arguments: what they are, how to make them, and how to avoid making bad ones
DESCRIPTION
While I was at the University of Michigan Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, I was a Graduate Student Instructor for a master's-level class on Values, Ethics, and Public Policy. As part of my responsibilities in that role, I taught this miniature course to help students understand how best to structure logical arguments, particularly targeting a public policy crowd.TRANSCRIPT
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Main source: Hurley, Patrick J. A concise introduction to logic. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, c1997
ArgumentsWhat they are, how to make them, and
how to avoid making bad ones
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Class objectives
After this class, you will be able to:Choose an effective topicIdentify the parts of an argumentDetermine whether an argument is valid or soundList and explain major logical fallaciesDemonstrate how arguments are organized in parts
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Choose a topic.2. Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.3. Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.5. Counter the opposing
arguments.6. Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
topic
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
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1. Currency
2. Multiple viable positions or options
3. Narrowness
4. Roots in a real or potential policy
5. Underlying ethical dilemmas
Choosing a topic
topic
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
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Good topic/bad topicEmbryo screening
Good topicPGD should not be used to create “savior siblings.”
Bad topicAll embryo screening is unnatural and should be banned.
topic
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
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Good topic/bad topicInternational drug research
Good topicThe WMA should allow an exception to use placebos for AIDS researchers in Africa.
Bad topicWe should expand international drug research to help fight off epidemics such as AIDS and malaria.
topic
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Choose a topic.2. Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.3. Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.5. Counter the opposing
arguments.6. Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
topicevidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Parts of an argumentEvery argument two parts:
Claim (AKA position or conclusion):The claim that the arguer wants to defend
Evidence (AKA premises):Statements that give reason of support
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
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Source: Hurley, p.28
What this country needs is a return to the concept of swift and certain justice. If we need more courts, judges, and prisons, then so be it. And as for capital punishment, I say let the punishment fit the crime.
John Pearson
Not an example
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
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Source: Hurley, p.8
When individuals voluntarily abandon property, they forfeit any expectation of privacy in it they might have had. Therefore, a warrantless search or seizure of abandoned property is not unreasonable under the 4th
Amendment.Judge Stephanie Kulp Seymour, U.S. v. Jones
An example
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Hurley, p.8
When individuals voluntarily abandon property, they forfeit any expectation of privacy in it they might have had. Therefore, a warrantless search or seizure of abandoned property is not unreasonable under the 4th
Amendment.
An example
Claim: the statement you’re saying is true.
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Hurley, p.8
When individuals voluntarily abandon property, they forfeit any expectation of privacy in it they might have had. Therefore, a warrantless search or seizure of abandoned property is not unreasonable under the 4th
Amendment.
An example
Evidence: statement that gives reason for support
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Questions?
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Your turn
Activity 1:Identification
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
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Claim
Claim
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Evidence
Evidence 1
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
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evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Evidence
Evidence 2
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Finding argumentsSources to find arguments
Class readingsNewspaper editorials/opinions
e.g. New York Times, The Economist
Professional journalse.g. Journal of Public Policy, Foreign Affairs
Political magazinese.g. The Nation, Atlantic Monthly
evidence
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Choose a topic.2. Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.3. Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.5. Counter the opposing
arguments.6. Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
evidenceevaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topicFactors crucial for a good argument:
The evidence given actually supports the claim.
The evidence is correct.
Evaluating arguments
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Does the evidence actually support the claim?
Validity
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
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evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of example: Hurley, p.48
Invalid argumentEven if the evidence is true, they don’t support the claim.
Ex// Robert has lost consistently at basketball every day for the past week. Therefore, it is likely he will win today.
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of example: Hurley, p.50
Valid argumentIf the evidence is true, the claim would be true as well.
Ex// Since Moby Dick was written by Shakespeare, and Moby Dick is a science fiction novel, it follows that Shakespeare wrote a science fiction novel.
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Is the evidence correct?
A sound argument is ALWAYS valid.An unsound argument can be valid.
Soundness
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of example: Hurley, p.49
Sound argumentThe evidence is true
Ex// The United States Congress has more members than there are days in the year. Therefore, at least two members of Congress have the same birthday.
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Sourec of example: Hurley, p.50
Unsound argumentOne or more pieces of evidence is false
Ex// Since Christmas is always on Thursday, it follows that the day after Christmas is always a Friday.
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Questions?
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Your turn
Activity 2:Evaluation
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Weida, Stacy. (2007). Organizing your argument. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved 4 February, 2007, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/03/.
How does the evidence support your claim?
Warrant
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Weida, Stacy. (2007). Organizing your argument. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved 4 February, 2007, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/03/.
Warrant explained
Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution. Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity. Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air pollution switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Weida, Stacy. (2007). Organizing your argument. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved 4 February, 2007, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/03/.
Warrant explained
Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution. Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity. Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air pollution switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.
Claim
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Weida, Stacy. (2007). Organizing your argument. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved 4 February, 2007, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/03/.
Warrant explained
Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution. Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity. Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air pollution switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.
Evidence
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Weida, Stacy. (2007). Organizing your argument. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved 4 February, 2007, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/03/.
Warrant explained
Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution. Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity. Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air pollution switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.
Warrant
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Logical fallacy
An argument that is defective because of some structural problem
Logical fallacies
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of examples: Hurley, chapter 3
Bandwagon
Appealing to a person’s desire to be accepted a crowd, to be with the majority
Ex// Over 75% of Americans believe that abortion should be legal.
Bad arguments
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of examples: Hurley, chapter 3
Slippery slope
Relies on a chain of events that is not likely to occur.
Ex// We cannot legalize gay marriage. If we let homosexuals marry, then polygamists will want to marry. Plus, people might want to marry animals.
More bad arguments
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of examples: Hurley, chapter 3
False cause
The argument implies a causal connection that doesn’t exist.
Ex// A recent study has shown that the level of dog food sales in St. Louis exactly correlates with the suicide rate in Seattle. Therefore, people in St. Louis should stop buying dog food to save people in Seattle.
Yet more bad arguments
evaluation
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Choose a topic.2. Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.3. Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.5. Counter the opposing
arguments.6. Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
evaluationposition
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Select the position you think is most convincing.
Evaluate the evidence.Select the position you think is
most convincing.Counter the opposing arguments.Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
position
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Choose a topic.Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.Counter the opposing arguments.Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
position
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Your position should follow from the evidence you’ve found.
position
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
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Select only a few of your strongestarguments rather than including all
possible arguments.
Use your space well
position
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Choose a topic.2. Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.3. Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.5. Counter the opposing
arguments.6. Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
positioncounters
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic1. Help convince others of your
position
2. Avoid leaving yourself open to attack.
3. Strengthen your own position
Why counter?
counters
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Counter your opponent’s bestargument.
Use your space well
counters
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of examples: Hurley, chapter 3
Straw man
Oversimplifying an opponent’s argument to make it easier to counter
Ex// Many people think we should have universal health care. But universal health care is a communist idea, and the Soviet Union proved that communism doesn’t work.
Bad counterarguments
counters
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of examples: Hurley, chapter 3
Red herring
Diverting attention by changing the subject.
Ex// The Bush Administration wants to award the contract to rebuild Iraq to Halliburton. But Halliburton was run by Dick Cheney, one of the contract’s advocates. We should investigate his involvement.
More bad counterarguments
counters
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source of examples: Hurley, chapter 3
Argument against the person:
Directing a counterargument against the person who’s arguing, not the argument itself.
Ex// President Bush says that we should drill for oil in Alaska, but he’s an oilman, so he has a vested interest in arguing that.
More bad counterarguments
counters
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Choose a topic.2. Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.3. Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.5. Counter the opposing
arguments.6. Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
countersorganization
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Source: Weida, Stacy. (2007). Organizing your argument. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved 4 February, 2007, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/03/.
Understanding organizationToulmin method
State your claimGive evidenceExplain how the evidence supports your claim (warrant)Repeat for additional evidenceState a counterclaimCounter the argument
organization
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Activity 3:Organization
organization
Your turn
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
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organization
State your claim
“Pursuing direct diplomacy with Iran, however, is prudent and would serve US interests.”
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
organization
Give evidence
“There aren't enough troops in Iraq to defeat the insurgency, disarm the militias, and establish a secure environment that will promote national reconciliation and political reform.”
“The coalition in Iraq needs sizable troop reinforcements from foreign nations, and it needs them now.”
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
organization
Explain the warrant
“The longer the US delays dialogue with Iran, the less probable it is that other nations will come to its aid in Iraq, and the more certain it becomes that Iraq will deteriorate into all-out civil war.”
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
organization
State a counterclaim
“They would suggest that a showdown with Iranis inevitable and necessary.”
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
organization
Counter the argument
“Every showdown need not end in hostilities.”
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
1. Choose a topic.2. Identify the evidence for and
against the positions.3. Evaluate the evidence.4. Select the position you think is
most convincing.5. Counter the opposing
arguments.6. Organize your argument.
Planning your argument
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Questions?
Pubpol 580: Values,Ethics, and Public Policy
ARGUMENTS
evidenceevaluation
positioncounters
organization
topic
Hurley, p.12