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Are mountain gods vindictive? Competing images of the Japanese alpine landscape S  S  University of Iowa This article underscores the importance of folk religious concepts in understanding the way in which people interact with the environment that envelops and sustains them. Images of rural Japan have drawn almost exclusively on the tradition of irrigated rice cultivation combined with ancestor worship. Alternative concepts have been overlooked or ignored, fostering the sense of a uniform heritage. The author highlights one such alternative, which derives from the tradition of hunting, gathering, and slash-and-burn cultivation within a spirit-imbued landscape. The contrast between perspectives is illustrated by a historical encounter between a British mountaineer and the residents of two communities located at different elevations within the same watershed. Nea rl y fo rty years ha ve pass ed si nc e Ro y Rappaport ( : -; ) firs t introduc ed the term ‘cognized model’ in referring to the way in which people conceptualize the nat ura l envir onment and the ir int era cti ons wit h it. This he contr asted wit h the so-called ‘operatio nal model’ – the kind employ ed by the W estern scientific community to describe the same set of conditions and interactions, but solely in terms of empiri- cally verifiable phenomena. 1 In pre-industrial societies, the landscape was imbued with spi rits and dei ties, who req ui red ve neration to ensure the ir goo dwi ll and the continuing provision of life-sustaining resources. Ecological anthropologists had been inclined to dismiss such beliefs as ‘epipheno mena ’ – interesting as folkl ore, perhaps, but of limited value in understanding the material exchanges that define the relationship between a human population and its natural surroundings (Basso  :  ; Flan nery  :  ; Rappaport  :  ). Rappaport, however, acknowledged the importance of the cog- nized model as a symbolic expression of material dependencies – one that not only reflected  the attitudes and activities of its human adherents, but  directed  them as well (:  ). Thus he appears to have been ascribing a more active influence to meta- physical concepts like spirits and deities. Perhaps more significantly, his work hinted at an eventual synthesis of the materialist-explanatory and symbolic-interpretative approaches within anthropolo gy. For the discip lin e as a who le, however, little has chang ed in the interveni ng decades. Anthropologists are still divided into what Wolf ( :  ) has described as  Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S.)    ,  - © Royal Anthropological Institute  

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