Microsoft Word - titlepage.docThesis for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy in Arts
Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney
ARTERIES OF EMPIRE: An operational study of transport and
communication in Angkorian Southeast Asia (9th to 15th centuries CE)
By
© Hendrickson 2007
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Abstracts This thesis develops and evaluates the utility of an operational approach to the archaeological study of transport in empires, focussed specifically on the remains of the transport system built by the Khmer Empire (9th to 15th centuries CE) that radiated out from the capital of Angkor to its provincial centres across mainland Southeast Asia. Previous research on the Angkorian transportation system has focussed on culture historical approaches while interpretations of the systemic construction and function are largely linked to one ruler, Jayavarman VII (1181-1219 CE), through a single inscription. The operational approach used in this thesis is derived from an integration of several theoretical and methodological perspectives: 1) Transport Geography theory (i.e., nodes, links, cultural function); 2) historical examples of transport components (i.e., rest stops, roads) and the ‘life-cycle’ concepts that characterize them (i.e., planning, seasonality,); 3) the range of methods that archaeologists use to locate, describe and analyse artefacts of transportation; and 4) identification of the general imperial requirements of transportation (i.e., shifting boundaries, control over resources). A comprehensive investigation of the spatial, temporal and functional aspects of the Angkorian transport system identifies a general plurality of development and function. Results of this study show: 1) there is no single unified transport plan; 2) the transport components, including the routes over which the roads were formalized, were the product of developments between the 11th to 13th centuries CE; and 3) site and resource location indicate that the land- and riverine- based transport systems served different yet complementary functions. From this study new directions for research are identified emphasizing the role of transportation at various scales and in various aspects of Angkorian society. The operational approach is viewed as a vital step in connecting the diverse requirements and activities of empires within an integrated and methodologically-rigorous framework.
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Acknowledgements On every path that I took during the last four years I was helped along by individuals who provided me with new direction, urged me forward or forced me to stop when things got lost…after a short respite I was always allowed to continue1. Among the numerous people who played any part in getting me to my destination I must recognize the efforts of those whose assistance was most valuable. As a matter of practicality I would like to acknowledge first the various funding sources that enabled me and my family to move to Australia and undertake my studies. In particular I want to thank the Social Sciences Humanities Research Council of Canada, the University of Sydney and Australian government who graciously offered me scholarships so that I could attend this fine institution. Within the University I must also thank the Carlyle Greenwell Bequest, the Postgraduate Research Scholarship Scheme and the University Travel Grants program. Without these funding sources I would not have been able to obtain the core data sets for my thesis or attend numerous international conferences where I received vital input during the early stages of my studies. I also need to thank the Greater Angkor Project for providing funds to complete my ASTER survey. At the University of Sydney, I must thank my supervisor Associate Professor Roland Fletcher for ‘two things’ in particular. First, for helping bring me to Australia and allowing me to participate in the Greater Angkor Project. Second, I want to think him for his guidance and providing me with a broader perspective of archaeology, both methodologically and theoretically. Any problem that raises its ugly head during research is merely a research question for the future. My other advisor, Ian Johnson, and the Archaeological Computing Laboratory provided me with the necessary technical skills to complete this work. The ACL staff, particularly, Andrew Wilson, Martin King, Damian Evans, Tom Murtagh, and David Hobson all provided substantial assistance in training, problem-solving and organizing my field seasons and data collection. If I needed a program or help with data sets the staff of the ACL were always able to solve my dilemmas. I could not have done this thesis without it. I would also like to thank Kath Sund of the Living with Heritage project for her GIS and technical advice at the tail end of my thesis. On a day-to-day basis at Uni I received endless support from my colleagues Dan Penny, Martin Polkinghorne, Damian Evans, and Eileen Lustig. To each of you I am indebted for your technical-historic-logical-inscription-musical knowledge throughout my candidature here at Sydney. More importantly I would not have got through without your friendship, moral support and beverages here and in the ‘bodge’. In this group I have to add Matti Kummu of the Mekong River Commission and Helsinki University of Technology. Aussi, je voudrais remercier Dr. Christophe Pottier, directeur de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient de Siem Reap. Merci de toutes les leçons ‘en français’ et d'Angkor. In Cambodia I have to thank, firstly APSARA Authority for allowing me to undertake field research in Angkor. Individually, I appreciated all the input from my Cambodian colleagues during my sojourns specifically from Im Sokrithy, Chhay Visoth, Khieu Chan,
1 Thanks, Lizzy
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Heng Piphal and Ang Chetra. It is a privilege to be able to contribute to the history of this amazing country. Very special thanks must be made to Donald Cooney and Alexandra Rosen of Concept Aviation and Eddie Smith. Flying over the roads in the ultralight was the highlight of my postgraduate field research. Every time we went up we saw something new. Such is the stuff of great adventure. As with most field GAP field seasons, my research involved a veritable rogues gallery. The work at Phlau Beng would not have been possible without Chhay Visoth (APSARA Authority), Liz Holt, Dan Penny, Ngaire Richards, Andrew Wilson, Bob Keelaghan and many others who played a small role in the entire picture. For the work at Banteay Srah I worked with the tireless Shaun Mackey and have to thank Khieu Chan (APSARA), Tessa Boer-Mah and Paul Brugman for their assistance in completing the GPR survey of the Spean Thma Stung Preah Srok. Other people that helped along the way are Surat Lertlum, Heng Piphal, Ang Chetra, Asger Mollerup, Im Sokrithy, Miriam Stark (who introduced me to Angkor), Michael Vickery, Kyle Latinis, Chris Vanags, Sam Player, and Dougald O’Reilly and Phon Kaseka for being my air photo mule between Phnom Penh and Sydney. Tom Clements of Wilderness Conservation Society who helped out with data and arranging for Don and myself to fly the plane around Tbeang Meanchey. Digital data sets and point locations for my GIS were graciously included from Mekong River Commission (MRC), Joint International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Damian Evans, Christophe Pottier, Serat Lertlum, Larry Crissmann, Eileen Lustig (particularly her digital database) and Martin Polkinghorne. In Canada I want to thank all my family, but particularly Reg, Bonnie-Jean, Tim and my sailing in-laws Malc and Jackie for being so supportive and for visiting me during my field seasons in Cambodia and being with my little family here in Australia. Thanks also to Bob K. for regularly feeding my musically starved brain. The louder, the harder, the better the words seemed to flow at the end. I do have an expensive pen and I use it quite often for the substitution of semantically equivalent words. In Oz, my bub support team of Nick, Nina, and Sim, was constantly helping out with pick ups, drop offs and quick beers when everyone was asleep. During the final stages of this thesis I have to thank Roland Fletcher (especially long distance from Cambodia and Paris during vital times), Peter White, Dan Penny, Liz Holt, Christophe Pottier, and Eileen Lustig for their edits of various drafts of my thesis. Without their assistance my ideas would have wandered less purposively around the landscape of my thesis. I also send a special ‘orkun’ to Heng Piphal for translating my abstract into Khmer. Last, and most important, I need to thank my little family. I relied on my ‘ti possums to wrestle me to the ground and make me laugh when all seemed impossible. For my Lizard, I cannot begin to thank you enough for your strength and patience through till the very end. This journey is over, ours can now continue. A warning sign has just come up on the screen saying my processor is about to overhea
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Table of Contents Abstracts ............................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………vi Chapter 1. The Operational Approach to Studying Archaeological Transportation . 1
The Rise of Transport Archaeology ................................................................................ 2 Empires in Motion ........................................................................................................... 4 The Angkorian Transport System, Texts and Imperial Issues ......................................... 6 The Approach: Operational Empire of Angkorian Transport ......................................... 8
Transportation and Imperial Background .................................................................... 8 The Angkorian Empire ................................................................................................ 9 Mapping and Analysis ............................................................................................... 10 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 11
Objectives and Limitations of the Study ....................................................................... 12 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 13
Chapter 2. Transport Geography, Components and Concepts .................................. 14
The Principles of Transportation ................................................................................... 14 Components and Concepts of Transport Geography ................................................. 15
Nodes ..................................................................................................................... 15 Breaks and Termini ........................................................................................... 16
Linkages ................................................................................................................ 17 Networks ................................................................................................................ 17
Accessibility ...................................................................................................... 18 Network versus System ......................................................................................... 19 Modes of Transport ............................................................................................... 20
The Cultural Operations of Transport ....................................................................... 21 Economic ............................................................................................................... 21 Political .................................................................................................................. 21 Religious ................................................................................................................ 22 Social ..................................................................................................................... 23
Transport Geography Summary ................................................................................ 23 Components of Transportation: Global Examples ........................................................ 23
Linkages: Routes ....................................................................................................... 24 Land Routes ........................................................................................................... 24
Road Construction Techniques .......................................................................... 24 Road Width ........................................................................................................ 25 Road Straightness .............................................................................................. 26 Road Surfacing .................................................................................................. 26
Water Routes ......................................................................................................... 27 Nodes: Support Infrastructure ................................................................................... 29
Crossing Water ...................................................................................................... 29 Rest Stops .............................................................................................................. 31
Resthouses and Inns .......................................................................................... 31 Function of Resthouses, Chapels and Shrines ................................................... 32 Storehouses ........................................................................................................ 32 Posting Stations and Couriers ............................................................................ 32 Military Forts ..................................................................................................... 33
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Traffic ........................................................................................................................ 35 Transport Components Summary .............................................................................. 35
Concepts of Transportation: Global Examples .............................................................. 36 Planning ..................................................................................................................... 36 Development of Transportation ................................................................................. 37
Pre-Existing Sites .................................................................................................. 38 Transportation Stimulus for Settlement ................................................................. 38
Development in Imperial Contexts ............................................................................ 39 Roman Empire and Post-Roman Europe ............................................................... 39 Indian Empires ....................................................................................................... 40 Chinese Dynasties ................................................................................................. 41 Inkan Peru .............................................................................................................. 41 States Without Formalized Transport .................................................................... 41
Extent and Boundaries ............................................................................................... 42 Distance and Speed .................................................................................................... 43
Distances and Spacing ........................................................................................... 43 Speed ..................................................................................................................... 44 Load ....................................................................................................................... 44
Seasonality and Cultural Cycles of Movement ......................................................... 45 Cultural Practices and Seasonal Cycles of Movement .......................................... 46
Maintenance .............................................................................................................. 47 Funding .................................................................................................................. 48 Labour .................................................................................................................... 49 Water Transportation Maintenance ....................................................................... 49
Disuse and Decay ...................................................................................................... 50 Reuse ......................................................................................................................... 51
Summary ........................................................................................................................ 52 Chapter 3. Archaeological Approaches to Transport .................................................. 53
Perceptions of Archaeological Movement: Trade and Transport .................................. 53 Finding the Way: Transportation and Movement...................................................... 54 Important Benchmarks for Transport Archaeology................................................... 54
Settlements and Landscapes .................................................................................. 54 New Technology for Transportation Research ...................................................... 55
Location ..................................................................................................................... 57 Remote Sensing: Aerial Photography and Satellite Imagery ................................ 57 Historic Documents ............................................................................................... 58 Toponyms .............................................................................................................. 58 Site Locations ........................................................................................................ 59 Ground Survey ....................................................................................................... 59 Summary of Location ............................................................................................ 60
Description of Components and Networks ................................................................ 61 Artefacts of Transportation .................................................................................... 61 Network/System Description ................................................................................. 62
Temporal Approaches to Transportation Networks .................................................. 62 Absolute Dates ....................................................................................................... 63 Relative Dates ........................................................................................................ 64 The Issue of Reuse ................................................................................................. 65
Analysis of Transportation ........................................................................................ 66
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Military .................................................................................................................. 66 Economic ............................................................................................................... 66 Political .................................................................................................................. 67 Religious ................................................................................................................ 68 Social and Phenomenological Approaches ........................................................... 69 Caveats of Function Studies and Holistic Dynamism ........................................... 70
Broad Scale Comparisons .......................................................................................... 71 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 71
Chapter 4. Empires in Motion: Theories and Perspectives ......................................... 73
Defining Empire ............................................................................................................ 73 Empires in Rest and Motion: Dynamics and Phases ................................................. 74
Temporal Dynamics .............................................................................................. 74 Expansion .......................................................................................................... 75 Consolidation ..................................................................................................... 76 Collapse ............................................................................................................. 76
Spatial Dynamics: Extents ..................................................................................... 77 Control and Power Relationships .............................................................................. 78
Military Power ....................................................................................................... 78 Economic Power .................................................................................................... 79 Political Power ....................................................................................................... 81 Religious and Ideological Power ........................................................................... 82 Combined Aspects of Power ................................................................................. 83
Dynamic Perspectives ............................................................................................... 84 Regional Dynamics................................................................................................ 84
Summary ........................................................................................................................ 86 Summary of the Operational Approach ......................................................................... 87
Chapter 5. Towards A Geographic and Historic Setting of Angkor .......................... 88
The ‘Posters of Stone’: Historic Sources in Angkorian Studies .................................... 88 The Geographical Setting of Angkor......................................................................... 91 The Historic Setting of Angkor ................................................................................. 93
Jayavarman II and Indravarman I: The Beginning of Angkor .............................. 93 Yasovarman I ......................................................................................................... 94 Jayavarman IV ....................................................................................................... 95 Rajendravarman and Jayavarman V ...................................................................... 96 Suryavarman I ....................................................................................................... 96 Jayavarman VI ....................................................................................................... 98 Suryavarman II ...................................................................................................... 98 Jayavarman VII ..................................................................................................... 99 Later Kings and an Important Guest ................................................................... 101
The Angkorian Timeline and Transport .................................................................. 102 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 102
Chapter 6. Angkor, the Archaeological Empire ......................................................... 104
Defining Angkor as Archaeological Empire ............................................................... 104 The Capital .............................................................................................................. 105 Angkorian Settlement: Temples and Tanks ............................................................ 106
Temples ............................................................................................................... 106 Temple Form ....................................................................................................... 106 Temple Distribution ............................................................................................. 107
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Development of State Temples around the Empire ............................................. 108 Tanks (Water Reservoirs) .................................................................................... 108
Dynamics in the Angkorian Period ............................................................................. 109 Expansion ................................................................................................................ 109 Consolidation ........................................................................................................... 110
Angkorian Mechanisms of Control ............................................................................. 111 Military Control ....................................................................................................... 111
Physical Representation of Military Control ....................................................... 112 Military Control and Transportation ................................................................... 113
Political Control ....................................................................................................... 113 Gaining Political Control ..................................................................................... 113 Maintaining Internal Political Control ................................................................. 114 Physical Representation of Political Control ....................................................... 114 Political Control and Transportation ................................................................... 115
Economic Control .................................................................................................... 115 Domestic Economy ............................................................................................. 115 Foreign Trade ...................................................................................................... 116 Physical Representation of Economic Control .................................................... 116 Economic Control and Transportation ................................................................ 117
Religious Control ..................................................................................................... 117 Physical Remains of Religious Control ............................................................... 118 Religious Control and Transportation ................................................................. 118
Dynamics of Control and the Role of the Temple ................................................... 118 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 119
Chapter 7. The Angkorian Transport System ............................................................ 120
Components of Angkorian Transport .......................................................................... 120 Roads ....................................................................................................................... 121
History of Road Research .................................................................................... 121 Regional Roads .................................................................................................... 128 Secondary Roads ................................................................................................. 129 Projected Routes .................................................................................................. 129 Road Characteristics ............................................................................................ 130
Road Paving ..................................................................................................... 131 Summary of Road Study ..................................................................................... 132
Rivers and Canals .................................................................................................... 133 History of Water Transport ................................................................................. 133 Rivers and Canals Summary of Study ................................................................. 134
Bridges ..................................................................................................................... 135 History of Bridge Research ................................................................................. 135 Stone Bridges ....................................................................................................... 137 Wooden Bridges .................................................................................................. 138 Summary of Bridge Study ................................................................................... 138
Resthouses ............................................................................................................... 139 History of Resthouse Research ............................................................................ 139 Gîtes d’étape ........................................................................................................ 143 Temples d’étape ................................................................................................... 145 Ashramas and Salas ............................................................................................. 145 Summary of Resthouse Study ............................................................................. 146
Tanks ....................................................................................................................... 147 History of Tanks .................................................................................................. 147
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Tank Construction ............................................................................................... 148 Summary of Tank Study ...................................................................................... 148
Traffic ...................................................................................................................... 149 History of Modes Research ................................................................................. 149 Traffic Types ....................................................................................................... 151 Summary of Traffic Study ................................................................................... 151
Angkorian Transport and the Operational Approach .................................................. 152 Location: Mapping and Collation ............................................................................ 153 Description: Spatial Relationships .......................................................................... 153 Description: History versus Histories ...................................................................... 154 Analysis: Imperial Resources .................................................................................. 155
Summary ...................................................................................................................... 157 Chapter 8. Location, Description and Spatial Relationships of the Angkorian Transport System .......................................................................................................... 159
The Study Area and Data Sources ............................................................................... 159 ASTER and Aerial Photographs .............................................................................. 160 Ground and Ultralight Surveys ................................................................................ 161
Description of Angkorian Transport Components ...................................................... 161 Roads ....................................................................................................................... 161
Regional Road Visibility ..................................................................................... 162 Secondary and Projected Roads .......................................................................... 164
Tanks ....................................................................................................................... 165 Main Angkorian Sites .............................................................................................. 167
Spatial Description ...................................................................................................... 167 Rivers and Roads ..................................................................................................... 168 Bridges ..................................................................................................................... 168
Bridges and Roads: Distribution and Spacing ..................................................... 169 Bridges and Rivers: Types of Crossings and Prediction ..................................... 169
Resthouses ............................................................................................................... 170 Gîtes d’Étape: Distribution .................................................................................. 170 Temples d’Étape: Distribution............................................................................. 170 Resthouses, Rivers and Bridges .......................................................................... 171
Tanks ....................................................................................................................... 172 Tanks and Roads: Distribution and Spacing ....................................................... 173
Tank Perimeter ................................................................................................ 173 Orientation ....................................................................................................... 173 Road Alignment ............................................................................................... 174 Catchment Position .......................................................................................... 174 Tank and Road Summary ................................................................................ 174
Tanks and Bridges ............................................................................................... 175 Tanks and Bridge Summary ............................................................................ 175
Tanks and Resthouses .......................................................................................... 176 Tanks and Resthouse Summary ....................................................................... 177
Main Angkorian Sites .............................................................................................. 178 Roads and Sites .................................................................................................... 178 Rivers and Sites ................................................................................................... 179 Rivers versus Roads: Distances to Angkor ......................................................... 180
The Angkorian Transport Plan .................................................................................... 181 Individual Infrastructure .......................................................................................... 181
Roads ................................................................................................................... 181
Comparison of Infrastructure .................................................................................. 184 Comparison of Roads .............................................................................................. 184
The Question of Importance ................................................................................ 185 Plan versus Plans ..................................................................................................... 186
Summary ...................................................................................................................... 187 Chapter 9. Historical Analysis of Angkorian Transport ........................................... 188
The Temporal Backdrop .............................................................................................. 189 Evidence For JVII: Preah Khan Inscription and Archaeological Data .................... 189 Evidence Against JVII: Preah Khan Inscription and Archaeological Data ............. 189 Evidence Against JVII: Broader Angkorian History ............................................... 191
Temporal Models of Angkorian Transport Components ............................................ 191 Road Chronology ..................................................................................................... 192
Main Sites and Roads .......................................................................................... 193 Sites and Roads by King .................................................................................. 193 Main Sites: Discussion .................................................................................... 194 Main Sites and Catchments ............................................................................. 196 Sites and Catchments through Time ................................................................ 196 Sites and Catchments: Discussion ................................................................... 196
Communication Zones ......................................................................................... 197 Mapping Communication Zones ..................................................................... 198 Area of Communication Zones by Reign ........................................................ 198 Communication Zones and Roads ................................................................... 199 Shared Communication Zones and Roads ....................................................... 199 Communication Zones: Discussion ................................................................. 200
Historical Events ................................................................................................. 201 Events .............................................................................................................. 201 Events and Roads ............................................................................................ 202 Events and Roads: Discussion ......................................................................... 203
Summary of Road Chronology ............................................................................ 203 Resthouse Chronology ............................................................................................. 205
Temples d’étape Chronology .............................................................................. 205 Gîtes d’étape Chronology .................................................................................... 205 Summary of Resthouse Chronology .................................................................... 207
Bridge Chronology .................................................................................................. 208 Dating Stone Bridges: Archaeological Perspective ............................................. 208 Dating Wooden Bridges: Archaeological Perspective ........................................ 209 Bridge Chronology Summary .............................................................................. 209
Tank Chronology ..................................................................................................... 210 Clarifying the Issue of Jayavarman VII ....................................................................... 210 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 212
Chapter 10. Transport in an Imperial Context: Geographic Resources and Angkorian Settlement ................................................................................................... 213
Current Function of the Angkorian Transport System ................................................ 214 Religious Ways ........................................................................................................ 214 Military Roads ......................................................................................................... 214 Trade Routes ............................................................................................................ 215
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Rivers ....................................................................................................................... 215 Regional Approach: Access to Cultural Geographic Resources ................................. 216
Access and Distance ................................................................................................ 216 Economic Resources ............................................................................................... 217 Political Geographic Resources ............................................................................... 217 Religious Geographic Resources ............................................................................. 217 Multiple Dimensions of Control and the Function of Angkorian Roads ................ 218
Economic Geography .................................................................................................. 218 Economic Resources: Angkor’s Shopping List ....................................................... 219 Mapping Economic Resources ................................................................................ 221 Comestible Resources ............................................................................................. 221
Rice ...................................................................................................................... 221 Rice and Major Soils ....................................................................................... 222 Distribution of Major Soils .............................................................................. 222
Fish ...................................................................................................................... 223 Distribution of Fish .......................................................................................... 223
Salt ....................................................................................................................... 224 Distribution of Salt .......................................................................................... 226
Comestible Resources Summary ......................................................................... 227 Industrial Resources: Mapping and Analysis .......................................................... 227
Iron ...................................................................................................................... 228 Distribution of Iron .......................................................................................... 229
Bronze: Copper and Tin ...................................................................................... 229 Copper and Tin Distribution ............................................................................ 230
Gold and Silver .................................................................................................... 231 Distribution of Gold and Silver ....................................................................... 231
Precious and Semi-Precious Stones ..................................................................... 232 Distribution of Precious Stones ....................................................................... 232
Industrial Resources Summary ............................................................................ 232 Political Geography ..................................................................................................... 234
Political Geography and Angkor ............................................................................. 234 River System Resources: Major Rivers and Catchment Boundaries .................. 235
Major Rivers, Catchment Boundaries and Angkorian Sites ............................ 235 Topographic Resources: Dangrek Passes and Lookouts ..................................... 236
Passes, Lookouts and Angkorian Sites ............................................................ 237 Discussion: Political Resources and Transportation ............................................... 237
Religious Geography ................................................................................................... 238 Religious Geography and Angkor ........................................................................... 239
Sacred Phnoms and River Origins ....................................................................... 239 Sacred Phnoms, River Origins and Angkorian Temples ................................. 240
Discussion: Religious Resources and Angkorian Sites ....................................... 240 Comparison of Geographic Resources .................................................................... 241
Discussion: Roads and Rivers, Sites and Resources ................................................... 242 Angkor, the Model of Resource-Driven Settlement ................................................ 242 The Angkorian Roads in Context ............................................................................ 244
West Road ........................................................................................................... 244 Northwest Road ................................................................................................... 244 Northeast Road .................................................................................................... 245 East Road ............................................................................................................. 246 Southeast Roads ................................................................................................... 248
Rivers and Secondary Roads ................................................................................... 249
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Angkor, the Axis of a Regional System .................................................................. 251 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 253
Chapter 11. The Road Less Travelled: Conclusions and Future Directions ........... 255
A New Perspective on the Angkorian Transport System ............................................ 256 Future Directions in Angkor ........................................................................................ 260
Components ............................................................................................................. 260 Concepts .................................................................................................................. 262
The Operational Approach for Empires ...................................................................... 263 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 264
References ...................................................................................................................... 265 Appendix 1 – Phlau Beng Excavation Report ................................................................ 283 Appendix 2 – Location Methods .................................................................................... 302 Appendix 3 – Data for Historical Analysis and GIS Methodologies ............................. 283
Table List and Sources .................................................................................................. 309
Figure List and Sources ................................................................................................ 311
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Chapter 1. The Operational Approach to Studying Archaeological Transportation
…to a greater or lesser extent, the tyranny of distance affects us all
Hoyle and Knowles 1992:9
Transportation, movement and communication are ubiquitous and vital components of
human activity. Goods, people and ideas are transmitted through space in a variety of
different ways at all levels of society. The diversity of scales across which transport
operates (e.g., international trade, local trips) makes it an important tool in informing on
greater societal interactions with the landscape, both past and present. As societies
increase in complexity there is an equivalent rise in the complexity of transportation and
communication networks. In archaeological contexts, the study of transportation is slowly
becoming de rigeur with more and more publications appearing on the subject (e.g.,
Erickson 2006; Keller 2006; Miller 2006; Snead 2006; Ur 2006). Despite this, the study
of transportation both theoretically and methodologically is still in its infancy and most
approaches focus on singular (i.e., location, description, analysis) than synthetic
perspectives. Currently, there is no cohesive summary of the theories, components and
methodological approaches to archaeological transportation on any societal scale,
including states and empires. The role of transportation is a critical component in the
functioning of empires, which relied on transport and communication in nearly every
facet of social reproduction varying from tax collection, military mobilisation and
dispersal, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Surprisingly, given the florescence of recent
studies on global empires (see Alcock et al. 2001; Yoffee 2005) few directly address the
role of transportation as a structuring element in high-ranking societies (e.g., Barfield
2001).
The objective of this thesis is to address the following issues in the archaeological
analysis of transport:
• create an operational approach for the study of transport in an archaeological
context
• identify the importance of transportation for the study of past empires
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• apply this new approach to the expansive transportation system of the Angkorian
Empire, which controlled much of mainland Southeast Asia between the 9th and
15th centuries CE
• offer a new interpretation of the Angkorian transport system and the implications
for our understanding of the Angkorian state
The general integration of transport and communication into society creates openings to a
vast number of potential research questions. This study of Angkorian system uses an
operational approach that is directed toward broad-scale analysis of the spatial, temporal
and functional/resources aspects of the transportation system. Discussion focuses on the
basic principles of the Angkorian economic, political and religious realms of society. It is
not focussed on the specific details of the dynamics and administration of the Angkorian
empire. Much of that basic work has yet to be done systematically for the whole of the
Angkorian period (cf. Vickery on the pre-Angkorian period [1998]). Rather the emphasis
is on an examination of how transportation would have operated to serve the generally
recognized demands of the society. Beyond the summary by Im (1999) there has as yet
been no comprehensive analysis of the Angkorian transport system. Within this re-
examination is the critical investigation of the spatial, temporal and geographic
relationships of the transport components and major settlement. The over-arching
research question is as follows: Was the Angkorian transport system the product of a
single ruler’s reign as has been accepted through historical evidence, or was it the result
of an accretional process that followed the expansion of the empire throughout the
Angkorian period? An important result of this process is the creation of new directions
for research emphasizing the role of transportation at various scales and in relation to
various aspects of society. A key implication of an accretional process is that the
transportation system was integral to the medieval Khmer and its society, not a relatively
late imposition and therefore a novel alteration of that state and society.
The Rise of Transport Archaeology Over the past decade there has been an increasing interest in the study of archaeological
transportation. Trombold’s edited volume (1991) can be attributed with renewing interest
in the subject as it provided a range of theoretical and methodological perspectives of
transportation and settlement from a variety of case studies set in the New World. Since
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this publication, transportation studies have slowly increased in the literature and has
been applied to a wide range of different cultural contexts and incorporated new
theoretical perspectives (e.g., phenomenological). Miller recently noted that transport
archaeology has further divided into studies of movement – the actual experience of
travel – versus studies of transport – which often focus solely on the origin and
destination of goods (2006:281). Presented together these complementary perspectives
represent a chaîne opératoire of transport; a researcher must therefore understand not
only where something came from but the process of how it was obtained and reached its
destination.
The increased interest in transport archaeology is connected to the theoretical and
methodological approaches developed over the past thirty years in settlement/landscape
archaeology. In order to study the relationships between settlements Clarke (1977)
suggested that we must trace the relative movements and flow of activities between
structures, sites and resource spaces. A spatial archaeology should also look at multiple
scales of activity and recognize that regardless of the level, be it local, regional, or supra-
regional, they are interrelated with one another and with the geographic constraints
(Ibid.:9). Contrary to this settlement-based perspective, landscape archaeology suggests
that the environmental milieu should be the basis of study, not just the archaeological
remains (Wandsnider 1992:286). A landscape approach, therefore, aims to identify the
development across the landscape rather than just the relation to the distribution of the
settlement system (Ibid.). Transport, which acts to connect settlements and is also deeply
imbedded in its physical surroundings, is therefore subject to these same scales and
perspectives.
A second benefit of the growth of landscape archaeology is that the increased number of
regional surveys has facilitated the collection of substantial quantities of settlement and
transportation data. The importance of combining these two forms of information was
recognized by Dowdle in his seminal work on the Arroux Valley road system,
An investigation of both the road networks and the settlement patterns of an area,
using one to shed light on the other, is more effective in creating a complete
picture of settlement, land use, and economics than an independent study or either
or both (1987:265).
4
A further advantage for studying transport is the development and accessibility of
Geographic Information Systems (GIS). A GIS platform enables researchers to create,
collate and spatially analyse the information derived from surveys, literature, or by
remote sensing. Since transportation data exist at multiple spatial scales the ability to
examine the spatial relationships between roads (regional scale) and sites (local scale) at
the same time is a significant boon for transport archaeology. Most uses of GIS in
transport contexts, however, have been limited to predictive applications (i.e., Whitely
and Hicks 2003). Kvamme has argued that,
the most exciting developments in GIS are in the analytical arena, for it is here
that we actually see new research topics and strategies never before contemplated
(1999:156).
While the application of GIS to the analysis of archaeological transport is slowly moving
toward addressing these descriptive and analytical approaches of transportation (e.g.,
Jennings and Craig 2003), the full potential of GIS applications has not been explored.
This thesis will demonstrate a range of different analytical approaches using GIS based
on archaeological, historic, and geographic information.
Empires in Motion A transportation approach is ideally suited to the study of complex societies such as
states, empires or civilizations. At nearly every turn, empires would rely on some form of
communication or transportation such as movement of goods into and out of their
territory, facilitating the movement of pilgrims, or enabling armies to quell rebellions in
provinces. General syntheses (Sinopoli 1994; Trigger 2003; Yoffee 2005) and
comparative works (i.e., Feinman and Marcus 1998; Alcock et al. 2001) discuss the
power relationships that enable these societies to florish in great detail. Ironically few of
these studies include or focus on the role of transportation in maintaining these power-
control relationships. D’Altroy, in the context of the Inka Empire, has noted some of the
key points in studying settlement and transportation, namely,
5
…we need to recognize that the distribution of imperial settlements and roads in a
given region likely balanced regional needs with the strategic demands of
administering an extensive, variegated polity (1992:71).
The location of settlement is often connected to the requirements of particular resources
found in the landscape. Through their communication networks, empires locate resources
in the landscape and establish settlement or mechanisms to incorporate them into their
realm of control. An excellent example of a state’s knowledge of the surrounding
territory and the distance to which it will go to procure goods is the site of Atalla, Peru.
Atalla, which is situated near one of the largest sources of cinnabar in the world, was
known to the elite of the Chavín culture whose power base was locates some 450 km
away to the north (Burger and Mendieta 2002:153). An examination of transport in an
imperial context must therefore consider why settlements were built in the landscape and
also whether it was directly connected to a formalized road system.
Smith pointed out that empires and states are often based on the actions of a single ruler
or particular events, such as a conquest (2005:836). She argues that researchers often fail
to realize that these events are often the result of routine activities, such as taxation,
tribute, the use of infrastructure, and ritual performance, all of which may leave
recognizable traces in the archaeological record. In order to understand the development
of transport in an imperial context, we need to include the pragmatic and mundane
operational activities of the state, as well as recorded events. The reproduction of these
activities over time and through space is directly linked to the establishment of routes and
the ultimate formalization of transport systems.
Using the parameters laid out above regarding the ways in which empires functioned, we
can identify a list of developmental characteristics (i.e., fluctuations through space and
time), and general requirements (i.e., economic, religious, political) that impact upon or
are impacted by transportation. This operational approach to transportation is a
potentially vital means for elucidating how a state controlled its resources, managed its
territory and laid out their settlements.
6
The Angkorian Transport System, Texts and Imperial Issues The Angkorian Empire (9th to 15th century CE) has been selected for the application of a
broad-ranging operational analysis of transportation for several reasons. The primary
reason for selecting Angkor is that it has the remains of an extensive road system with
abundant infrastructure (i.e., bridges, resthouses, water tanks), which radiated from
Angkor to its provincial centres. Research into this transport system has been largely
limited to culture historical approaches and interpretations of the construction and
function of roads and associated infrastructure are linked to king Jayavarman VII (1181-
1219 CE) through a single Sanskrit text, the Preah Khan inscription. Interpretation of the
remaining physical evidence of the road system has since been defined more by the
historic documents rather than through complementary examination of text and material
sources.
This leads to a second critical reason for locating this research at Angkor which is the
need for a synthetic and integrated approach to the interpretations and data sets in the
existing literature. Over the past 100 years substantial work, mostly by the École
Française d’Extrême-Orient, has been undertaken on all aspects of the Angkorian society,
including the transport system. Roads have been mapped, infrastructure has been
identified and general functions have been ascribed to the overall system (i.e., Lunet de
Lajonquière 1902-1911; Albrecht 1905-1906; Finot 1925; Coedès 1940). Yet, other than
Im (1998; 2004) and specific studies of bridges (Bruguier 2000) and resthouses
(Ittaratana 1998) there has been no attempt to analyse the transport system as an
integrated whole. The function(s) of infrastructure and the reasons for the construction of
settlements built at the end of a road are often mentioned (i.e., Jacques and Lafond 2004)
though there is an apparent lack of rigorous, empirically-based testing of these
conclusions in the literature.
A final reason for selecting Angkor is that it has not been considered within the
archaeological discussion of global empires. The city of Angkor, situated in north central
Cambodia, was the heart of an empire that controlled most of mainland Southeast Asia
particularly between the 11th to 13th centuries CE and had all the trappings of any
civilization including massive temple structures, a highly organized bureaucratic system,
and Sanskrit and Khmer language inscriptions. The concept of empire in Angkor has
been specified by historians with an emphasis on defining the chronology (Coedès 1937-
7
1966; Briggs 1951; Coedès 1968) and developmental stages (Wheatley 1983; Wolters
1999; Kulke 1986). A second wave of scholars (Mabbett 1978; Sedov 1978; Hagesteijn
1989; Hall 1985; Jacques 1986; Vickery 1986; Chandler 1996) has come to focus on the
politico-economic aspects of Angkorian history and it is largely from these summaries
that most of our understanding of the nature of this society is based. Discussion of
Angkor as an archaeological empire, however, has remained isolated from broader
operational comparisons with other states in global history.
BP Groslier, one of the most influential Angkorian archaeologists, argued that too much
effort had been invested in collecting information and not enough in collating and
comparing the data on a regional level (1986:32). His solution was that researchers need
to adopt a geographic approach whereby the Angkorian Khmer are examined within their
milieu rather than merely through the stone inscriptions that dominate the interpretations
of the society (Groslier 1980:216). Stark, and others, have recently called for the adoption
of multidisciplinary approaches using a varied range of data sets (i.e., archaeological, art
historic, epigraphic, and paleoenvironmental data) to examine the political, social,
economic and environmental contexts of state development (2006:409, 422; Fletcher et
al. 2003; Fletcher et al. 2006).
Research in Cambodia is somewhat unique in that much of the countryside remains
untouched by modern development. The recent political unrest during the Khmer Rouge
and subsequent civil wars prevented a comparable re-organization of the landscape that
occurred in Thailand. Many Angkorian sites remain isolated with little to no modern
human activity to dramatically alter the archaeological record. Combined with the fact
that many aspects of Cambodian rural life have embraced traditional technology, such as
the ubiquitous ox cart which is seen on the Bayon bas reliefs, it is feasible to extend our
view of the present into the Angkorian past.
An operational analysis of the Angkorian transport system combining multiple forms of
data (i.e., archaeological, historic, geographic) in a complementary rather than conflicting
approach will be applied in this thesis. The benefit of a complementary perspective is that
it can add new types of information (e.g., archaeological, geographic) to existing and
sometimes deeply entrenched debates that often arise from a single type of information
(e.g., histories) and adds methodological rigour derived from logical interpretations. In
8
addition, this approach aims to reveal the plurality of function in the Angkorian transport
system and also the plurality of development. The Angkorian roads may have been
initially built for a single purpose (i.e., military roads). Over time, however, this usage
would have naturally changed to meet the demands of the current cultural milieu, just as
the usage of the great baray (reservoirs) at Angkor appear to have changed over time
(Penny et al. 2007; Dumarçay 2003; Dumarçay 1994). This functional plurality is directly
related to a plurality of development which sees the transport system as result of repeated
episodes of construction, use and abandonment. The application of this operational
approach is necessary if we are to better understand the overall importance of transport
during the Angkorian period.
background, description of the Angkorian transport system, and mapping and analysis of
the transport system.
Transportation and Imperial Background The initial background chapter (Chapter 2) focuses on laying the theoretical and practical
background to the study of transportation. This involves outlining the basic principles
used in Transport Geography (i.e., nodes, links, cultural applications of transportation).
These categories are then examined through a literature review of global case studies.
These components represent the range of potential features that any transport system may
include and as such act as a guideline for specific evidence in an archaeological context.
The final part of this chapter outlines the concepts behind transportation. These concepts
refer to the ‘life-cycle’ of the roads and represent the range of practical questions that can
be asked of the component data (i.e., development, maintenance, decay).
Chapter 3 examines the range of approaches used by archaeologists to investigate past
transportation systems. The objective of this chapter is to outline the range of theories and
methods that have been applied and could be used in any context of road and transport
investigation. An important point that will be raised is the general tendency of
archaeological transport studies to focus on individual aspects (i.e., location, description,
or cultural analysis) rather than an integrated, broad-ranging investigation of each of
9
these different components or elements. The transport network analysis also needs to
integrate information on all transport routes (i.e., both roads and waterways) in an overall
landscape approach. In this chapter of the study emphasis is placed on identifying the
trends in archaeological approaches and the kinds of methods used by archaeologists to
address specific questions of the system.
The last chapter in this section (Chapter 4) deals with the theoretical aspects of
transportation and looks at the subject of empires. Emphasis is placed on the spatial and
temporal dynamics that affect all empires as well as the kinds of cultural mechanisms
(i.e., economic, religious, political) that empires use to maintain control over their
territories. Again, the emphasis here is on operational characteristics and does not enter
into discussions about models of political control or debates about what constitutes an
empire. Knowing the range of activities that required communication is sufficient
evidence for the study of transportation; knowing how these processes operated is not
required in this initial investigation.
The Angkorian Empire The discussion of Angkor is divided into three chapters. Chapter 5 outlines the
geographic and historical setting of the Angkorian period. The focus of this investigation
is restricted to the 9th to 13th centuries because the chronology of the latter two centuries
of the Empire is less certain, there was no further territorial expansion and substantial
construction appears to have dramatically decreased (Jacques and Freeman 1999:13). It is
acknowledged that the pre-Angkorian developments during the Funan and Chenla periods
influenced the location of early transport and settlement of the later period (see Vickery
1998). However, the road system is, with few exceptions, connected to sites that were
built or formalized during the Angkorian period. This investigation of transport is framed
between the text-based ‘start’ of the Angkorian Empire, demarcated by the crowning of
Jayavarman II in 802 CE, to the successors to Jayavarman VII in the late 13th century.
Particular emphasis will be placed on identifying evidence for regional communication
for the kings within this period.
Chapter 6 examines the Angkorian period in the context of an empire, specifically
identifying the role of the capital, the spatio-temporal dynamics between the reigns of
different kings and also the basic cultural mechanisms (i.e., economy, religion, political
10
structure) that would have played a role in its transportation system. This review serves to
outline the usual daily business of the Angkorian empire and people; most if not all of
which require some form of transport or communication.
Chapter 7 outlines the history of research on Angkorian transport by reviewing each of
the components in the transport system. A primary objective of this summary is to
identify the critical research questions about the transport network that can be addressed
through an operational analysis. This is achieved by integrating not only the summaries
of each transport component but also identifying the methodological trends within past
research. In particular, this thesis outlines the biases derived from the fact that the entire
road system is linked with the reign of Jayavarman VII through a single text, the Preah
Khan inscription. Through an operational approach, whereby information is integrated
and examined in specific sequence (e.g., spatial, temporal, cultural) the transport
information this thesis will demonstrate the inherent plurality of function and
development currently obscured by the information derived from this inscription.
Mapping and Analysis The final section of this thesis outlines three different approaches (spatial, temporal,
resource-function) using the principles of the operational investigation of transport. By
investigating these different approaches in sequence it is possible to identify not only the
individual characteristics of transport (e.g., how it is built? when parts were added? what
function did it serve?) but that these results can be integrated to address more detailed
questions of Angkorian society (e.g., was it planned? did the spacing of infrastructure
serve specific modes of transport?).
Chapter 8 begins with the process of creating a map and an inventory of the Angkorian
transport components using remote sensing and archaeological data in a GIS. This
follows from Cooley’s suggestion that the first step is to understand the arrangement of
transportation and then relate this to the society at large (1974[1894]:18). The
characteristics and spatial relationships in the Angkorian case study are examined
individually and collectively to answer the following questions,
• Are the transport components related to each other spatially?
11
• Is there a unified transport plan across the Angkorian system?
The temporal analysis (Chapter 9) is directed towards testing the assumptions that
Jayavarman VII was largely responsible for the physical remains of the Angkorian
transport system. Three separate approaches (temple construction/modification,
communication zones, historic events) are applied using a combination of historical and
architectural data sets. Each approaches relies on a broader range of historic data with the
overall aim of addressing the question,
• Does the bulk of historic and architectural evidence support the notion that
Jayavarman VII built the Angkorian road system?
The final analytical approach presented in Chapter 10 examines the physical location of
main Angkorian settlements in relation to natural resources required by the Angkorian
Khmer. Distance between major provincial sites to economic (i.e., food, tradable
commodities), political (strategic access) and religious (sacred topography) resources are
used to assess the range of potential functions of the Angkorian road and river systems.
The primary questions within this chapter are,
• What resources are within the immediate access of Angkorian sites on and off the
formalized road system?
• Does the establishment of major settlement relate to the imperial needs of the
state?
Conclusion The final chapter of this thesis summarizes the results of the spatial, temporal and
resource-based analyses in a broader context. The emphasis is upon drawing out basic
conclusions but, more importantly, to identify specific research directives that need to be
explored to clarify or expand on the outcomes of this research. This discussion will
include future avenues of investigation, specifically the introduction of other concepts of
transportation (i.e., seasonality, maintenance) and archaeological methods (i.e., absolute
dating methods). Further application of multi-spatial, multi-temporal and multi-
disciplinary approaches will dramatically increase our knowledge of past transportation at
any level of society. This thesis represents a first step towards this broader goal.
12
Objectives and Limitations of the Study The objective of this thesis is to clarify the information about the Angkorian
transportation system and rethink the preconceived notion of its construction as a one-off
event. Discussion of the Angkorian transport system is focussed on the analysis of its
spatial and temporal relationships and examines the degree to which it meshed into within
the cultural landscape of the Angkorian Khmer.
Ironically, given the vast quantity of historic, architectural and archaeological data
available we still have a limited systematic understanding of the actual functioning of the
system that would enable a comparative investigation of the nuances of Angkor’s
imperial activities in relation to other states and empires. This knowledge gap is in part
related to two decades of political instability in Cambodia at the end of the 20th century
that limited the fostering of research that took place in other imperial contexts. While our
knowledge of the politico-economics of pre-Angkorian Cambodia is well documented
(see Vickery 1998) a cohesive investigation of the Angkorian period has not been
completed. Two essential components required to build comparative models are a
coherent understanding of the political economy and quantification of the labour force
available to Angkorian rulers for temple and infrastructure projects and for the
maintenance of monuments and infrastructure. Lustig’s current PhD (n.d.) research is
directed towards reconstructing the economic relationships of the empire through an
investigation of the epigraphic data sets. Logistics have been dealt with broadly in the
context of Angkor’s rice production capabilities (see B-P Groslier 1979; Van Liere 1980;
Moore 1989; Acker 1998) and basic calculations of temple construction (Groslier 1935;
Dumarçay 1971) but has not been comprehensively examined for the whole Angkorian
empire. Even a major monument such as Angkor Wat awaits a logistic analysis of its
construction and its maintenance. The ability to make systematic, detailed comparisons to
other empires is not possible for Angkor at this time but is an important direction for
future research. The presentation of data from other empires in this thesis (see Chapters 2
and 4) is incorporated here as heuristic devices to identify the range of components used
within past transportation systems and stages of empires (formation-through-collapse) in
relation to the general needs for and the effects of transport development.
13
Summary Through these various discussions this thesis will illustrate the value in undertaking an
operational approach of past transport systems on a regional scale. The benefits of this
approach include both a detailed investigation of transport but, more importantly, that this
information extends our understanding of the archaeological remains of Angkor’s
transport and communication system. An operational study of transport therefore offers
specifics and general insights about various aspects of past society. Specifically in the
case of Angkor it shows that, while past historical approaches made substantial
contributions to our understanding of transportation in the region, they represent only one
aspect of a more complex picture. A synthetic approach allows the appraisal of previous
ideas about transport by using a broader range of data forms and archaeological methods.
Transportation systems are the result of accretion processes whereby routes become roads
and the function of these connections changes through time. By taking an integrated view
of transportation systems (e.g., roads) it is possible to evaluate their primary function but
also their interdependence with secondary systems (e.g., rivers). This plurality of function
and development is a critical perspective is assessing the dynamic nature of past transport
systems.
14
Chapter 2. Transport Geography, Components and Concepts
The character of transportation as a whole and in detail, at any particular time and throughout its history, is altogether determined by its inter-relations with physical and social forces and conditions. To understand transportation means simply to analyse these inter-relations
Cooley 1969[1894]:39
The first step in the operational approach to archaeological transport is to identify the
elements common to diverse forms of communication and movement in the past. Tenets
developed in the discipline of transport geography (Cooley 1969[1894]; Taafe and
Gauthier 1973; Robinson 1977; Rodrigue et al. 2006) are adopted here as an abstract
framework from which general transportation analyses can be undertaken. Transport
geography offers three important elements in this study. First, is that any transport system
can be broken down into a series of components – nodes, links – and also can be viewd as
complete networks. Secondly, by analysing the relationships between these components
we can identify the function of the system. Lastly, transport geography has long
recognized that transportation systems develop from and facilitate a variety of different
cultural functions (e.g., economic, political, religious and social) simultaneously.
From this theoretical background, a review of the range of transport components (e.g.,
roads, bridges, rest stops,) is presented from global history. This summary provides a list
of the potential features that could be expected in any transport system (e.g., paved roads,
watchtowers, rope bridges). The chapter ends with a discussion of the concepts of
transportation that govern the life cycle of any road sytem (i.e., planning, distance,
maintenance, seasonality).
The Principles of Transportation Transportation is a ubiquitous feature of human activity that, by definition, involves the
movement of goods, people and ideas across the landscape. The selection and functioning
of transport is guided by a diverse range of physical and cultural influences. C.H.
Cooley’s research on the social aspects of transport from the 19th century offers an
excellent starting point for this discussion,
15
The character of transportation as a whole and in detail, at any particular time and
throughout its history, is altogether determined by its inter-relations with physical
and social forces and conditions. To understand transportation means simply to
analyse these inter-relations (1969[1894]:39).
Nearly a century after Cooley’s treatise on transportation, transport geography was finally
recognized as a formal subdiscipline of geography, largely based on the idea that
transport is ubiquitous and multidisciplinary in nature (see Hurst 1974; Hoyle and
Knowles 1992:3-4).
The overarching presence of transportation in every aspect of life presents a daunting
methodological task for any researcher. Nevertheless, a set of basic principles of
movement are suggested: 1) geographic space consists of points (e.g., nodes); 2) a variety
of human activities are conducted at these points; 3) since human wants cannot be
satisfied at any one point, there is a continuous need for interaction between points; and
4) the cost of interaction is relative to the distance between points (Lowe and Moryadas
1975:54). In order to study transport we must first reduce it to its basic attributes,
essentially exposing the skeletal framework common to all transport networks. The
transportation geographer does this first by identifying and examining the relationships
between the physical components of transport. Once the skeletal structure has been
identified it becomes possible to overlay the cultural and physical processes that led to its
formation on the landscape (Taafe and Gauthier 1973:1). The following sections will
outline the basic elements of transport geography and its important concepts and examine
the different types of cultural impulses that led to its construction and use.
Components and Concepts of Transport Geography The identification of the basic physical components is the first step in studying a transport
system (Taafe and Gauthier 1973:5). Transport geography is concerned with identifying
the relationships between nodes, linkages, networks and the modes of transport.
Nodes Nodes are locations in the landscape where some form of significant activity occurs,
originates or ends (Lowe and Moryadas 1975:57). These loci can be settlements,
specialized sites (i.e, resource procurement), or rest stops. The importance of a node
varies according to its function or specialization; for example, in the modern world this
16
can be the production of manufactured goods, or the provision of retail trade or
professional services (Ibid.). The significance of a particular node shifts through time
with the corresponding needs of society.
Breaks and Termini Breaks and terminals are specific types of nodes that play a particular role in the
management of space, logistics, and extent of the network. A break is defined as ‘an
interruption of the movement at least sufficient to cause a transfer of goods and their
temporary storage’ (Cooley 1969:76). A break may be located anywhere that goods must
switch from one mode of transport to another (e.g., boat to land transport, maritime to
riverine vessels, or wheeled cart to pack animal). Rodrigue and colleagues use the term
barrier rather than ‘break’ and identify absolute, which require a modal change or detour)
and relative barr