THE RHETORIC OF THE RHETORIC OF ARGUMENTATIONARGUMENTATION

How to state and How to state and support an opinion.support an opinion.

What is argumentation?What is argumentation?Argumentation Argumentation is an is an appeal to appeal to

reasonreason, , in which a writer in which a writer connects connects evidenceevidence in a in a logical chainlogical chain that leads that leads readers to an readers to an intended conclusion.intended conclusion.

Appeals primarily to Appeals primarily to reasonreason, not , not emotionemotion Provides Provides mostly hard evidencemostly hard evidence Connects evidence in a Connects evidence in a logical chainlogical chain Has a Has a specific, predetermined effect specific, predetermined effect on on

readers.readers.

4 Types of Arguments4 Types of Arguments Definition: Definition: persuades readers to interpret a word or phrase in a persuades readers to interpret a word or phrase in a

particular way. (e.g., What is drug abuse? What makes an activity particular way. (e.g., What is drug abuse? What makes an activity a sport?)a sport?)

Evaluation: Evaluation: persuades readers that an idea is good or bad, persuades readers that an idea is good or bad, worthwhile or useless, etc. (e.g., legalizing pot is a bad idea; worthwhile or useless, etc. (e.g., legalizing pot is a bad idea; sports figures should not be paid so highly; corporate farms are sports figures should not be paid so highly; corporate farms are bad for the food chain)bad for the food chain)

Cause-effect: Cause-effect: persuades readers that an existing situation persuades readers that an existing situation results from a particular cause, or that a situation will result in a results from a particular cause, or that a situation will result in a particular effect. (e.g., legalizing drugs will cause addiction; particular effect. (e.g., legalizing drugs will cause addiction; participating in sports helps kids with socialization; Americans are participating in sports helps kids with socialization; Americans are fat because of processed foods)fat because of processed foods)

Proposal: Proposal: persuades readers that a particular solution or persuades readers that a particular solution or approach is needed to address the issue. (e.g., to solve economic approach is needed to address the issue. (e.g., to solve economic problems, we should legalize and tax pot; communities should problems, we should legalize and tax pot; communities should organize adult sports leagues to combat obesity; the government organize adult sports leagues to combat obesity; the government should force manufacturers to stop using trans fats to improve should force manufacturers to stop using trans fats to improve public heart health.)public heart health.)

Sample Argument ThesesSample Argument Theses Definition: Definition: Addiction is just another name for Addiction is just another name for

selfishness, because addicts put their need for a fix selfishness, because addicts put their need for a fix ahead of the needs of family, coworkers, and the ahead of the needs of family, coworkers, and the community.community.

Evaluation: Evaluation: The nation’s current immigration policies The nation’s current immigration policies are cruel because they create anti-immigrant bigotry, are cruel because they create anti-immigrant bigotry, separate families, and unfairly discriminate against separate families, and unfairly discriminate against certain nationalities.certain nationalities.

Cause/effect: Cause/effect: The 9-11 terrorist attacks destroyed The 9-11 terrorist attacks destroyed Americans’ privacy by subjecting them to data Americans’ privacy by subjecting them to data searches, security screenings, and secret surveillance.searches, security screenings, and secret surveillance.

Proposal: Proposal: All prospective parents should be required All prospective parents should be required to take a nationally approve parenting class to ensure to take a nationally approve parenting class to ensure their child’s health, safety, and emotional well-being.their child’s health, safety, and emotional well-being.

Narrowing an Argument TopicNarrowing an Argument TopicAn argument topic must be:An argument topic must be:

* * specific. specific. It must address only ONE It must address only ONE aspect of a larger topic.aspect of a larger topic.

* controversial. * controversial. There must be There must be differing opinions on the issue.differing opinions on the issue.

* * researchable. researchable. There must be There must be published information on the topic.published information on the topic. * * rational. rational. An academic argument must An academic argument must make sense to the average person.make sense to the average person.

* * relatable. relatable. The average person must The average person must have some reason to care about the topic. have some reason to care about the topic.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENT ESSAYAN ARGUMENT ESSAY

An argument essay has a basic structure:An argument essay has a basic structure:

** CLAIM CLAIM (thesis): (thesis): The idea you will be arguing.The idea you will be arguing.

** SUPPORT SUPPORT (evidence): (evidence): How you will prove the idea is How you will prove the idea is valid.valid.

** REFUTATION REFUTATION (counter-argument): What opponents (counter-argument): What opponents claim, and why they are wrong.claim, and why they are wrong.

* REINFORCEMENT * REINFORCEMENT (restatement and summary): (restatement and summary): Reminding readers how you proved your argument.Reminding readers how you proved your argument.

Basic Argument Essay StructureBasic Argument Essay StructureLike every essay, an argumentation essay has Like every essay, an argumentation essay has

three basic parts:three basic parts:Introduction = CLAIM:Introduction = CLAIM: introduces topic, introduces topic,

provides background, and states an opinion provides background, and states an opinion and how it will be provedand how it will be proved

Body = SUPPORT & REFUTATION:Body = SUPPORT & REFUTATION: creates a creates a logical chain of evidence to support the logical chain of evidence to support the thesis AND refutes opposing argumentsthesis AND refutes opposing arguments

Conclusion = REINFORCEMENT:Conclusion = REINFORCEMENT: reminds reminds the reader of the opinion and how it was the reader of the opinion and how it was supportedsupported

REFINING YOUR CLAIMREFINING YOUR CLAIMA A claim claim is a statement that expresses is a statement that expresses a a point of view point of view on a on a

narrow, debatable topic.narrow, debatable topic.A A claimclaim is is based on a factbased on a fact. The writer’s opinion about that . The writer’s opinion about that

fact forms the argument’s focus.fact forms the argument’s focus.

A claim must be arguable. To check this, create a A claim must be arguable. To check this, create a logical logical counter-claimcounter-claim, or opposite argument., or opposite argument.

FACT: FACT: Organic foods are more expensive than non-organic Organic foods are more expensive than non-organic foods.foods.

CLAIM: CLAIM: Organic foods are worth their extra cost.Organic foods are worth their extra cost.

COUNTER-COUNTER- Organic foods are not worth their extra costOrganic foods are not worth their extra cost .. CLAIM:CLAIM:

INTRODUCTION:INTRODUCTION:Setting the ToneSetting the Tone

An introduction An introduction must:must: establish rapportestablish rapport with the reader;with the reader; prepare the readerprepare the reader for the body of the for the body of the

essay with explanations of the topic, its essay with explanations of the topic, its importance, and any controversy importance, and any controversy surrounding it;surrounding it;

present an opinionpresent an opinion; and; and explain how the opinion will be explain how the opinion will be

supported/organizedsupported/organized..

Use a solid grabber

Provide backgroundinfo

State a thesis with ONE main idea and at least THREE reasons/supports

INTRO: ESTABLISH RAPPORTINTRO: ESTABLISH RAPPORTRapport is a personal connection between people. The Rapport is a personal connection between people. The

writer must establish a personal relationship with writer must establish a personal relationship with his/her readers, so that they trust the writer (ethos) his/her readers, so that they trust the writer (ethos) and are invested in what is being said (pathos).and are invested in what is being said (pathos).

To To establish rapport, establish rapport, a writer must:a writer must:

Analyze the audienceAnalyze the audience: : know the ages, education, know the ages, education, assumptions (e.g., cultural mores), etc., of your readers, so assumptions (e.g., cultural mores), etc., of your readers, so you can choose language and evidence that will connect with you can choose language and evidence that will connect with them.them.

Consider and appeal to all viewpoints:Consider and appeal to all viewpoints: remember that remember that some people will agree with you, some will disagree, and some people will agree with you, some will disagree, and some will be neutral. Choose language and evidence that will some will be neutral. Choose language and evidence that will convince all of these people that your ideas are valid. Avoid convince all of these people that your ideas are valid. Avoid language that shows disrespect toward the other side, since language that shows disrespect toward the other side, since some of these people may also be readers. Try not to just some of these people may also be readers. Try not to just “preach to the choir,” but use evidence that can convince the “preach to the choir,” but use evidence that can convince the “antis” that your position is well-founded.“antis” that your position is well-founded.

INTRO: PREPARE THE READER INTRO: PREPARE THE READER FOR THE BODY OF THE ESSAYFOR THE BODY OF THE ESSAY

Readers are more comfortable when they know what to expect Readers are more comfortable when they know what to expect from your essay. To prepare them, you must:from your essay. To prepare them, you must:

Establish a tone:Establish a tone: Decide what attitude you will portray Decide what attitude you will portray toward the subject, and how you want readers to feel. Set a toward the subject, and how you want readers to feel. Set a pattern of language that conforms to your intended tone.pattern of language that conforms to your intended tone.

Establish a style:Establish a style: Decide how you want to connect to the Decide how you want to connect to the reader. Will you use formal language that sets you up as an reader. Will you use formal language that sets you up as an expert/authority, or informal language that makes you the expert/authority, or informal language that makes you the readers’ peer? Will you use simple, straightforward language, readers’ peer? Will you use simple, straightforward language, or will you be more complex and/or metaphorical? Your topic, or will you be more complex and/or metaphorical? Your topic, as well as your main idea, will help you decide. as well as your main idea, will help you decide.

Be substantial:Be substantial: An essay’s introduction should be An essay’s introduction should be proportionate to the essay’s length. It should also show that proportionate to the essay’s length. It should also show that the writer is serious in approaching the topic. Therefore, the the writer is serious in approaching the topic. Therefore, the intro should be a minimum of five (5) sentences.intro should be a minimum of five (5) sentences.

INTRO: PRESENT AN OPINION AND INTRO: PRESENT AN OPINION AND STATE HOW YOU WILL PROVE ITSTATE HOW YOU WILL PROVE IT

To establish ethos, you must be honest with readers To establish ethos, you must be honest with readers about what you intend to prove and how you intend about what you intend to prove and how you intend to prove it. To accomplish this, the writer must:to prove it. To accomplish this, the writer must:

State a thesis:State a thesis: At the end of the introduction, state At the end of the introduction, state clearly what you will prove and how.clearly what you will prove and how.

Make sure the thesis is complete:Make sure the thesis is complete: An argument An argument

thesis has three required parts:thesis has three required parts: SubjectSubject (the narrow topic you will address)(the narrow topic you will address) FocusFocus (your opinion on the topic) (your opinion on the topic) Specific language Specific language (the three most important (the three most important

reasons for holding your opinion)reasons for holding your opinion)

BODY:BODY:Making the CaseMaking the Case

The body of the essay is where you The body of the essay is where you prove that your argument is valid. prove that your argument is valid. The body must:The body must:

supply supply evidenceevidence establish a establish a logical chain of logical chain of

reasoningreasoning, and, and refute opposing argumentsrefute opposing arguments..

BODY: SUPPLY EVIDENCEBODY: SUPPLY EVIDENCEIn the essay’s body, you must prove to all In the essay’s body, you must prove to all

readers that your ideas are valid. To do so, readers that your ideas are valid. To do so, you must select the proper evidence:you must select the proper evidence:

Consult at least five sources Consult at least five sources thatthat address your specific, address your specific, narrow subjectnarrow subject

Use as least four of the six types of evidence:Use as least four of the six types of evidence: facts/statistics, historical record, expert opinion, personal facts/statistics, historical record, expert opinion, personal experience, collective experience, and common mores.experience, collective experience, and common mores.

Use mostly hard evidenceUse mostly hard evidence: : facts/statistics, historical facts/statistics, historical record, expert opinion.record, expert opinion.

Plan how to organize your evidencePlan how to organize your evidence: : Be sure to create a logical chain by organizing evidence in a pattern.

BODY:BODY: ESTABLISH A LOGICAL ESTABLISH A LOGICAL CHAIN OF REASONINGCHAIN OF REASONING

For your ideas to make sense, you must establish a For your ideas to make sense, you must establish a logical chain of logical chain of evidenceevidence by ensuring:by ensuring:

All evidence is specifically related to the focus. All evidence is specifically related to the focus. Don’t stray from Don’t stray from the subject at hand. All evidence must refer to the focus and the the subject at hand. All evidence must refer to the focus and the reasons for the opinion it expresses, as stated in the thesis.reasons for the opinion it expresses, as stated in the thesis.

All evidence is specifically related to all other evidence. All evidence is specifically related to all other evidence. Make Make sure that all your evidence hangs together. No evidence presented sure that all your evidence hangs together. No evidence presented should contradict other evidence or lead readers in another direction.should contradict other evidence or lead readers in another direction.

No evidence is repeated.No evidence is repeated. Never use the same piece of evidence Never use the same piece of evidence twice in different sections of the body. Only repeat evidence in twice in different sections of the body. Only repeat evidence in conclusion, when you are referring back to it.conclusion, when you are referring back to it.

Evidence is organized progressively, leading up to most Evidence is organized progressively, leading up to most important pointsimportant points. . Present evidence in the same order as reasons are Present evidence in the same order as reasons are listed in the thesis. Begin with background information necessary to listed in the thesis. Begin with background information necessary to understanding the argument. Save your strongest reason and best understanding the argument. Save your strongest reason and best support for last, so that your essay builds momentum.support for last, so that your essay builds momentum.

BODY:BODY: REFUTE OPPOSING REFUTE OPPOSING ARGUMENTSARGUMENTS

Refuting means Refuting means pointing out flawspointing out flaws. To refute opposing . To refute opposing arguments is to show how those who disagree with you arguments is to show how those who disagree with you are wrong. To do this, you must:are wrong. To do this, you must:

Anticipate disagreement:Anticipate disagreement: Understand what the opposing side Understand what the opposing side believes, so you can expect their objections and counter them. believes, so you can expect their objections and counter them. Address not only obvious and well-known disagreements, but Address not only obvious and well-known disagreements, but others that may arise. others that may arise.

Explain how/why those who disagree are wrong:Explain how/why those who disagree are wrong: Just as Just as we associate our own ideas with admirable ideals, we must show we associate our own ideas with admirable ideals, we must show that opposing ideas are unfair, weak, or unsound logically. that opposing ideas are unfair, weak, or unsound logically. Present examples that show how readers would suffer if Present examples that show how readers would suffer if opponents win, or how readers can benefit from your view. Or opponents win, or how readers can benefit from your view. Or show that the opponents don’t share the values that readers show that the opponents don’t share the values that readers hold dear.hold dear.

Respect those who disagree:Respect those who disagree: Don’t make the opposition out Don’t make the opposition out to be evil; this can backfire. Show respect for opposition, even if to be evil; this can backfire. Show respect for opposition, even if you don’t feel it. Suggest that they mean well, but just “don’t get you don’t feel it. Suggest that they mean well, but just “don’t get it.” it.”

CONCLUSION:CONCLUSION:RESTATE, REITERATE, REINFORCERESTATE, REITERATE, REINFORCEThe conclusion is a “mirror” of the introduction, so it will The conclusion is a “mirror” of the introduction, so it will

always be organized in the same way:always be organized in the same way:

Restate your thesis:Restate your thesis: Using slightly different language to Using slightly different language to avoid boring the reader, restate your opinion and reasons at avoid boring the reader, restate your opinion and reasons at the start of your conclusion.the start of your conclusion.

Reiterate your strongest evidence:Reiterate your strongest evidence: Choose the evidence Choose the evidence you believe is the most impressive, and remind the reader you believe is the most impressive, and remind the reader how powerful this evidence is in proving that your point is how powerful this evidence is in proving that your point is valid.valid.

Reinforce your tone and opinion with a clincher: Reinforce your tone and opinion with a clincher: End End your essay with a powerful, memorable last line that drives your essay with a powerful, memorable last line that drives your point home and that will stick with the reader.your point home and that will stick with the reader.

TO SUMMARIZE:TO SUMMARIZE: An argument is an An argument is an appeal to reason, appeal to reason, not emotion.not emotion. There are There are four types four types of arguments: of arguments: definition, definition,

evaluation, cause-effect, evaluation, cause-effect, andand proposal.proposal. An argument essay centers on a An argument essay centers on a solid, scholarly solid, scholarly

thesis.thesis. An argument essay follows the An argument essay follows the basic college essay basic college essay

format.format. An argument essay adds a An argument essay adds a fourth section fourth section to the to the

three body sections: a three body sections: a refutation of opposing refutation of opposing arguments.arguments.

An argument is supported by An argument is supported by four of the six types four of the six types of evidence, of evidence, withwith mostly hard evidence.mostly hard evidence.