert Besley designs Caslon typeface

Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass

1846 U.S. Congress declares war on MexicoRichard Morris Hunt, first American to enroll in L cole des Beaux-Arts

A. Gesner distills kerosene for lamps

1848 Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto

First major operation under anesthesia

1850 Issac Singer patents his sewing machine

1853 S. Nicholas, first million-dollar hotel, opens in NYC

1854 Duncan Phyfe dies at 86

Henry David Thoreau, Walden

1856 State of Tennessee purchases President Jacksons Hermitage

1857 First mass-produced portable sewing machine made in United States

Architecture and Interior Design from the 19th Century: An Integrated History, Volume 2, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, Ph.D., and Curt ShermaPublished by Prentice Hall. Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, In


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Neoclassicism is an international movement, begin-ning in Rome and France in the 1740s, that strives to

imitate or evoke images of classical antiquity in art, archi-tecture, interiors, furniture, decorative arts, landscapes, lit-erature, dress, and behavior. Although continuing theclassical traditions of the Renaissance (15th and 16th cen-turies) and Baroque (17th century), Neoclassicism drawsfrom a wider range of prototypes and cultures, includingEgypt, Greece, Rome, and the Etruscans. Archaeology andstudies and publications of ancient structures by scholars,architects, designers, and artists provide images and infor-mation about these ancient cultures. Early Neoclassical

manifestations can be plain and monumental or expresslightness, grace, and refinement. Classical forms andmotifs are always evident.

Late Neoclassical begins about 1790 when the stylesheds its Roman complexity and ornament for an imagethat is simpler, often more political, and more inspired byancient Greece than ancient Rome. By this time, scholar-ship indicates that Greece influenced Roman art to a fargreater extent than was previously thought. Increased ad-miration and appreciation for ancient Greece leads to apreference for the simplicity of its art and architecture.Drawing from scholarship and archaeology, architects anddesigners emphasize archaeological correctness and often

copy or adapt antique examples for architecture, interiors,furniture, and decorative arts. Following the French andAmerican Revolutions, Neoclassicism aligns with the new,more democratic forms of government and becomes a fa-vored style for government buildings and artistic propa-ganda. By the 1820s (earlier in England), designers beginto tire of the limitations of classicism and seek inspirationin other periods, such as the Middle Ages, and differentcultures, such as that of China.

Late Neoclassical France, under Napoleon I, resumesher leadership in art and design. Like previous monarchs,Napoleon recognizes the importance of art to the state.

His principal architects, Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine, create the Empire style to glo-rify the emperor and help legitimize his reign. The Empirestyle in France largely manifests in interiors and furniturebecause little noteworthy building takes place. In imita-tion of Napoleon I, other European sovereigns and noblesadopt Empire for their surroundings. The middle classes inGermany and Austria follow a simplified Empire styleknown as Biedermeier. Lacking an emperor to glorify,neither England nor America develops a strong Empire

interior style, but French Empire furniture is fashionablein both countries.

Greek Revival originates in England as the first ofthe great architectural revival styles of the 19th century.It is more popular and lasts longer in Scotland, Germany,and America. The style in all countries is associated withnew building types, such as museums that are regardedas temples of art. In Germany and America, Greek Revivalacquires political overtones. In the United States, itbecomes a visual metaphor for the democratic government(temples of democracy), whereas Greek Revival representsthe German spirit in Germany. In contrast, the Picturesque

or Romantic Movement in England promotes a greatertaste for other cultures and modes. Empire or classical isbut one aspect of Englands Regency period, which shows,as well, influences from Greece, Rome, Egypt, China,India, and Gothic.

During the early 19th century, the changes brought onby the Industrial Revolution increase, making its influencefelt more than ever before. New technology and inven-tions facilitate mass production, which makes an increas-ing array of goods available to more people. Periodicalsjoin books as the means of spreading the newest styles andfashions. Revivalism begins to take hold in all countries.

B. LATENEOCLASSICAL

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Architecture and Interior Design from the 19th Century: An Integrated History, Volume 2, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, Ph.D., and Curt Sherman.Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.


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34

Neoclassicism dominates the period, although it changesin response to political and social developments. Littleimportant building takes place, so interiors and furniture

manifest stylistic developments. In interiors and furniture,the simple, plainer Directoire defines the beginning of thepost-Revolutionary period and evolves into the heavier,more majestic Empire. Architectdesigners CharlesPercier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine create thestyle, as dictated by Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor ofFrance. The image glorifies the Emperor and creates aheroic vision through grandeur, military images, and RomanImperial motifs, which reinforces the historic references ofNapoleons Empire.

HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL

The French Revolution, which begins with great hopes of

changing injustices in the political and social systems,deteriorates into terror, violence, and random destruction.Ultimately, for real and trumped-up crimes against thepeople, members of all classes are executed, including KingLouis XVI and his queen. Between 1789 and 1795,new regimes rise and fall quickly, leaving the country inshamblesits political, economic, and social systems allbut destroyed.

A five-person Directory, as stipulated by the new consti-tution, governs France during the period of 1795 to 1799.

C H A P T E R 2

Directoire,FrenchEmpire17891815

I sealed the yawning abyss of anarchy, and thwartedchaos. I cleansed the Revolution, raised up peoples

and strengthened monarchy. I inspired all forms ofambition, rewarded merit on every occasion, andstretched the bounds of fame. All that surely amountsto something! On what grounds could I be accusedthat would make it impossible for any historian todefend me?

Napoleon Bonaparte, Mmorial de Sainte-Hlne, 1823.Conversation with General Las Cases, Saint Helena, May 1, 1816

Persuaded as we are that this sickness, which is thatof modern taste . . . , must find its treatment andcure in the examples and models of antiquity

followed not blindly but with the discernment suitableto modern manners, customs, and materialswehave striven to imitate the antique in its spirit,

principles, and maxims, which are timeless.Percier and Fontaine,

Discours prliminaire, Recueil de dcorations intrieures, 1801



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D I R E C T O I R E , F R E N C H E M P I R E 35

Although it makes some progress in restoring the countryeconomically and socially, its incompetence and dishon-esty limit its effectiveness. Additionally, conflicts betweenthe Royalists, determined to restore the monarchy, andthe Jacobins, who want a democratic republic, threaten thefragile peace. Hoping to increase financial stability, theDirectory authorizes military aggression abroad and appointsNapoleon Bonaparte as commander-in-chief. Military vic-tories reap some success while earning Napoleon recogni-tion and helping to restore French confidence.

During the years of the Directory, a different social lifeand structure evolve in France. A nouveau riche class ofbusinessmen, financiers, and speculators begins to displayits wealth in newly purchased and refurbished townhousesthat once belonged to the aristocracy. Times that are moresettled foster tastes for luxury and pleasure, and fashionablesociety once again attends concerts, plays, games, and fire-works. Dress becomes more colorful and increasingly emu-lates the Classic Greek and Rome of antiquity (Fig. 2-1).

The middle class assumes a new and greater importance.By 1799, the power and influence of the Directory are sodeteriorated that Napoleon, along with others, easily seizespower in a coup detat. Napoleon sets up the Consulate, withhimself as Premier Consul, and strives to unify France, healthe wounds of the Revolution, and create a stable govern-ment. Gradually, he increases the powers of the Consulate,while decreasing those of the various legislative bodies. In1802, he revises the constitution to declare himself Consulfor life. In 1804, Napoleon declares himself Emperor, andthereby dissolves the Consulate and establishes a hereditarymonarchical regime in France (Fig. 2-2).

Although he presents himself as a man of peace anddefender of the Republic, Napoleon believes that the wayto peace is through military might. In 1805, he renewsaggression against the nations of Europe. To ensure hiscontinued influence in the lands that he conquers, heinstalls members of his family as rulers. However, his effortsto enforce a blockade against Britain and to invade Spainand Russia lead to the Empires downfall. Napoleon abdicatesin 1814, and Louis XVIII, younger brother of Louis XVI,becomes king.

Despite his tyranny and dictatorship, Napoleons enlight-ened policies are good for France. He sets up the CodeNapoleon to preserve political and social advances made dur-

ing the Revolution and reestablishes the Catholic Church asstate church. He promotes the arts and industries of France,strives for greater opportunities in education, and supportsuniversal suffrage for men.

French society during the time of the Empire is as glit-tering and magnificent as when the Bourbons reigned.Realizing the advantages to the Empire and society as awhole, Napoleon requires brilliant entertainments,although he rarely participates himself. Court etiquetteand dress again become as rigid and codified as inthe days of the French monarchy. Following the lead

of Empress Josephine, Empress Marie Louis, MadameRcamier, and other noble women who are aware of thelatest innovations in design commission the finest of fur-nishings for their homes. They host salons, which areonce again fashionable. As the period progresses, womensfreedoms, acquired during the Directoire period, dimin-ish. Napoleon opens more schools for women, but theirlearning is restricted to such things as painting, dance,and sewing. The Code Napoleon reestablishes the husbandas head of the house, so women again take a secondaryrole and are expected to remain at home.

CONCEPTS

Neoclassicism characterizes French architecture through-out the period. In contrast three stylesDirectoire, Con-sulate, and Empiredefine interiors and furniture. Likearchitecture, they stem from Neoclassicism, but each has adifferent focus and appearance that reflects the politicaland social climate of its day. Nevertheless, architecture,interiors, and furniture reveal symmetry, horizontality, pro-portions evolving from slender to heavier, classical details,and an emphasis upon archaeological correctness or accu-racy in design.

2-1. Womens costumes, Directoire and French Empire,

c. early 19th century.

2-2. The Coronation of Napoleon at Milan on May 23, 1805.

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36 L AT E N E O C L A S S I C A L

Directoire, or Le Style Rpublicain, is named for theDirectory that rules France from 1789 to 1799. A transi-tion style, it links Louis XVI and Empire and reflects amore spare and Grecian classicism. Directoire heightensthe simpler forms, smaller scale, greater severity, andreduced ornament evident in the last years of Louis XVIsreign. These changes result from the Revolutions destruc-tive and disruptive effects on French society and economyand a reaction to aristocratic rule and taste.

Duringthetime of theConsulate(17991804), theearlyyears of Napoleons rule, designers interpret classicism byemphasizing Imperial Roman and Egyptian influences overGrecian ones. During this period, increased formality, mon-umentality, and ornamentation reflect Frances increasingstability, wealth, and confidence. Roman, Egyptian, andmilitary forms and motifs appear in response to the militaryvictories and exploits of Napoleon and his armies.

The fully developed Empire style, coinciding with thereign of Napoleon Bonaparte as Napoleon I (18041815),glorifies him and his empire. Recognizing the value of artto educate people of his greatness and legitimize his rule,very early in his reign Napoleon calls for writers and artiststo create an image of him as a man of destiny, a modernCaesar, a hero who has earned the right to rule France.Paintings and images of the Emperor present a heroiccharacter to reinforce the military origins of the empire.He demands an appropriate style to promote this imageand establish a suitable setting for his empire. His

architectdesigners Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine turn to the grandeur of Imperial Rome,surrounding him with forms and motifs from the ancientworld power and those reminiscent of his military victo-ries. Their design ideas are documented in their bookRecueil de dcorations intrieures, published in 1801, 1812,and 1827.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

Classical forms and motifs dominate architecture, interiors,furniture, and decorative arts during the early 19th centuryin France. Common to the entire period is a desire toemulate ancient forms. Scale evolves from small and lightto larger, bolder, and more monumental.

Directoire. Design characteristics generally reflect thecharm and grace of Louis XVI. Forms and motifs are simpleand originate in symbols of the Revolution and ancient

Greece andRome. Designers eliminateall references to theformer Bourbon kings and strive to emulate more closelyantique (primarily ancient Greek) concepts and designs.During the time of the Consulate, designs become moreformal, scale becomes heavier, and Egyptian and Romanmotifs appear. Empire. Characteristics and prototypes derive from thegrandeur of Egypt and Rome. Interiors and furniture becomepompous, formal, and more masculine, and these formsreveal this change more than architecture does. Publicationsof interiors and furnishings spread the Empire style andassert Frances continued dominance in design. Motifs. Classical motifs (Fig. 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7,

2-16, 2-17) appear extensively throughout the period asembellishment and include the classical figure, acanthusleaf, swag, rinceau, rosette, anthemion, scroll, arabesque,cartouche, vase, and lyre. Common during Directoire arelozenges, rosettes, spirals, and symbols of the Revolution,

2-3. Dtails et adjustements tirs de lAtlier de Peinture du

C. I., c. 1827; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard

Fontaine.

IMPORTANT TREATISES

Choix de plus clbres Maisons de plaisance de

Rome et des environs, 1804; Charles Percier andPierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

L'Architecture Considre sous le rapport de

l'art, des murs et de la lgislation, 1804;Claude-Nicolas Ledoux.

Meubles et Objets de Got, 18021835; Pierrede la Msangre. (Periodical)

Palais, maisons, et autres difices modernes

dessins Rome, 1798; Charles Percier andPierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

Prcis des leons d'architecture donnes

l'Ecole royale polytechnique, 18021805;Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand.

Recueil de dcorations intrieures, 1801, 1812,

1827; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-LonardFontaine.

Trait thortique et pratique de l'art de btir,

18021803; Jean-Baptiste Rondelet.



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2-7. Octagon,

lozenge, fruit, and foliage

motif in fabric;

Directoire.

2-6. Pot--Oille, xcut Paris, pour S. M. lImperatrice,

c. 1827; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine;

and vase in Grand Trianon; Svres.

2-4. Development de la Voule du Cabinet du Roi d Espangne,

c. 1827; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

2-5. Panel details, c. early 1800s; Charles Normand.

such as the oak leaf and clasped hands. During the Con-sulate years, Roman motifs emerge (Fig. 2-3, 2-4, 2-7,2-18, 2-31, 2-37), such as animal legs, swans, caryatids,

chimeras, and monopodia. They are joined by militarysymbols, such as stars, swords, spears, helmets, and Xshapes. In 1798, after Napoleons Egyptian campaign,Egyptian motifs, sphinxes, obelisks, pyramids, and head-dresses of pharaohs, come into vogue. Additional Empiremotifs (Fig. 2-4, 2-15, 2-19, 2-20, 2-28, 2-33, 2-40) are mili-tary icons, swords, and symbols associated with Napoleonand Josephine, such as the honeybee, laurel wreath, letterN, eagle, rose, and swan.

ARCHITECTURE

Most building activity occurs after the 1790s becauseearlier times are too uncertain and prominently displayingones wealth is unwise. As the period becomes more stable,the new rich begin to purchase and renovate the htelsthat once belonged to the aristocracy. Newly formedgovernments remodel older structures to accommodatetheir changed use. Designers and architects study, measure,draw, and publish information on ancient structures, whichsubsequently become the models for new buildings. Theassembling of forms is more deliberate than it was before.

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Architectural theory emphasizes form and structure overornament, and education continues to center on ancientmodels. TheAcadmieRoyaledArchitecture closes in 1793,but its successor, L cole des Beaux-Arts, opens in 1819.

2-9. Arc de Triomphe de lEtoile, c. 18081836; Paris, France;

J.-F.-T. Chalgrin.

2-8. Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, 18061808; Paris,

France; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

Unique to France, the school strives to prepare architectsto design monumental public buildings. This educationsystem makes France a center for theory developmentand architectural debate in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Developed during Louis XIV reign

Seine River

Court of the Louvre or Cour Carree

Sully Pavilion

Rue de Rivoli

Rohan Pavilion

Place du Carrousel

Seine River

Facade faces Seine River

Entrance gatewayDeveloped primarily during Napoleon I reign

Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel

Palais des Tuileries

Tuileries Gardens

Flore Pavilion

Marsan Pavilion developed during Louis XIV reign

2-10. Site plan, Louvre and

the Palais des Tuileries, begun c.

1200 with many later additions;

c.1790s1820s additions include

the Cour Carre, wing linking

Rohan and Marsan Pavilions, and

enlargement of Place du

Carrousel; Paris, France; c. 1800

additions Charles Percier and

Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.



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To create jobs, counter social unrest, and alleviate thecosts of wars, Napoleon calls for an impressive buildingcampaign and extensive urban renewal program for Paris.However, monetary difficulties and an abbreviated reignprevent him from accomplishing much of it. Some of hisplans continue after he abdicates the throne. Most of hispersonal commissions are for the restoration and enlarging

Architecture, bold but stylistically unadventurous, con-tinues the plain, geometric, and classical trends of the late18th century. Greek influenceis particularlyevident in sever-ity or plainness, but exteriors also may exhibit Roman orEgyptian attributes and motifs. New state architecture underNapoleon is monumental in scale and sited in open space orin prominent vistas to emphasize its monumentality.

DESIGN SPOTLIGHT

Pediment

Corinthian column

Entablature

Main entry door oncenter axis

Steps in front createprocession

Prominent site to createmonumental effect

Podium

2-11. La Madeleine, Paris.

Architecture: La Madeleine, 18041849; Paris, France;Pierre Vignon and interiors by J.-J.-M. Huv in 18251845.Imitating a Roman temple and originally intended as achurch, this structure had a short life as a Temple of Glory

before returning to use as a place of worship. The opensite and podium convey monumentality and significance.Corinthian columns surround the exterior and form theportico. A sculptured pediment announces the entry,

which is approached from the front in the Roman manner.Contrasting with the relatively plain exterior, the opulentinterior derives its character from Roman baths. TheCorinthian columns carrying round arches and a sequence

of three coffered domes are reminiscent of Byzantine andsome Romanesque structures. The design of the exteriorand interior serves as a visual link between the Napoleonicand Roman Empires.

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2-13. Rue de Rivoli, 18021855; Paris, France; CharlesPercier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

2-12. Floor plan, La Madeleine,

18041849; Paris, France; Pierre Vignon.

of palaces, chteaux, and htels for himself, his family, andgovernment dignitaries.

Public Buildings and Private Buildings Types. The most common building is some form of mon-ument to Napoleon that emulates ancient models, such asthe Arc de Triomphe de lEtoile (Fig. 2-9). New building

types are not introduced. Site Orientation. To create a more imperial Paris, Napoleoncommands that the areas around the Louvre and theTuileries palaces be cleared to open space. This effortextends the size of the Louvre (Fig. 2-10) and initiatesnew buildings along the Rue de Rivoli (Fig. 2-13). Toenhance the settings of public buildings and palaces,Napoleon also orders the restoration of public gardens.State buildings and monuments (Fig. 2-8, 2-9) to theEmpire are set in large open spaces or in prominent vis-tas to accentuate their significance. One innovation of

IMPORTANT BUILDINGS AND INTERIORS

Compigne, France:

Chateau de Compigne (Palais Royale duringreign of Napoleon I; interiors in French Empirestyle), 17381751, and later; Ange-Jacques

Gabriel, completed by le Dreux de la Chatre, withdcor by Dubois and Redout.

Paris and nearby area, France:

Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, 1806-1808;Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-LonardFontaine.

Arc de Triomphe de lEtoile, c. 18081836;J.-F.-T. Chalgrin.

Chapelle Expiatoire, 18161824; Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

Chteau de la Malmaison, c. 1625, redone in

c.1800; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

La Madeleine, 18041849; Pierre Vignon andinteriors by J.-J.-M. Huv.

Louvre, begun c. 1200 with many lateradditions; c.1790s1820s. Additions include theCour Carre, wing linking Rohan and MarsanPavilions, and enlargement of Place duCaroussel; c. 1800 additions CharlesPercier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

Rue de Rivoli, 18021855; Charles Percier andPierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

Rue des Pyramides, 18021855; Charles Percierand Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.



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DESIGN PRACTITIONERS

Georges Jacob (17391814), a former bnistetoMarie-Antoinette and the Royal family, continuesworking during Directoire. During the 1780s, heintroduces the saber leg and scrolled back and

also pioneers the use of mahogany, particularlyfor furniture in the Etruscan style. Jacob makesantique-style furniture for the prominentNeoclassical painter, Jacques-Louis David, andhelps promote the antique style.

Charles Percier (17641838) and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine (17621853) are architects andinterior and furniture designers who create theEmpire style for Napoleon. While studying in Rome,they examine ancient monuments and Renaissancestructures. Consequently, their designs emphasizearchaeological correctness over fantasy and charm.

Their book, Recueil de dcorations intrieures, setsforth their design philosophy. Its two main preceptsof designs are forms and decoration derived fromancient models adapted for contemporary use andunity, reason, and function over fashion. As ahandbook intended for the middle class, it spreadsthe Empire style all over Europe. They executenumerous commissions for Napoleon, especiallyremodeling and retrofitting palaces for him and hisrelatives.

Franois-Honor-Georges Jacob-Desmalter(17701841), son of Georges Jacob, is acabinetmaker in his own right. As the firm JacobFrres, he and his brother Georges becomeleading cabinetmakers during the Directoireperiod. Following the death of his brother, heforms a partnership with his father in 1802 underthe name Jacob-Desmalter et Cie. The firmprovides Empire-style furniture in designs byPercier and Fontaine for Napoleon and others.

Jean Zuber (17731835) andJoseph Dufour(17521827) produce well-designed and artisticwallpaper in lavish colors in the early 19thcentury. Both head wallpaper firms that areknown for their gorgeous papiers panoramiques

(scenic papers). Zuber develops the technique ofgraduated colors for skies. His firms hand-blocked scenic papers are still produced using theoriginal blocks.

pompousness. Common to the entire period are wall deco-rations based upon those uncovered in ancient Pompeii.

Directoire interiors continue the scale and treatmentsof the last years of Louis XVIs reign but with noticeablesimplicity, muted colors, more delicate decoration, and

the period is the roofed passages between blocks of lux-ury shops, such as on the Rue de Rivoli. Floor Plans. Most public and private building plans arerectangular in form with rooms symmetrically distrib-uted at least along one axis (Fig. 2-12). In residences, theorientation and layout of rooms follow earlier patterns,continuing the emphasis on formality, rank, and statusas was common during the Louis XIV period. Plansare organized around public and private appartements.Doorways to connecting rooms in state apartmentsare aligned on the same side of the wall to create anenfilade, with each space more ornately decorated thanthe last one. Materials. Most new buildings are of stone with iron bal-conies at windows. Napoleon promotes new materials inarchitecture such as cast iron, which is used for bridges,domes, and structural support. Facades. Grecian severity defines monumental build-ings (Fig. 2-9, 2-11), which means that these buildings

have little ornament and few details. Scale is monumen-tal. Most buildings are raised on podia to emphasize theirimportance. Arcades or columns may completelysurround the building or only articulate the facade.Columns, engaged columns, or pilasters combine withother details to form repeating units. Lesser buildingsoften have Palladian proportions. However, like build-ings of state, they feature columns and/or pilasters andminimal ornament. Facades of shops may be as elegant asother buildings or whimsical with creative use of colorand ornament. Windows. Rectangular windows, large and small, delin-eate facades of both state and lesser buildings (Fig. 2-13).

French windows allow access to porches or balconies. Asduring previous periods, their use on important floorsmarks that floor on the exterior, enhances inside illumi-nation, and adds to the magnificence of the interiorspaces. Palladian windows appear on less-importantbuildings. Doors. Doorways are imposing for all buildings withcolumns or pilasters and pediments identifying them.Some entrances have a monumental portico. Arcadedwalkways are common (Fig. 2-13). Roofs. Roofs are flat with balustrades, pyramidal, orgabled with a low pitch in the antique or Grecian manner.

Later Interpretations. There are few later interpretationsin architecture because there is no definitive Empirearchitectural style.

INTERIORS

Classical attributes and motifs drawn from Greek, Roman,and Egyptian sources characterize interiors from the Direc-toire years through those of the Empire. The imagechanges from one of lightness and delicacy to majesty and

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2-14. Nave, La

Madeleine, 18041849; Paris,

France; Pierre Vignon and

interiors by J.-J.-M. Huv in

18251845.

2-15. Le Salle du Trone a Napoleon (throne room of Napoleon),

Palais de Fontainebleau, c. 1800; Fontainebleau, France.

2-16. Cabinet pour le Roi d Espagne, Plac a Aranjuez,

c. 1800; Paris, France; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard

Fontaine; published in Recueil de dcorations intrieures, Paris,1812, 1827.

2-17. Chemine du Grand Cabinet de l Empereur

(chimneypiece in the emperors cabinet room), Palais des

Tuileries, c. early 1800s; Paris, France; Charles Percier and Pierre-

Franois-Lonard Fontaine; published in Recueil de dcorations

intrieures, 1812, 1827.



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2-19. Salle de Conseil (Council Chamber), Chteau de la

Malmaison, c.1800; near Paris, France; Charles Percier and Pierre-

Franois-Lonard Fontaine.

2-18. Caryatids.

additional antique details. In the 1790s under the Con-sulate, a new richness and formality begin to permeateinteriors as an outgrowth of increasing prosperity. Scaleand color grow bolder. Imperial Roman and Egyptianmotifs, reflecting Napoleons military victories in Italy andhis campaign in Egypt, appear as wall decorations and onchimneypieces, fabrics, furniture, and porcelains.

Empire interiors are masculine, formal, and richlydetailed. The charm and intimacy of earlier Neoclassical

rooms disappear. Classical decorations, rich colors, andlarge, formal furniture arranged stiffly around the wallscharacterize interiors. Court architects Charles Percierand Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine create the style forNapoleon using the forms and motifs from ancient Roman

models. They design all elements in the magnificent, mas-culine settings that glorify the Emperor and reinforce hisheroic image.

Public and Private Buildings Types. Floor plans and room types change little duringthe period because modes of living do not vary fromearlier times. Rooms of state and private appartementsdominate residences (Fig. 2-15, 2-20, 2-21, 2-22), and thetrend of the previous period toward smaller, less formalrooms continues. Dining rooms are slightly more com-mon than they were before. Fewer people receive guestsin their bedroom. Relationships. Rectilinear spaces arranged symmetricallyreflect the organization of facades and emphasize the inte-gration between the exterior and interior. Both exteriorsand interiors derive from classical modes and have similarattributes, but interiors are more colorful, lively, and richly

treated than exteriors are. Color. Directoire colors are softer with more mutedblues, grays, and greens than those of Louis XVI. Duringthe Consulate years, colors move toward richer reds,blues, and greens. Empire colors are highly saturated andinclude deep red, magenta, blue, green, yellow, and pur-ple. Some have poetic names such as fawn or lemon wood(Fig. 2-19, 2-20). Lighting. Lighting fixtures of the period (Fig. 2-19,2-20, 2-22, 2-27) include candlesticks, candelabra, appliqu,lustre, lanterns,guridon, and oil lamps. Classical motifsembellish the surfaces repeating interior ornamentation.Chandeliers are luxury items for formal spaces and roomsof state. After 1810, they are pear shaped with longchains of glittering crystals hanging from a smaller upperbronze ring to another lower and larger bronze ring thatholds the candles. Hanging fixtures may imitate ancientoil lamps. Cylindrical lanterns illuminate entries anddining rooms. In progressive, wealthy homes, oil lampsbegin to replace candles. Argand and astral lamps aremade of painted sheet metal or have Japanned designsthat imitate marble or porcelain. Like other fixtures, can-delabra imitate antique prototypes. Most are of gildedbronze with darker bronze figures. Guridons with cande-labra enhance illumination and create decorative visual

elements against walls. Floors. Floors are wooden boards or parquet (Fig. 2-20,2-22). Entrances, bathrooms, and dining rooms are sometimesblack and white marble. Middle-class homes commonly usesmall, usually red, tiles. In most rooms, Savonnerie andAubusson carpets and rugs in bold, bright colors with classicaland Empire motifs lie on wood and masonry floors (Fig. 2-15,2-28). Borders are added or removed to adjust width.Moquette, a less expensive narrow-width carpet in repeatingpatterns, often is used in less-important rooms in wealthyhomes and most rooms in middle-class homes.

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DESIGN SPOTLIGHT

2-20. Library, Chteau de la Malmaison, near Paris.

Interiors: Cabinet de travail-bibliothque (Library),Chteau de la Malmaison, c.1800; near Paris, France;Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine;published in Recueil de dcorations intrieures, 1812,

1827. While Napoleon is fighting in Egypt, Josephine pur-chases Malmaison, a rundown early-18th-centurychateau, and directs Percier and Fontaine to refurbish itin the opulent Empire style, which contrasts with the

Classic motifs

Arch

Painted decorations

Saucer dome

Tuscan column

Bookcases

Geometric floor patterns

Medallion

Pedestal

Roman figures

plain, simple three-story exterior with a slate roof.Revealing a strong masculine image, the librarys designemphasizes the large scale, symmetry, geometric forms,crisp lines, and classical details that define Empire. Theroom features mahogany Tuscan columns on pedestals,saucer (shallow) domes, round arches, and painted ceilingdecorations composed of portraits of the Romanemperors, a reminder of the link between the RomanEmpire and Napoleon. Mahogany bookcases by the firmJacob Frres line the walls. Rich colors of red, blue, andgold enrich the interiors and complement the furnish-ings. As a reflection of his tastes and demand for a heroicimage, this room is typical of the interiors with which

Napoleon surrounds himselfmasculine, sober, and re-plete with classical details and reminders of the historicnature of the empire.



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2-21. Appartement de lEmpereur,

Chteau de la Malmaison, c.1800; near Paris,

France; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-

Lonard Fontaine.

2-22. Salon, Grand Trianon, c. early 1800s; France.

2-23. Lit xcut Paris, c. 1827; Paris, France; Charles

Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine; published in

Recueil de dcorations intrieures, 1812, 1827.

2-24. Chambre de Napoleon (bedchamber of Napoleon),

Palais de Fontainebleau, c.1800s; Fontainebleau, France.

Walls. Walls retain classical proportions and details

with an emphasis on the chimneypiece (Fig. 2-15, 2-16,2-17, 2-23). Symmetrical compositions of paneling inclassical proportions with plain or decorated centers aretypical. A dado forms the base, and the wall is capped bya frieze and cornice. During the Directoire, walls displaypainted Pompeian decorations arranged in panels orfriezes that are composed of light-scale grotesques,arabesques, foliage, flowers, or figures in brighter colorsagainst softly colored backgrounds. Rooms of this timeusually display a simple geometric rhythm, whereasricher decoration and materials characterize later Empire-style rooms. Characteristics, such as Egyptian motifs,

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2-26. Window Treatments: Wallpaper showing drapery treatment and actual drapery examples, c. 18151820s.

2-25. Wallpapers: Panels from Psyche and Cupid, 1814, by Dufour; Vues DIndostan, c. 1820s by Zuber; and detail from Meubles

et Objets de Got, 18021835.

common in Empire, make their appearance during theConsulate years.

Official or important Empire rooms display greater for-mality and majesty through architectural details, such aspilasters, columns, and pediments in marble or stone (Fig.2-14). These details in lesser rooms may be of stucco orwood or trompe loeil. Graining and marbling are also com-mon treatments for walls, dados, moldings, or baseboards.Wall paneling may have large mirrors, painted or gildedstucco ornament depicting classical motifs, or painteddecorations in the centers. Heavy moldings or pilastersoutline the panels. Painted classical compositions resemblethose of earlier times but are even bolder and more colorful.In middle-class houses, decoration often resists symmetryand careful organization to accommodate personal tastes.

Textile wall treatments (Fig. 2-22) become opulentduring Empire, helping to soften stiffness andincrease rich-ness and majesty. Walls loosely draped with fabrics and/orvalances are thought to look antique (Fig. 2-21, 2-23).Tent

rooms, reminiscent of the military origins of the Empire,

are fashionable during the period (Fig. 2-19). Percier andFontaine are among the first to use them at Malmaison. Wallpaper. During the period, the use of wallpaperincreases, particularly in public buildings and in thehomes of those who cannot afford more expensive treat-ments. Nevertheless, wallpaper is not considered appro-priate for the most formal rooms. Patterns include smallrepeating designs, stripes, borders, architectural details,imitations of textiles and drapery, flocked papers, andiris or shaded papers. Introduced in the first decade ofthe 19th century,papiers panoramiques (Fig. 2-25) featureexotic themes or idealized worlds block printed in lavishdetail and numerous, rich colors. Those produced byDufour and Zuber are especially favored for their qualityand beauty. Scenic papers soon become fashionable forsitting and dining rooms. French wallpapers dominateEuropean markets despite the Napoleonic Wars. Chimneypieces. Mantels (Fig. 2-24) usually are of white,black, red, or brown marble with a shelf supported by

columns, pilasters, consoles, caryatids, or winged lions.



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2-27. Lighting: Candelabra, appliqu, cristeaux, and guridon, c. early 1800s.

2-28. Rugs: Savonnerie rugs at Malmaison, c. early 1800s.

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2-29 Later Interpretation: Bedroom; published in The Room

Beautiful, 1916.

Simpler mantels are rectangular forms with applied gildedbronze or stucco classical motifs such as swags, draped fig-ures, or sphinxes adorning them in the manner of Empirefurniture. Above the mantel, there is a large painting, mir-ror, or window. Objects on themantelshelf, such as clocks orcandelabra, are large and showy. Window Treatments. Like other decorative details, windowtreatments become more opulent during the period, featuringelaborate fringed and tasseled swags and festoons drapedover rods or attached to decorative cornices (Fig. 2-26).Rods shaped like spears, lances, or other similar formsterminate in large finials. Pairs of windows may be treated asone with continuous drapery composed of multiple swags andfestoons. Beneath drapery are curtain panels that may puddleon the floor. Muslin or other thin fabrics hang next to theglass. Some treatments consist of two contrasting colors offabric, one for the face and another for the lining. Curtainsmay open and close using the new French draw rod intro-duced in 1790, or they can be tied back with ropes and tas-

sels or looped over holdbacks during the day. Doors. Doors are paneled in mahogany often with gildedmoldings. Those leading to important rooms may bepainted or inlaid with classical details to match the interiors(Fig. 2-16). A complete entablature typically surmountsdoorways. Ceilings. Ceilings in rooms of state and important resi-dential areas are the most heavily decorated with carvedwood or stuccowork enhanced with paintings or gilding(Fig. 2-16, 2-20, 2-23). Sometimes, the carpet repeats theceiling decorations. Lesser rooms have plain ceilings witha central rosette. Some may be painted to look like the sky. Later Interpretations. Empire interiors are revived briefly

in the late 19th century (Fig. 2-29). Designers closely copythe original interiors with paneled or painted walls. Scenicwallpapers are also common. Tent rooms reappear at vari-ous times in the 20th century.

FURNISHINGS AND DECORATIVE ARTS

Classical attributes, forms, and motifs define furniture fromDirectoire to Empire. For inspiration, designers rely on sur-viving examples from Pompeii, ancient vase paintings, andstucco reliefs. Copying and adapting ancient Greek andRoman furniture continue during all periods. Directoireadvances trends evident in the last years of Louis XVIsreign, such as slender proportions, greater severity, andangularity. During the Consulate period, furniture becomesheavier in scale, gilding and ornament increase, and Egypt-ian motifs are more evident. Empire furniture continuesclassical emphasis, but becomes masculine, stiff, and majes-tic as design supercedes comfort. Pieces are intended to beseen primarily from the front and to support formal living.Symmetry is an important design principle in all periods.

The break up of guilds following the Revolution allowsgreater freedom and opportunities for individual bnistes.Many who had worked for the Crown continue working for

the remaining aristocracy and the wealthy throughoutDirectoire and into the Empire period, and design andquality remain as excellent as before. However, by the endof Napoleons reign, industrialization is affecting furnituremaking. Individual cabinetmakers begin to disappear,replaced by large firms. Overall design quality begins todeteriorate as furniture becomes larger, bulkier, and morecurvilinear. Newly invented saws can make larger andthinner veneers, so nearly all pieces are veneered.

Public and Private Buildings Types.New to the period are sofa or center tables, round

tables with basins and pitchers derived from antiquetripods, and toilette tables with attached mirrors andmatchingpsychs. Distinctive Features. Although much of Directoireclosely resembles Louis XVI, distinguishing characteristicsin seating include the rolled-over back, saber leg (Fig. 2-30),greater emphasis on Grecian prototypes, and motifs associ-ated with the Revolution. During the Consulate years,furniture begins to assume characteristic Empire features

2-30 Fauteuiland Bergre, c. 1790s; France. Directoire.



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such as heavier scale, frontality, and Roman and Egyptianmotifs (Fig. 2-34). A clean, simple silhouette with sharpcorners and no attempts to soften them distinguishesEmpire furniture. Large areas of flat mahogany veneerwith little carving, few moldings, and heavy bases enhancethe blocky appearance. Makers leave off door handles andkeyholes to achieve an unbroken surface. Applied orna-mentation featuring motifs of the period may appear onlarge flat surfaces, such as those of commodes and beds(Fig. 2-40, 2-42).

Relationships. Although furniture still lines the wallswhen not in use, toward the end of the period it begins tomigrate from the perimeter, centering on the fireplace inless-formal rooms. The introduction of chaises volantes,seating with casters and decorated backs, coincides withthis development. Most Empire furniture has an architec-tonic feeling because it is regarded as part of the interiorarchitecture. Materials. Directoire furniture is of wood native toFrancebecause imported materialsare impossible to obtain.Often a painted finish disguises common woods and coor-dinates with interior colors and decoration; there is little

DESIGN SPOTLIGHT

Furniture: Fauteuil et Siege deux placesc. 1800; Parisarea, France; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-LonardFontaine; published in Recueil de dcorations intrieures,1812, 1827. This armchair repeats the large scale of

Empire interiors. Its rolled-over back and continuous lineof back and legs are reminiscent of the Greek klismos,

while the turned front legs resemble those of Romanthrones. Sphinxes, common after Napoleons Egyptiancampaign in 1799, form the arm supports. The upholsteryand carvings highlight classical motifs and geometric

shapes common to the period. The trim and tassels underthe seat add further opulence.

Rolled back

Upholstery with classical motif

Winged sphinx

Tassels

Legs resemble those on Roman thrones

Legs relate to Greek klismos

2-31. Fauteuil et

Siege duex places

c. 1800, Paris.

marquetry, inlay, or applied embellishment. During theConsulate and Empire, both solid and veneer mahoganydominate furniture until 1806, when a naval blockade im-posed by Frances enemies prevents its importation. Afterthat, most furniture is made of native woods, such as wal-nut, beech, pear, ash, and elm. Darker woods rule before1806; after that lighter-colored woods replace them. After1810, white paint with gilding or gray paint with white de-tails is typical for furniture. Importantor official rooms havegilded furnishings, while plain or painted pieces fill lesser

rooms. Tables and case pieces throughout the period havemarble tops in black, gray, blue, dark green, purple, brown,or white. Pewter, ebony, or ivory inlay in bands and/orgilded bronze or brass mounts in classical motifs character-ize Consulate or Empire casepieces. Seating. Sets of upholstered chairs and sofas are veryfashionable. Directoire seating closely resembles LouisXVI. Chairs are light in scale, often painted, and revealdelicate classical decoration (Fig. 2-30). Legs are taperedand quadrangular, turned, or baluster-shaped. Backs mayfeature trellises or lyre splats. A rosette in a square accen-tuates the junction of leg and seat rail.

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2-32. Fauteuils, c. 18001820; France.

2-34. Fauteuils, tabourets, candelabra, ct du tabouret,

petit pendule, and table, c. 1800; Paris area, France; by Charles

Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine; published in

Recueil de dcorations intrieures, 1812, 1827.

chairs with curving backs, saber legs, and animal- orsphinx-shaped arm stumps. Curule or X-shaped chairs andstools copy antique examples (Fig. 2-15, 2-34). Canaps(Fig. 2-22, 2-35), beginning in Consulate, closely followantique forms with outward scrolled arms equal or unequalin height and either turned or outwardly curved legs.A variation is the mridienne. Sofas or chairs often havematching footstools. Tables. Empire rooms boast a variety of tables, many ofwhich copy or emulate antique prototypes (Fig. 2-36, 2-37,

2-38). All of the table types and stands of the 18th centurycontinue in this period. Pier tables stand between windows(Fig. 2-39). Their front legs may be columns with gildedcapitals, caryatids, terms, or animal legs. Mirrored backsdouble the apparent size of the table and reflect light aswell as the Empire-style carpeting on the floor. Consoles,made in pairs to display vases, statuettes, or candleholders,may be semicircular or rectangular with columns, cary-atids, terms, or turned legs. Tops of pier tables and consolesare marble, and inlay and applied classical motifs embellishthe aprons. Large tables, even for dining, remain rare. Most

2-33. Bergrewith

swans, c. early 1800s;

France.

Designed to be sat in erectly and be seen primarily fromthe front, Empire chaises andfauteuils are stiffly rectilinearwith some curves in backs, legs, or seats (Fig. 2-30, 2-31,2-32, 2-34). Backs may be flat and rectangular or rolled-over.Front legs are straight and fluted, turned, sabers, or flat andreminiscent of Greek rectangular leg designs. Back legsmost often are sabers. Arm supports may be flat, turned, oranimal shaped (Fig. 2-33). The boxy upholstery has sharpcorners. Gondola chairs are the most graceful Empire



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depicting classical motifs and figures. Corners may havecolumns, caryatids, or terms. Commodes, used in nearly allrooms, have three drawers in the main body, a fourth in theapron, and a marble top (Fig. 2-40). An alternative form hasdrawers behind doors, which are covered with mythological


2-37. Round tables with pedestal base and quadruped legs,

c. early 1800s; France.

2-38. Trpied vases et

frise, excuts Paris(tripod

vase and frieze copied from

Roman forms), c. 1801;

France; Charles Percier and

Pierre-Franois-Lonard

Fontaine; published in Recueil

de dcorations intrieures,

1812, 1827.

2-39. Pier table, c. 1800s1820s; France.

2-36. Small tables, 1800s1820s; France.

dining tables are round with drop leaves in the Englishmanner. Particularly fashionable are small round or polyg-onal tables with single center supports or three or fourcolumns on a concave-sided base. Large bureau plats(Fig. 2-19) are more common than rolltop desks. Storage. Directoire commodes arerectangular andseverelyplain. Simple moldings define drawers, and the pulls areplain, metal rectangles. The short, tapered legs are fluted.Tops may have stringing or cross banding. Empire case andstorage pieces are massive and architectural in form withlarge expanses of mahogany veneer and bronze mounts

2-35. Canaps, c. 1790s1810s; France.

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2-43. Daybed, c. early

1800s; France.

scenes. The corners of either type may have columns,caryatids,or gyptiennes en gaine ingildedbronzeorwoodthatis painted green ( lantique) or gilded. Often a secrtaire abattant matches the commode. Tall and rectangular, thesecrtaire abattant has drawers beneath the large front panel.Drawers and doors inside are usually a lighter wood than thatof the exterior. A tall chest with seven drawers, one for eachday of the week, is called a semainier. Beds. Directoire beds, simple in form and design,feature low pediments carried by fluted columns andgeometric carving in low relief. In contrast, beds are themost creative designs of the Empire period (Fig. 2-41,2-42). The lit droit is usually mahogany with caryatidsupports or straight posts topped with carved heads paintedblack or green. Variations may be painted gray or whitewith minimal carved ornament. The lit en bateau (Fig. 2-23,2-41) commonly has scrolled or animal-shaped ends andrests on a solid dais with bronze mounts in classical or mil-

itary designs. Beds are placed in alcoves or lengthwise onthe wall with a canopy above and heavy silk and muslinhangings draping over the ends. Somnos resembling classi-cal pedestal tables flank either side of the bed. Upholstery.Napoleons large commissions revive Francessilk and cotton industries, which almost completely disap-pear during the Revolution. By the end of the period, in-dustrialization increases production and lowers prices.Typical furnishing fabrics are brocades, damasks, velvets,moirs, lampas, and printed cottons. Printing methods in-clude hand-blocks, copper plates, and cylinders. Patterns(Fig. 2-44) are numerous, but most come from classical

2-40. Commodewith ormoludecoration; France.

2-42. Lit en acajou garni de cuivres dors(bed in mahogany

with gilded bronze appliqus), c. early 1800s; France.

2-41. Lit, Chambre a Coucher de lImpratrice (Josephinesbedroom), Chteau de la Malmaison, c. 1800; near Paris, France;

and lit (drawing) published in Recueil de dcorations intrieures,

1812, 1827; Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine.



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2-44. Upholstery: Cottons and damasks.

2-45. Later Interpretation: Table and chair, 1926; Jacques

Ruhlmann. Art Deco.

Bands of contrasting color, fabric, or braid outline seatsand backs. Rosettes, medallions, and other motifs woven incontrasting colors or gold on solid fabric are centered onseats and backs. Similar or matching designs in strips adornthe front edge of the seat. Sofas, stools, and chairs occasion-ally have heavy fringe or tassels beneath the seat or arms. Decorative Arts. Napoleons commissions also revivethe decorative arts. Porcelain becomes large, monumen-tal, and completely covered with applied or painteddecoration. Classical scenes, cities, sites important tothe Empire, classical figures, and scenes from theRenaissance and Middle Ages embellish table services,tea and coffee services, centerpieces, vases, and otherporcelain objects. Fancy gilded borders frame the deco-ration. Vases in classical shapes are mounted in gildedbronze, and other pieces often have gilded bronzehandles. In 1804, Svres discontinues making soft paste,or artificial porcelain, in favor of hard paste, or trueporcelain. Numerous private porcelain factories springup after the Revolution. Their creative designs appeal toa wider audience, including Americans. Contrasts of

matte and shiny surfaces and plain or sculpted areas arecharacteristic of silver and gold tea and coffee services,implements for the dressing table, centerpieces, lightingfixtures, and tableware. Like porcelains, the forms anddecorations of metalware derive from classical sources.Similarly, mantel clocks and other objets dart become largerand more majestic. Designs feature classical or exoticfigures of dark or gilded bronze on marble pedestals. Later Interpretations. Empire furnishings are revivedin the 19th century during Second Empire and in the20th century during Art Deco (Fig. 2-45), and inter-pretations continue today.

sources. Ensembles consisting offauteuils, chaises, canaps,and stools are upholstered alike in tapestry, silk, satin, ordamasks in vivid colors or horsehair in black, red, green,plum, and light blue.

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Architecture and Interior Design from the 19th Century: An Integrated History, Volume 2, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, Ph.D., and Curt Sherman.Published by Prentice Hall Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education Inc

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