argumentation. identifying arguments what cannot be argued – discrete facts without...
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Argumentation
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Identifying Arguments
• What Cannot be argued– Discrete Facts without interpretation- Obama won the
2008 election
– Impossibilities (who would win the bear or the lion)
– Preferences (Mr. Pibb is better than Dr. Pepper)
– Beliefs beyond Human experience (invoking God)-
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Analyzing Arguments and Evidence• Components of a valid argument
– Examine the Accuracy• Supporting reasons are true and accurate• The Structure of the argument is valid
• Valid arguments have:– An Argument (what the proponent/opponent wants)– A well justified reason (why they want it)
• Accurate and logical
– A Policy conclusion• The policy based on this conclusion
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How to Analyze the Argument
• Is the argument empirical?
• Does the argument present any supporting data?
• What is the source of the data? Is it trustworthy?
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Interest Groups as Actors
What is Important• Money
• Size
• Cohesiveness
What is not• Grassroots (unless
astroturf)
• Unconventional tactics
• Everything that is not on the left hand side.
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How to determine power?
• At the Federal Level– www.opensecrets.org
• At the State Level– http://www.followthemoney.org/
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When Looking at Politicians
Who Matters• Must be elected, or well
known candidates
• The more senior the better
• The more members of their party in the legislature, the better
Who Does Not• Old elected officials (George
W. Bush)
• Candidates and partieswho do not have a chance
• Lower-level bureaucrats
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Decision makers are more important than non-decision
makers
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An example of an Argument
• Argument: We need to insure the 30+ Million Americans do not have health care
• Reason: Persons without health care drive up the cost of insurance for all Americans
• Conclusion: We should implement a single-payer plan proposed by Congress
What is missing from this argument?
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What Qualifies as evidence
• Research studies and Surveys– Method• Phone, in person, mail
– Sample size• Larger is better if collected properly
– Sponsor• Many research studies are very dated
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What qualifies as Evidence
• Case Studies– An application of the policy solution to a smaller
group• State level• Municipal.
– Be Careful• May not be generalizable• Apples to oranges• Remember that the United States is unique
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What Qualifies as Evidence
• Expert Testimony – http://www.kvue.com/news/politics/Professor-Hutchison-campaign-on-death-watch-after-poll-83486467.html
– Can be misleading– Personal experience is the weakest form of
evidence• Precedents– Previous attempts at policy– Examine the similarities and dissimilarities– E.g. 1994 vs. 2010 Health Care Bill
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FALLACIES
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Fallacies
• A way of making a persuasive argument, via a mistake in reasoning
• Faulty Logic
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Ecological Fallacy
• Using Aggregate Data to infer individual opinions. (taking means or grouped data and using it to explain the actions of individuals)
• Also called the fallacy of division- if the whole possesses a quality, but the parts might not
• On Grandpa Simpson wanting to help: "Call this an unfair generalization if you must, but old people are no good at everything." Moe the Bartender from the Simpsons
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Exception Fallacy
• Taking individual behavior and applying to a group.
• Stereotyping
• Applying the preferences of one actor to a class of political actors
• Using one extreme “story” to justify macro-level policy
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Hasty Generalization
• Using a small or non-representative sample to prove a point. (a type of exception fallacy)
• I know a guy who didn’t vote for McCain, because of Palin, so she must have cost him the election
• Everyone I know voted for Rick Perry in Iowa, how did he lose?
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Faulty Generalization
• An example of the exception fallacy
• Evaluating all with criteria that apply only to some
• Be wary of saying that “Democrats”, “Republicans”, Liberals, Conservatives, believe something. Attach names with parties.
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AD HOMINEN ("to the man“)
• Discredit a person's qualities or circumstances
• Don’t trust Dick Cheney, everyone knows he’s evil.
• Any Examples?
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APPEAL TO AUTHORITY
• Expert Authorities can be useful for argumentation (e.g. Federal Data).
• Fallacious if the authority is not really an expert or when there are trust issues
– Because Sean Penn likes Hugo Chavez, he has to be a good guy after all.
• Television Ad’s do this all the time with endorsements
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EMOTIONAL APPEAL
• Appeals to fear and pity with little relevance to the issue
• Often Involve threats, pity, appeals to fear, evoke sympathy.
• Cutesy stories
• Here is a example
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SLIPPERY SLOPE
• One undesirable effect will automatically lead to another and another
• We elect Obama and we will all be socialists, and then communists
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Argument from Ignorance
• In Logic, all hypotheses are false until proven true.
• In this case, you assume something is true until proven false.– Kennedy assassination was an inside job– 9/11 was an inside job- prove me wrong.
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For Submission 2
• Present arguments that make sense
• Present arguments from actors that are politically relevant
• Present arguments that are directly related to the issues.
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For Submission 2
• Keep writing 1 page a day or finding 1 good source a day
• Spend at least 1 hour a day in a place where you are most comfortable for studying
• Don’t