argentina and the brain drain

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Argentina and the Brain Drain:Some Perspectivesfrom Expatriatesin the United StatesBY DAVID L. McKEE*

The present study will not be concerned with the general economic and political problemsfacing Argentina. Instead it will focus on a particular issue facing most Third Worldcountries today - the brain drain. A general investigation ofthe brain drain from Argentinais well beyond the scope of this study. The magnitude of the difficulties involved inassembling primary information from the members of the various occupational groupswho have migrated were thought to be prohibitive. Instead the author has elected to limitthe study to a particular subset of the professional labour force, health care professionalsand physical scientists.The findings presented in this study were derived from a survey of such personswhowere born in Argentina and are currently residents of the United States. The surveypopulation consisted of individuals listed in the current edition of American Men andWomen of Science. N o sampling techniques were employed. The survey was mailed to allpersons fulfilling the required characteristics. Eighty-nine responses were received from atotal of 169surveyed. Fifteen mailings did not reach the individuals addressed.

In the first part of the questionnaire the respondents were asked to supply backgroundinformation concerning personal and family matters. The respondents ranged in age fromthe thirties through retirement, but the vast majority were in their forties and fifties. Thelatter category accounted for 42 respondents, while the former accounted for 33. Althoughonly five respondents were in their thirties it seems prudent to suggest that the forcesbehind the migration phenomenon are on the wane. A more reasonable view of the agespread might be that the directory from which the respondents were recruited is less likelyto include entry level professionals. Only seven respondents had reached the age of sixty.

* Kent State Un iversity, College of Business Adm inistration, Kent, Ohio, U.S.A .

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Thus, it seems as though the forces encouraging the migration under investigationachieved a critical impact towards the middle of this century.

Sixty-eight respondents entered the United States prior to attaining thirty years of age.Ofthose, 48 entered in the decade preceding that milestone. Twenty-six respondents madethe move during their thirties. The age of forty appears to be an effective cut-off date asonly five respondents elected to move beyond that age.

Seventy-nine of the respondents hold United States citizenship. Fifty-one indicated asimilar status for their spouse. It is certainly evident that the bulk of the population underreview have established permanent ties to the United States.

The respondents were asked to identify their primary reason for moving to the UnitedStates. Forty-three cited educational considerations as their primary motivation whileforty indicated that their move was work oriented. Several cited the political climate inArgentina as the prime factor in their decision to move and a small number accompaniedtheir parents as small children.

In an attempt to gain a clearer understanding of the factors underlying the migrationdecision, the respondents were asked if their ultimate career choice was made before orafter entering the United States. Sixty-one indicated having made their career choice priorto leaving Argentina while 24 made the decision after their entry into the UnitedStates.

Patterns ofdegree acquisition are also significant o the brain drain. The lossofeducatedpeople is probably more likely if their degrees are acquired abroad. While some of therespondents received considerable training in the United States, the pattern is mixed.Only 13 respondents received their bachelors degree in the United States while 73 holdArgentine degrees. At the masters level 23 hold degrees from institutions in the UnitedStates while 48 received degrees in their homeland. Even at the doctoral level the majorityof those responding hold Argentine degrees. Fifty-nine earned Argentine doctorates while35 earned degrees in the United States.These data indicate that opportunities for advanced study do exist in Argentina. In thisrespect that country is in a much stronger position than many Third World nations. Theloss of scientific personnel cannot be blamed upon a lack of educational opportunities.Although some respondents did study in the United States, such persons were a minority.This information has clear policy implications for Argentina. If scientific personnelgraduating from domestic programmes could be retained then the brain drain would belessened considerably.Table 1 on page 455 presents information from respondents concerning the importance ofselected factors in the migration process. In order to measure the significance of thefactors, the respondents were asked to attach weights of one through six to them, with sixbeing the least important. They were also given the option of writing in additional factorswhich were important to them. The factors were not to be rank ordered, thus therespondents could suit their own judgment in selecting similar or different weights for anyor all factors involved. The bracketed figures represent the number of respondents electinga particular factor who elected each specific weighting.

Educational considerations play an obvious role in exposing foreign nationals to theUnited States. However, they were excluded from consideration in this particular instancein order to gain a clearer perception of how the factors included are related to each otherand which are considered important. Of all the factors considered, career oriented matterstook top billing. More than 95 per cent weighing professional considerations included thatitem in their top three categories. In the case of advancement possibilities the figure wasjust over 92 per cent. In absolute terms, 56 respondents gave a number one ranking toprofessional considerations and 53 gave that ranking to advancement possibilities.

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TABLE 1I Y P O B T A I C L 01 BLLECTLD ?ACTORB I 1 TEE Y I O R A T I O I P R O C L B S

Pactom1

Advancement Possibilities

Buainess Interests

Family Ties

Financial Conslderatlons

Health Considerations

Political Envir onwn t

Professional Considerations

( 5 3 )60.23%( 4 )5.48

( 1 4 )18.92( 1 2 )21.05

( 3 )3.95( 4 0 )46 .51( 5 6 )69 .14

Order of Importance

2

( 2 0 )22.72%( 4 )5.48( 3 )4 .05( 9 )15.79( 2 )2.63

( 1 7 )19 .77( 1 6 )19 .75

3

(8 )9.09%( 9 )12.33( 5 )6 .76

( 2 2 )38 .59( 6 )

(10)11.73( 5 )6.17

7.89

4

(3)3 .41%( 3 )4 .1 1( 5 )6 .7 6( 4 )7.02( 2 )2.63( 5 )5.81(1 )1.23

5

( 0 )0.0%(8)10.96( 5 )6.76( 3 )5.26( 5 )6.58( 3 )3.49( 1 )1.23

6

(4)4.55%(45)61.64( 6 2 )56.76

( 7 )12.28( 5 8 )76.32( 1 1 )12.79

( 2 )2.47

Although those results indicate that there was considerable pragmatism associated withthe decision to emigrate, the political environment was also quite important.Seventy-eight per cent of the respondents included that item in their top three. Fortyrespondents gave it a number one rating. Financial considerations were also important.More than 7 5 per cent of those rating that category included it in their top three. However,only 12 respondents gave it a number one rating, indicating that they considered it to bemuch less important than the categories discussed above. Business interests, family tiesand health considerations appear to have relatively little significance.Following the rating procedure, the respondents were asked for a more specificidentification of the factors which prompted them to choose a career in the United States.They were asked to rank the factors which had been considered earlier. The respondentswere also given the option of including anything they wished. Thus the ranking couldinclude a maximum of eight categories. The results are included in Table 2 on page456.In this case professional considerations emerged as the most important factor in themigration decision. Only one respondent listing it failed to include it in the top fourcategories, while 16 ranked it number one. Although 17 respondents ranked advancementpossibilities number one, that item was clearly less significant overall, as ust under 85 percent of those listing it included it in their top four categories. Financial considerations werealso quite important. Nearly 90 per cent of those listing that item included it in their topfour categories. However, it was clearly less important than those discussed above, sincefewer respondents included it in their lists. The political environment was also animportant item. Of the 58 respondents listing it, more than 79 per cent included it in theirtop four categories. Other items listed were much less significant.Following the rating and ranking procedure, the respondents were invited to comment ifthey wished. Seventeen chose to do so. One respondent identified two ovemding issues fora permanent emigrke. The first concerned the reason for leaving and the second was thereason for not returning. Applying those considerations to his ow n case, he explained thathe left to acquire further training. He did not return because of much better livingstandards in the U.S. coupled with a decreasing living standard in homeland.

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TABLE ZA R N K O R D I R I I O O? S ELEC TED ? AC TOR S C O ITR IBU TII O TO H I O R A T I O I

(17 )32.082( 0 )0

?actor'.

( 7 )13.21%( 2 )6.89

Advmccment P ao ib il it ie a

Burnineen Intere'.ta

? P i l y Ties

Financial Consideration.

Health Conoidcratlon~

Politico1 Environment

Profemmima1 Consideratlam

other

( 4 ) ( 9 )8.89 I 20.w

-(17 )32.081

( 3 )10.34( 5 )14.29( 7 )15.56( 0 )0

(14 )29.17( 8 )14.04

(2 )18.18

Order of Importance-(4)7 .551(2 )6.89( 2 )5.71

( 2 0 )44.24( 3 )10.71(5 )10.42( 7 )12.28(1 )9.09-

5

( 6 )11.32%( 9 )31.03( 6 )17.14( 3 )6.67( 3 )10.71(5 )10.42( 0 )

( 0 )0

0

-(2 )3.77%(6 )20.69( 6 )17.14(1 )2.22( 8 )28.57(2 )4.17( 1 )1.75( 0 )0

-( 0 )

( 4 )13.79(5 )14.29( 0 )0

(11)39.29(2 )4.17( 0 )0(1 )9.09

O X

Another respondent cited a better chance of doing mathematical research as his mainreason for remaining in the United States. Additional related factors included access tolibraries and communication with other researchers. Another whose visa required him toleave the United States for two years following the completion of his education, accepted aposition with a medical research facility run by an American university in Columbia. Overthe years he has been instrumental in the training of tropical disease specialists fromseveral nations. Thus he feels that his work is having an impact beyond the United States,but of course it has kept him away from his homeland.The respondents were asked to identify any ties which they have retained with theirhomeland. Seventy-nine indicated that they still have family there and 7 1 have friends.Thirty have retained a professional association and another is trying to establish one. Onlyfive indicated that they still have financial ties.Forty-six respondents have held positions in Argentina since the completion of theireducation. Of those, three worked for twenty years and another sixteen years. Such longperiods of involvement were not typical however since 26 worked five years or less andanother 12 worked for ten years or less. The fact that just over 50 per cent of therespondents have Argentine work experience suggests that positions have been availableand that there has been an interest in them.A continuing interest in their homeland is also demonstrated by visitation patterns.Twenty-seven respondents indicated that they visited Argentina every one or two yearsand 24 others make the trip every two to four years. Eight said that they visit at five-yearintervals and 18 attested to infrequent visits. Only eight respondents said that they havenever visited their homeland.When asked if there was a need for their particular type of expertise in their homeland,61 indicated that there was, 21 said no, and seven didn't know. Those who felt that their

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skills were needed were asked how such a need might be fulfilled. One respondent placedthe responsibility squarely on Argentina:It is up to the homeland to take proper action leading to a) identifying itsneeds for professionals; b) recovering from abroad its own qualifiednationals and integrating them within a productive work force; c) creatingconditions to make them feel at home again, both as professionals and ascitizens.

As a suggestion on how to pursue such a policy he added, The best exampleI know ofsuch [a] programme is the U.K. science and technology policy after the Second WorldWar. It seems obvious that the success of the undertaking suggested requires at leastsupport from the government if not direct action.Twenty-three respondents cited political considerations as a problem. Economic matterswere also recognized as important. Among these stability and growth were perhaps themost significant. One respondent summed up the problem by citing economicdevelopment, consistent economic policy to decrease inflation and promote industrialexpansion. Several respondents felt that there were adequate supplies of scientificexpertise available in Argentina.The respondents were asked what employment they might seek if it became necessary forthem to return home. Many simply indicated that they would continue their careers inteaching and research. Two of those seemed sceptical of their chances of success. Anotherindicated an interest in education, research or a health oriented management position.He felt that he would have to d o something different than his current occupation becausehe is at the peak of his scientific career and realistically ...cannot maintain a similar levelof productivity and quality back in ... [his] country.Some indicated that they would practice medicine. One of those would doso by defaultsince there is no need for his present academic specialty (medical history). Somementioned engineering and technical fields. One expressed an interest in patent, licensingand technology transfer laws. There was also some interest in management and/orconsulting.By way of a final summing up, the respondents were invited to make any comments thatthey considered germane to the availability and utilization of professional expertise inArgentina. Responses alluded to various political and economic problems. Somerespondents felt that there is no real lack of professional talent but that conditions willhave to change if it is to be recovered and/or retained.Comments and suggestions were plentiful. Many respondents shared certain of theconcerns quoted above. Ongoing political and economic problems were thought by manyto be major factors in the brain drain. The feeling seems to be that there wouldbe no realshortage of expertise if a receptive climate for it could be established including theavailability of employment.As might be expected, some respondents have acquired specialties beyond the needs oftheir homeland. One specialist in solar system exploitation saw no employmentopportunities in any Third World country without some direct association with agodfather in the US. or Europe. Another described his expertiseasa luxury in Argentina.He went on to explain that many problems need tobe solved before money can be appliedto research. Even within research pursuits he suggested the need for a pecking order.

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Certain areas of research are more important than others for the countrys needs andshould be given priority.

According to one respondent there is no lack of talent. Rather there are no positions andnothing to stimulate younger people - no funds for teaching and research. He claims grosserrors in teaching and academic policies originating in political decisions only. He goes onto say that universities graduate too many professionals because selection is non existent.Professional markets are flooded which then leads to emigration.Judging from responses, the losses of scientific personnel which have occurred in the pastmay be irreversible. Most of the respondents have become United States citizens and nowhave families in that country. However, the fact that many now regard the United States ashome does not preclude further intercourse with colleagues in Argentina. The responses tothe questionnaire indicate a continuing interest in Argentina. Many still have family andfriends in that country. Thirty have retained some professional associations.

Many of the policy implications of the study have been eloquently voiced by therespondents themselves and need little elaboration. However some subtleties bearmention. First of all, the retreat of the generals has not removed all political factors fromthe problem list. Now that the military have left the scene, the scientific and professionalactivities under consideration must be de-politicized. The government must take explicitsteps to ensure that academic and scientific positions are awarded on the basis of expertiserather than other considerations. The role of the government must be one of support.

It should be noted that political considerations were at best third or fourth among thefactors cited by respondents as influential in their migration decisions. Professionalconsiderations and advancement opportunities seemed far more important. Economicconsiderations were important as well.

The evidence from the current investigation suggests that educational considerationsare far less important as a causal element in the brain drain from Argentina, than is thecase in many Third World nations. Many professionals are lost to emerging nationsbecause they go abroad to seek advanced education. Having left their homes, career andrelated locational decisions follow almost by default. Sixty-one respondents in the currentstudy made their career choices prior to moving and 59 hold Argentine doctorates. Unlessthe nation is in the business of training professionals for export, matters concerningtraining and placement require the attention of the policy makers. If surplus personnel areemerging in certain fields, then a reordering of training priorities may be called for. Itseems doubtful that the best interests of the country will be served by a continuing leakageof well-trained nationals into external labour markets.

Selected BibliographyAganval, V.B. and Winkler, D.R .Migration of Professional Manpower to the United States, Southern Economic

Journal, January 1984. Vol. 50, No . 3. pp. 814-830.The Brain Drain, International Social Science Journal, 1976. Vol. 28, No. 4. pp.Bhagwati, J.N .69 1-729.

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Ghosh, B.N. 'Typology of Brain M igration a nd S om e Policy Im plications', Rivizta Internazionaledi Scienze Economische e Commerciali, April 198 1. Vol. 28, N o. 4. pp . 350-365.'An E conomic Model of the Brain D rain', American Econom ic Review', March 1982.Kwok,V. and Leland, H.Vol. 72, NO. 1. pp. 9 1-100.

MacMillan, M.J.'The Economic Effects of International Migration: A Survey', Journal of CommonMarket Studies, March 1982. Vol. 20, No. 3. pp. 245-267.'On the W elfare Aspects of Internation al Migration', Journal of Political Economy,October 1975. Vol. 83 , No. 5 . pp. 1065-1072.

Rodriguez, C.A.

L'ARGENTINE ET L'EXODE DES CERVEA UX :QUELQUES PERSPECTIVES DA PR ES DES EXPATRIES AU X ETATS-UNISLes resultats d e cette etu de decoulent d 'une enquCte menee e ntre les ressortissants argen-tins actuellement viv an t aux Etats-Unis. Selon son auteur, David L. McKee, cette etude sepenche sur 'une question precise a laquelle font face aujourd'hui la plupart des pays duTiers mo nde : l'Exode des Cerveaux'.La population d e l 'e nq dt e se composait des individus de souche argentine men tionn isdan s la dern itre edition de 'American Men and Wom en of Science'.L'enquCte mt ne M. M cKee a la conclusion que, d an s le cas de l'exode des cerveaux del'Argentine, les considerations d'ordre ed uca tifjo uen t un r61e moins im po rtan t qu e dansle cas d'autres pays du Tiers m on de en general. En effet, d'a pr ts les resultats de l'etude, nonseulement la grosse majoritt des personnes faisant l'objet de l'enquete avait pris lesdecisions concernant leur ca m er e ava nt d e qu itter le pays natal, mais aussi, presque lemCme nom bre est titulaire d'un doctorat passe par une U niversite argentine.

LA ARGEN TINA Y EL EXODO DE COM PETENCIAS :ALGU NAS PERSPECTIVAS BASADAS EN U NA MU ESTRA DE EXPATRIADOSEN LOS ESTADOS UNIDO SLos resultados del presente estudio, efectuado por David L. McKee, provienen de unaencuesta realizada entre arg entino s qu e residen ac tualm ente en 10s Estados Unidos. Segundeclara el auto r, el tema del trabajo alu de a 'una cuestion precisa que enfrentan actual-mente la mayoria de 10s paises del tercer m un do : el exodo de comp etencias'.El public0 de la encuesta estuvo cons tituido po r personas proven ientes de la Argentinamen cionadas en la ultima ed icion de la guia American Men and Wom en on Science.Sobre la base de sus com probaciones, M cKee llega a la conclusion d e que, en el caso delexodo d e competenc ias de la Argentina, las aspiraciones en m ateria d e estudios tienen unainfluencia mu cho men or qu e en lo relativo a o tors paises del tercer m undo. En efecto,segGn 10s resultados del estudio, no solo la gran m ayoria de las personas qu e participaronen la encuesta habian ad op tad o las decisiones relativas a su carrera antes de abandonar supais natal, sino que un nGmero casi identico posee un diploma doctoral expedido por unauniversidad argentina.

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argentina and the brain drain

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