artificially intelligent full - copy

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CONTENTS Page No

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. General Introduction 1

1.2. Statement of study 1

1.3. Objectives of the study 1

1.4. Scope of Literature 2

1.5. Review of Literature 2

1.6. Methodology 2

1.7.System Analysis 3

1.8.Feasibility Study 4

2.DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

2.1. Purpose of Design 5

2.2. Design Features 5

2.3. Block Diagram 5

2.4. Block Diagram Description 7

3.HARDWARE DETAILS

3.1. Atmega168 Microcontroller 8

3.1.1 Architecture 9

3.1.2 AVR CPU Core 10

3.1.3 Pin Configurations 12


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3.1.4 Features 13

3.1.5 Power Modes 14

3.1.6 Ports 15

3.1.7 Analog to Digital Converter 15

3.1.8 USART 15

3.2. Power Supply 16

3.3 Relay 17

3.4 LM7805C Voltage Regulator 18

3.5 Crystal Oscillator 20

3.6 MAX232 and DB9 connector (Level Converter) 22

3.7 RF transceiver. 23

4.SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

4.1 Code Vision AVR Cross Compiler 25

4.2 AVR Studio Programmer 26

4.3 Embedded C 27

5. TESTING

5.1. Introduction 28

5.1.1 Unite Testing 28

5.1.2 System Testing 29

5.1.3 Integration Testing 29

5.1.4 Acceptance Testing 29


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6. DISCUSSION

6.1. Merits 30

6.2. Limitations 30

7. APPLICATION 31

8.Summary of Literature Survey 32

9. CONCLUSION 33

10. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS 34

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 35


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure names Page No.

Figure 1.1 Waterfall process model 2

Figure 2.1(a) Block diagram(transmitter) of proposed system 5

Figure 2.1(b) Block diagram(receiver) of proposed system 6

Figure 2.2 Circuit diagram of proposed system 6

Figure 3.1 Architectural Block Diagram of ATmega 168 10Figure 3.2 Block diagram of the AVR central processing unit 11

Figure 3.3 Pin configuration of the Atmega168 microcontroller 12

Figure 3.4 Relay symbol 17

Figure 3.5 Circuit diagram of relay 17

Figure 3.6 Voltage regulators 18

Figure 3.7 Circuit Diagram of voltage regulator 19

Figure 3.8 A Crystal Oscillator 21

Figure 3.9 Pin diagram of MAX232 22

Figure 3.10 MAX232 and DB9 connector 22

Figure 3.11 RF Transreciever 24


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. General Introduction :

This particular project is designed for the cities with heavy traffic .Eg: In Bangalore the roads

are full jammed every time. Most of the time the traffic will at least for 100meters .In this

distance the traffics police cant hear the siren form the ambulance .so he ignores this .Then

the ambulance has to wait till the traffic is left. Some times to leave the traffic it takes at least

30 minutes .So by this time any thing can happen to the patient .So this project avoid thesedisadvantages.

According to this project if any ambulance comes near when the ambulance at emergency

comes to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop the signals and give green

signal for this ambulance.

1.2. Statement of Study:

The main aim of the project is to guide the ambulance in the hard core city traffic, as ambulance is

carrying the diseased to hospital for treatment it is a emergency situation, we need a efficient

traffic control system to help the ambulance to reach hospital in right time. This system can be

implemented in all the ambulances, so that the traffic control using RF/xbee, as well as physical

status of the patient is communicated to the hospital wirelessly using RF/xBEE and the precious

life of the patient can be saved much early.

1.3. Objectives of the study

Transparency and the rule of law. Strengthening operational processes, disciplinary measuresand individual competencies will only have marginal impact in the absence of broader structuralreforms aimed at setting the traffic light system within this governance framework.The main aim of the project is to guide the ambulance in the hard core city traffic, as ambulance is

carrying the diseased to hospital for treatment it is a emergency situation, we need a efficient

traffic control system to help the ambulance to reach hospital in right time.

1.4. Scope of literature

This particular project is designed for the cities with heavy traffic .Eg: In Bangalore the roads

are full jammed every time. Most of the time the traffic will at least for 100meters .In thisdistance the traffics police cant hear the siren form the ambulance .so he ignores this .Then

the ambulance has to wait till the traffic is left. Some times to leave the traffic it takes at least


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30 minutes .So by this time any thing can happen to the patient .So this project avoid these

disadvantages.




.

1.5. Review of literature

Many books have provided valuable information that was very useful for this project.

One such book authored by John. B. Peatman , Design with Microcontrollers, Pearson

Education PTE. Ltd. First Edition , 2001

1.6 Methodology

Software Process:

The software process is the set of activities and associated results, which produced a

software product.

Example: Waterfall process model, Spiral model and Evolutionary model.

The Waterfall process model has been followed for the development of this project.

This model is the one of the best process models. There are several variations of this

model.

This process is best only when all the requirements are known in advance. This process is

easy to understand by system developers as well as users. And this process model is more

visible, as it produces deliverables at the end of end phase.

Visibility is one of the process characteristics that are looked for by project managers

while selecting a process model for any project.

Figure 1.1 Waterfall process model

Implementation

Testing

Design

Analysis


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2

The waterfall process model has five phases. They are as given below.

(1)Analysis

The systems services, constraints and goals are established by consultation with system

users.(2)Design

The systems design process partitions the requirements to either hardware or software

systems. It establishes an overall system architecture. Software design involves

representing the software system functions in a form that may be transformed into one or

more executable programs.

(3)Implementation

During this stage, the software design is realized as a set of programs or program units.

(4)Testing

The individual program units or programs are tested. Then they are integrated and tested

as a complete system to ensure that the software requirements have been met. After

testing, the software system is delivered to the customer.

Advantages:

1) The development process is more visible, i.e. deliverables are produced after each

phase. This will help to know the status of the project at any time.

2) This is best suitable for projects in which all the requirements are known in advance

and projects changes are not required.

Disadvantages:

It is not possible to go to previous phase to accommodate any changes in it.

1.7 System Analysis

1.7.1 Problem statement

What we have to do is we have to attach a IR receiver on pole 0.5km before the traffic signal.

Ambulance will be continuously transmitting signals, these transmitted signal are received by

the receiver on the pole after receiving these signal if the red light is (ON) on the way of

Ambulance that light will be automatically turned to green and on all other ways the red light will

be turned (ON) making way for Ambulance . If there is green light no action will be performed.


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When the Ambulance is nearby to the hospital it will start sending the signal to the host attached

to PC using wireless technology (xBEE/RF) range around 300 meters for our demo purpose later

it can be improved with a little more cost.

The informed transmitted to the host computer in hospital from the ambulance includes type

disease being suffered this input is given by the concerned person in the ambulance.

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1.8 Feasibility Study

1.8.1 TECHNICAL:

When there is a whole range of desirable new high end features to the scene, the new

features interact in cleverer ways.

The Atmega168 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced

RICS architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the

Atmega168 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, allowing the system

designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. High performance is its

main feature. It operates with a voltage of 4.5-5.5.

1.8.2 ECONOMICAL:

The components like Atmega168, DC motors, relay costs low. From economical

point of view the cost of purchasing software is low. Ultimately, the implementation of

this project will reduce the expenditure of power supply board.

1.8.3 OPERATIONAL:

The module provides very user friendly interface and does not need extra training

for usage.


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CHAPTER 2

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

2.1. Purpose of Design:

This particular project is designed for the cities with heavy traffic .Eg: In Bangalore the

roads are full jammed every time. Most of the time the traffic will at least for 100meters.In this distance the traffics police cant hear the siren form the ambulance .so he ignores

this .Then the ambulance has to wait till the traffic is left. Some times to leave the traffic

it takes at least 30 minutes .So by this time any thing can happen to the patient .So

this project avoid these disadvantages.





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2.3. Block Diagram:

To practically implement the above features, the arrangement of various devices in our

system is as shown in the following block diagram

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Module in Ambulance

RF

RELAY

Micro Controller

ATmega48/88/32

IR

SENSORS

POWER

SUPPLYBuzzer LED

DC motors


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RECEIVER AT HOSPITAL

RF

POWER

SUPPLY

PC


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RECEIVER AT POLE

Figure 2.1(B) Block diagram of proposed system

LEDs

Micro Controller

ATmega48

POWER

IR

sensors


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Figure 2.2 Circuit diagram of proposed system

6


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2.4 Block Diagram Description

What we have to do is we have to attach a IR receiver on pole 0.5km before the trafficsignal. Ambulance will be continuously transmitting signals, these transmitted signal

are received by the receiver on the pole after receiving these signal if the red light is (ON)

on the way of Ambulance that light will be automatically turned to green and on all

other ways the red light will be turned (ON) making way for Ambulance . If there is

green light no action will be performed.

When the Ambulance is nearby to the hospital it will start sending the signal to the host

attached to PC using wireless technology (xBEE/RF) range around 300 meters for ourdemo purpose later it can be improved with a little more cost.

The informed transmitted to the host computer in hospital from the ambulance includes

type disease being suffered this input is given by the concerned person in the ambulance.


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CHAPTER 3

HARDWARE COMPONENTS

The hardware components used in our project is listed below.

1 ATmega168 microcontroller

2 Power Supply

4 LM7805cV (Regulator)

5. IR sensor

6. TARANG (RF TRANCEIVER)

7. DC motor

8. RELAY

3.1 ATmega168 microcontroller

The microcontroller is at the core of every embedded module. Hence, great care must be

exercised in choosing the right microcontroller without compromising on functionality.

Keeping in view many factors that governed the correct implementation of our project the

ATmega168 microcontroller from Atmel Corporations AVR microcontroller family was

chosen. Few crucial reasons may be cited so as to justify our choice of this

microcontroller. The first being, that all AVR microcontrollers are designed to deliver

more performance at lesser power consumption. It is compatible with popular protocols

like I2C and SPI. It also has advanced features like an on chip analog to digital converter,

six pulse width modulation channels, and data retention is supported up to a hundred

years at 25 C. Also compilers for the ATmega88 are available free of cost from the

manufacturer. An added advantage is that the AVR series can be programmed using the

AVRGCC (GNU C compiler) , thus making it an undisputed choice for even GNU/Linux

based programmers. The Atmega48 microcontroller has execution speeds of up to one

MIPS per MHz of clock frequency. Elucidating the specifications of the CPU of the

AVR, it is an 8 bit microcontroller with advanced RISC architecture. The CPU is


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designed for the stellar combination of parallelism and performance. Thus the CPU uses

the Harvard architecture (separate memories and buses for program and data). The CPU

also accommodates a 32 general purpose 8-bit registers.

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3.1.1 Architecture

The ATmega168 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR

enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle,

the ATmega88 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system

designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. The AVR core

combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two

independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle.

The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten

times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers. The architectural block diagram is

as shown in the next page.


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Figure 3.1: Architectural Block Diagram of ATmega 168

3.1.2 AVR CPU Core

This section discusses the AVR core architecture in general. The main function of the

CPU core is to ensure correct program execution. The CPU must therefore be able to

access memories, perform calculations, control peripherals, and handle interrupts.

In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a Harvard architecture

with separate memories and buses for program and data. Instructions in the program

memory are executed with a single level pipelining. While one instruction is being

executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched from the program memory. This concept

enables instructions to be executed in every clock cycle. The program memory is In-

System Reprogrammable Flash memory.


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The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-bit general purpose working registers with a

single clock cycle access time. This allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

operation.

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In a typical ALU operation, two operands are output from the Register File, the operation

is executed, and the result is stored back in the Register File in one clock cycle.

Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address register pointers for

Data Space addressing enabling efficient address calculations. One of the these address

pointers can also be used as an address pointer for look up tables in Flash program

memory. These added function registers are the 16-bit X-, Y-, and Z-register, described

later in this section.

Program flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call instructions,

able to directly address the whole address space. Most AVR instructions have a single 16-

bit word format. Every program memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit instruction. The

Block Diagram of the AVR Architecture is as shown in the next page.


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Figure 3.2: Block diagram of the AVR central processing unit

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3.1.3 Pin Configurations


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Figure 3.3: Pin configuration of the Atmega168 microcontroller

3.1.3.1: VCC Digital supply voltage

3.1.3.2: GND Ground

3.1.3.3: Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2-Port B is an 8 bit bi-directional

I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. Alternate functions of the pins of Port B are

functions related to SPI and the Pin Change Interrupt or PCINT.

3.1.3.4: Port C (PC6:0)-Port C is a 7-bit bi directional I/O port, with the PC6 pin being

used as a reset pin if the reset disable fuse (RSTDISBL) is not programmed. If PC6 is

used as a reset pin, then a low level lasting for more than 2.5 s at that pin will generate

the required reset condition. The alternate function for the pins of this port is that they act

as ADC input channels used here with the thermistor to aid in temperature measurements.

3.1.3.5: Port D (PD7:0)- Port D is an 8-bit bi directional I/O port and even its pins, like

those of port B and C have alternate functions. The pins of port D can also serve as

transmitter and receiver pins for the internal USART of the microcontroller, they can also

add up as comparator inputs to the internal comparator circuit of the microcontroller.

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3.1.3.6: AVCC-It is the supply voltage for the ADC, PC3 to PC0 and ADC 7:6. It is

externally connected to VCC and if the ADC is used it is connected to the VCC supply

voltage through a low pass filter.

3.1.3.7: AREF-It is the analog reference pin for the ADC.

3.1.4 Features

High Performance, Low Power AVR 8-Bit Microcontroller

Advanced RISC Architecture

131 Powerful Instructions Most Single Clock Cycle Execution

32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

Fully Static Operation

Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20 MHz

Non-volatile Program and Data Memories

4/8/16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash (ATmega48/88/168)

Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles

Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

256/512/512 Bytes EEPROM (ATmega48/88/168)

Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles

512/1K/1K Byte Internal SRAM (ATmega48/88/168)

Programming Lock for Software Security

Peripheral Features

Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode

One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture

Mode.

Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

Six PWM Channels

8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and MLF package

6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package

Programmable Serial USART

Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator13


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Special Microcontroller Features

Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

Internal Calibrated Oscillator

External and Internal Interrupt Sources

Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, andStandby

I/O and Packages

23 Programmable I/O Lines

28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP and 32-pad MLF

Operating Voltage:

1.8 - 5.5V for ATmega48V/88V/168V

2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega48/88/168

Temperature Range:

-40C to 85C

Speed Grade:

ATmega48V/88V/168V: 0 - 4 MHz

ATmega48/88/168: 0 - 10 MHz

Low Power Consumption

Active Mode:

1 MHz, 1.8V: 240A

32 kHz, 1.8V: 15A (including Oscillator)

Power-down Mode: 0.1A at 1.8V

3.1.5 Power modes

The Idle mode stops the CPU while the SRAM, Timer/Counters, USART, 2-wire Serial

Interface, SPI port, and interrupt system continue to function. In the Power-down mode,the register contents are saved but the oscillator is frozen until an interrupt is raised or the

hardware is reset. In the Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer is running while the

remaining peripheral components of the device are sleeping. For reduction of noise with

respect to the ADC, the CPU and all other I/O devices are halted and only the

asynchronous timer along with the ADC is runningThe standby mode can be useful for

quick start-ups. Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the oscillator,

disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

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asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In

Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is

sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption. Moving

ahead, now a brief discussion of the external interrupts has to be done.

3.1.6 Ports

The ports of the AVR have read-modify-write functionality when used as general digital

I/O ports, as stated in the datasheet of the device. The ports are bi-directional I/O ports

with optional internal pull-ups. Each port pin mainly has three register bits which are

DDxn, PORTxn and PINxn. DDxn is the data direction bit and indicates input or output at

a particular pin of any port .

If DDxn is set to one, the pin is used as output pin, else it is an input pin. If PORTxn is

written to a logic one, and if DDxn is set to zero that particular pins internal pull upresistor is activated. The DDxn is accessed at the DDRx register, the PORTxn is in the

PORTx register and the PINxn is at the PINx register. Writing a logic one to PINxn will

toggle PORTxn. The alternate functions of the port pins and the port registers are

explained at the end as part of the datasheets. The pin value can be read at any time

through the PINxn register bit, irrespective of the DDxn pin setting.

3.1.7 Analog to digital converter

The Atmega48 is equipped with a successive approximation analog to digital converterwith a resolution of 10 bits. All the input channels of the ADC are connected to a

multiplexer.

The ADC channel is selected by selecting the corresponding bits as defined in the

ADMUX register of the microcontroller. The ADC output which is 10 bits long is stored

in the ADCH and ADCL registers of the microcontroller. For eight bit precision, reading

ADCH is sufficient. Further details of the ADC are provided with the datasheets.

3.1.8 USART

A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (usually abbreviated UART and

pronounced is a type of "asynchronous receiver/transmitter", a piece of computer

hardware that translates data between parallel and serial forms. A UART is usually an

individual (or part of an) integrated circuit used for serial communications over a

computer or peripheral device serial port.

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Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other

medium is much more cost effective than parallel transmission through multiple wires. A

UART is used to convert the transmitted information between its sequential and parallel

form at each end of the link. Each UART contains a shift register which is the

fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms.

The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used

between different items of equipment. Typically, separate interface devices are used to

convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signaling levels.

Communication may be "full duplex" (both send and receive at the same time) or "half

duplex" (devices take turns transmitting and receiving).

3.1.8.1 Features

Asynchronous or Synchronous Operation

Full Duplex Operation (Independent Serial Receive and Transmit

Registers)

Master or Slave Clocked Synchronous Operation

High Resolution Baud Rate Generator

Supports Serial Frames with 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 Data Bits and 1 or 2 Stop Bits

Odd or Even Parity Generation and Parity Check Supported by Hardware

Data OverRun Detection

Framing Error Detection

Noise Filtering Includes False Start Bit Detection and Digital Low Pass

Filter

Three Separate Interrupts on TX Complete, TX Data Register Empty and

RX Complete

3.2 Power Supply

Power supply is used to energies the equipments such as microcontroller, relay, level

converter, GSM and GPS module. The power supply is used to energies the whole

module. The power supply can be in the form of wired or battery. In our project 12V

battery is used as a power supply.

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3.4 LM7805C Voltage Regulator :

A voltage regulator based on an active device (such as a bipolar junction

transistor, field effect transistor or vacuum tube) operating in its "linear region" and

passive devices like zener diodes operated in their breakdown region.

The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor, continuously

adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a constant output voltage.

Figure.3.6. Voltage Regulators

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Figure 3.7: circuit diagram of voltage regulator

Linear regulators exist in two basic forms: series regulators and shunt regulators.

Series regulators are the more common form. The series regulator works by providing a

path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance (the main transistor

is in the "top half" of the voltage divider). The power dissipated by the regulating device

is equal to the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating

device.

The shunt regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground

through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage

divider). The current through the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows

uselessly to ground, making this form even less efficient than the series regulator. It is,

however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in

very low-powered circuits where the wasted current is too small to be of concern. Thisform is very common for voltage reference circuits.

The "78xx" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series

(7905, 7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device

number are the output voltage; eg, a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a -15 V

regulator. The 78xx series ICs can supply up to 1.5 Amperes depending on the model.

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3.4.1 Features

1. 5V, 3V, and 3.3V versions available

2. High accuracy output voltage

3. Guaranteed 100mA output current

4. Extremely low quiescent current

5. Low dropout voltage

6. Extremely tight load and line regulation

7. Very low temperature coefficient

8. Use as Regulator or Reference

9. Needs minimum capacitance for stability

10. Current and Thermal Limiting

11. Stable with low-ESR output capacitors (10m to 6)

3.5 Crystal Oscillator - 4MHz :

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a

vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise

frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time, to provide a stable

clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio

transmitters and receivers.

The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator

circuits designed around them were called "crystal oscillators".A crystal is a solid in

which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered,

repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.

Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with

appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration.For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in

mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape,

elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically

cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used

in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not

needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a

quartz crystal.

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When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its

previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves

like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant

frequency.

Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in

such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific

characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is

cut (relative to its crystallographic axes).[5] Therefore, the resonant frequency of the

plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz

clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz

oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can

also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanicalvibrations.

Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to

tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually.

Most are small devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios,

computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement

equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

Figure 3.8: A Crystal Oscillator
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Crystal_oscillator_4MHz.jpg


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5. IR SENSORS

A Passive Infrared sensor(PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR) light

radiating from objects in its field of view. PIR sensors are often used in the construction ofPIR-

basedmotion detectors (see below). Apparent motion is detected when an infrared source with

one temperature, such as a human, passes in front of an infrared source with another

temperature, such as a wall.[1]

All objects aboveabsolute zeroemit energy in the form of radiation. It is usually infrared radiation

that is invisible to thehuman eye but can be detected by electronic devices designed for such a

purpose. The termpassive in this instance means that the PIR device does not emit an infrared

beam but merely passively accepts incoming infrared radiation. Infra meaning below our ability

to detect it visually, and Red because this color represents the lowest energy level that our eyes

can sense before it becomes invisible. Thus, infrared means below the energy level of the color

red, and applies to many sources of invisible energy. [2]

.

6. DC motors

Used for rotating the camera.

An electric motorconverts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most

electric motorsoperate through interacting magnetic fields and current-carrying

conductorscurrent-carrying conductors to generate force, although electrostatic

motors useelectrostaticforces. The reverse process, producing electrical energy

from mechanical energy, is done by generatorssuch as analternatoror
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a dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice

versa. For example a starter/generator for a gas turbine, ortraction motors used

on vehicles, often perform both tasks. Electric motors and generators are

commonly referred to as electric machines.

MOTOR

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically

through the interaction ofmagnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse

process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a

generatorordynamo. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks. Many

types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,

machine tools, household appliances,power tools, anddisk drives. They may be powered

bydirect current(for example abatterypowered portable device or motor vehicle), or by

alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be

found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions

and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. Electric

motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction,

by their application, or by the type of motion they give.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric

current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing

efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of

electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical

distribution networks.

3.1.1 Construction of Motor
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Fig 3.1: Components of Motor


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Fig 3.2: Assembly of Electric Motor

Fig 3.3: Working principle of Electric Motor

3.1.2 History and development


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Fig 3.4: Setup of Electromagnetic experiment of Faraday, 1821

The principle

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means

was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire

was dipped into a pool ofmercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a

current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the

current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often

demonstrated in school physics classes, butbrine (salt water) is sometimes used in place

of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of devices called homopolar

motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices

only, unsuited to practical applications due to their primitive construction.

Fig 3.5: Jedlik's "lightning-magnetic self-rotor", 1827(Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest.)

In 1827, Hungarian nyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating

devices he called "lightning-magnetic self-rotors". He used them for instructive purposes

in universities, and in 1828 demonstrated the first device which contained the three main

components of practical direct current motors: thestator,rotorand commutator. Both the

stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic, employing no permanent

magnets. Again, the devices had no practical application.
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3.1.3 Categorization of electric motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that ofAlternating

Current (AC) types v/s Direct Current (DC) types. This is more a

de facto convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For example,many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being

referred to as universal motors.

Rated output power is also used to categorise motors, those of less than 746 Watts, for

example, are often referred to as fractional horsepower motors(FHP) in reference to the

old imperial measurement.

The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as moderndrivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor,

driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some

approximation thereof. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the

stepping motor, both being poly-phase AC motors requiring external electronic control,

although historically, stepping motors (such as for maritime and naval gyrocompass

repeaters) were driven from DC switched by contacts.

Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving

magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer

distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous

motor requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce

current in the winding set by mutual inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the

common AC induction motor which must slip to generate torque. In the synchronous

types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current production (e.g.

permanent magnet motors, synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric

machine).

Servo motor
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A servomechanism, or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing feedback

to correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to

systems where the feedback or error-correction signals help control mechanical

position or other parameters. For example, an automotive power window control is

not a servomechanism, as there is no automatic feedback which controls positiontheoperator does this by observation. By contrast the car's cruise control uses closed loop

feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism.

Synchronous electric motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with

coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting

magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under

usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to

produce torque. A synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is

excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to rotor. The

rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed.

Induction motor

Induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to

the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another commonly used

name is squirrel cage motor because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a

squirrel cage (hamster wheel). An electric motor converts electrical power to

mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways to supply power

to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC

source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device. An

induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator

(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor

(rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used, especially

polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives


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Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)

Electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on the

attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of

conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high voltage power supply,although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors

instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low

voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin

Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in

micro-mechanical (MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are below 100 volts,

and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores.

Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear androtary electrostatic motors.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutatorDC motor are due to the need for

brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds,

brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the

irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. (Sparks are also created

inevitably by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the

brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the

commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections

and hence coil endsmomentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the

inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is

opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum

speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the

commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with

theirresistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric

contact also causes electrical noise, and the sparks additionally cause RFI. Brushes

eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to

wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The

commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision

assembly of small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the

rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output,

but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor
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can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable to the

problem of "valve float" in internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are also

desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a

given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower

efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brushdesign entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

There are five types of brushed DC motor:

A. DC shunt wound motor

B. DC series wound motor

C. DC compound motor (two configurations):

Cumulative compound

Differentially compounded

D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor

E. Separately-excited (sepex)

Brushless DC motors

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design.

In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is

replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position.

Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a

brushless electric motor of up to 96.5% were reported by researchers at the Tokai

University in Japan in 2009), whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-

80% efficient.

Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the

brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use

a permanent magnet sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive

electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics

as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the back EMF(electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-phase
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synchronous motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A

specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the

main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and

velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles.

When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelistsas outrunner motors.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as

in computerdisk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD,CD-

ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers

andphotocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, runningmuch cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-

improved life of the fan'sbearings.

Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be

significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator.

Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a

commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive

devices like audio equipment or computers.

The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a

convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled)

applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK"

signal.

The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to

precise speed control.

Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making

them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also,

sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings

risking harm to occupants' health.

Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are

generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
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They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment

that is affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many

kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric

vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

Coreless or ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron

(steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of

the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC

motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid

acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The

rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure

comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the

stator magnets; a magnetically-soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a

return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding

basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a

magnetically-soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewiseprovides a return path for the flux.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed

from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more

rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constantless than 1 ms. This is especially

true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is

no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often

be cooled by forced air.

Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the

poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for

rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives.
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Printed Armature or Pancake DC Motors

A rather unique motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has the windings

shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets, arranged in a circle,

facing the rotor and forming an axial air gap. This design is commonly known thepancake motor because of its extremely flat profile, although the technology has had

many brand names since it's inception, such as ServoDisc.

The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed

armature motor is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using

advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The printed armature has a unique

construction, in the brushed motor world, in that is does not have a separate ring

commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole

design very compact.

An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a

central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are

typically stabilized by being impregnated with electrical epoxy potting systems. These

are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are

highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180C (Class H) (UL File No. E

210549).

The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (vibration

caused by attraction between the iron and the magnets) and parasitic eddy currents

cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless. This can greatly improve efficiency,

but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or direct

current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.

These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) ofmagnetic tape drives,

in the burgeoning computer industry. Pancake motors are still widely used in high-

performance servo-controlled systems, humanoid robotic systems, industrial

automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available the

technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump

and basic servo applications.

Universal motors
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_currentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_currentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_inductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotic


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A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has been designed

to operate on either AC or DC power. The ability to operate on AC is because the

current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields)

will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical

force will occur in a constant direction.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are very rarely larger

than one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower). Universal motors also form the basis of the

traditional railway traction motorin electric railways. In this application, to keep their

electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies,

with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they are universal

motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable of operating from

a third rail powered by DC.

An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors

which have some characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high

starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative

aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a

result, such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power

tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-torque demands.Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on AC is easily obtained by

use of a thyristorcircuit, while (imprecise) stepped speed control can be accomplished

using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds

frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diodethat can be inserted in

series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).

Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances

such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is

desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills,

circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum

cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other

similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.

Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of

design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, suddenloss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated

into the motor's protection and control schemes. In some smaller applications, a fan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_electrification_system#Low-frequency_alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_electrification_system#Low-frequency_alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_dryerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_sawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigsaw_(power_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_trimmerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dremelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dremelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(mechanical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_electrification_system#Low-frequency_alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blender_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleanerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_dryerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_drillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_sawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigsaw_(power_tool)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_trimmerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dremelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(mechanical)


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blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a

safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over the armature and field

windings.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(mechanical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(mechanical)


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Table 1: Classification of Electric Motors

Electric motors

Broad Motor Categories Synchronous motor AC motorDC motor

Conventional

Electric Motors

InductionBrushed DC Brushless DC Stepper

Linear UnipolarReluctance

Novel Electric Motors Ball bearingHomopolar PiezoelectricUltrasonic

ElectrostaticSwitched Reluctance

Motor

Controllers

Adjustable-speed driveAmplidyne Direct torque

controlDirect on line starterElectronic speed control

Metadyne Motor controllerVariable-frequency

drive Vector control Ward Leonard control

Thyristor drive

Others Barlow's Wheel Nanomotor Traction motor Lynch

motor Mendocino motorRepulsion motor

Inchworm motorBooster (electric power) Brush

(electric) Electrical generator Alternator
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unipolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reluctance_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reluctance_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_Reluctance_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_Reluctance_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustable-speed_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustable-speed_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplidynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplidynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_on_line_starterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_on_line_starterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_control_(motor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_Leonard_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow's_Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendocino_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repulsion_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repulsion_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchworm_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchworm_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_(electric_power)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_(electric_power)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushed_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unipolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reluctance_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_Reluctance_Motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustable-speed_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplidynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_on_line_starterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_control_(motor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_Leonard_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow's_Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynch_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendocino_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repulsion_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchworm_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_(electric_power)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternator


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Table 2: Comparison of motor types

Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical ApplicationTypical

Drive

AC Induction

(Shaded Pole)

Least expensive

Long life

high power

Rotation slips from

frequency

Low starting torque

FansUni/Poly-

phase AC

AC Induction

(split-phase

capacitor)

High power

high starting

torque

Rotation slips from

frequencyAppliances

Uni/Poly-

phase AC

AC

Synchronous

Rotation in-sync

with freq

long-life(alternator)

More expensive

Industrial motors

Clocks

Audio turntablestape drives

Uni/Poly-

phase AC

Stepper DC

Precision

positioning

High holding

torque

Requires a

controller

Positioning in

printers and floppy

drives

DC

3 Relay

Relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays allow one circuit to switch a

second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. Relays can switch AC and

DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch higher voltages than standard
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaded-pole_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaded-pole_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaded-pole_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaded-pole_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_induction_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motor


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transistors. Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays

can switch many contacts at once.

Figure 3.4: Relay symbol

Figure 3.5: Circuit diagram of relay

17

3.3.1 Advantages

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.

Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.


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Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (>5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once.

3.3.2 Disadvantages

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many

times per second.

Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.

7 RF(TRANSRECIEVER)

RF was created to address the market need for a cost-effective, standards-basedwireless networking solution that supports low data-rates, low-power consumption-usersexpect battery to last months to years, security, and reliability. RF is the only standards-

based technology that addresses the unique needs of most remote monitoring and controland sensory network applications.

The initial markets for the RF Alliance include Consumer Electronics, EnergyManagement and Efficiency, Health Care, Home Automation, Building Automation andIndustrial Automation.

It is wireless networking protocol aimed at automation and remote controlapplications.The RF mesh network connects sensors and controllers without beingrestricted by distance or range limitations. RF mesh networks let all participating devicescommunicate with one another, and act as repeaters transferring data between devices.

These modules use the IEEE 802.15.4 networking protocol for fast point-to-multipoint orpeer-to-peer networking. They are designed for high-throughput applications requiringlow latency and predictable communication timing.

23


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USER MANUAL

1. Power on the xbee module by giving +12v DC Power supply.

2. Connect the xbee module to the server using RS3232 cable using level

converter.

3. Open the .net software in computer.

4. Open the corresponding port.

5. Switch on the module near the door enter the valid key which is setted in the

server if the key matches the will open with the buzzer indication.

6. If the wrong key entered door will not get accessed

7. Check for device on off using relay.

.

Chapter-4

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

The software components used in our project is listed below.

1. CVAVR cross compiler

2.AVR studio programmer

3.Embedded C


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4.1 Code Vision AVR Cross Compiler

1. CodeVisionAVR is a C cross-compiler, Integrated Development Environment and

Automatic Program Generator designed for the Atmel AVR family of

microcontrollers.

2. The program is designed to run under the Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000 andXP operating systems.

3. The C cross-compiler implements nearly all the elements of the ANSI C language,

as allowed by the AVR architecture, with some features added to take advantage

of specificity of the AVR architecture and the embedded system needs.

4. The compiled COFF object files can be C source level debugged, with variable

watching, using the Atmel AVR Studio debugger.

The Integrated Development Environment (IDE) has built-in AVR Chip In-SystemProgrammer software that enables to automatically transfer of the program to the

microcontroller chip after successful compilation/assembly. The In-System Programmer

software is designed to work in conjunction with the Atmel STK500/AVRISP/AVRProg

(AVR910 application note), Kanda Systems STK200+/300, Dontronics DT006, Vogel

Elektronik VTEC-ISP, Futurlec JRAVR and MicroTronics ATCPU/Mega2000

programmers/development boards. For debugging embedded systems, which employ

serial communication, the IDE has a built-in Terminal. esides the standard C libraries, the

CodeVisionAVR C compiler has dedicated libraries for:

1. Alphanumeric LCD modules

2. Philips I2C bus

3. National Semiconductor LM75 Temperature Sensor

4. Philips PCF8563, PCF8583, Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS1302 and DS1307

Real Time Clocks

25

5. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor 1 Wire protocol

6. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS1820, DS18S20, DS18B20 Temperature Sensors

7. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS1621 Thermometer/Thermostat

8. Maxim/Dallas Semiconductor DS2430 and DS2433 EEPROMs


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9. SPI

10. Power management

11. Delays

12. Gray code conversion

CodeVisionAVR also contains the CodeWizardAVR Automatic Program Generator that

allows you to write, in a matter of minutes, all the code needed for implementing the

following functions:

1. External memory access setup

2. Chip reset source identification

3. Input/Output Port initialization

4. External Interrupts initialization

5. Timers/Counters initialization

6. Watchdog Timer initialization

7. UART (USART) initialization and interrupt driven buffered serial communication

8. Analog Comparator initialization

9. ADC initialization

10. SPI Interface initialization

11. Two Wire Interface initialization

12. CAN Interface initialization

13. I2C Bus, LM75 Temperature Sensor, DS1621 Thermometer/Thermostat and

PCF8563, PCF8583, DS1302, DS1307 Real Time Clocks initialization

14. 1 Wire Bus and DS1820, DS18S20 Temperature Sensors initialization

4.2 AVR Studio Programmer

AVR Studio is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for writing and

debugging AVR applications in Windows 9x/ME/NT/2000/XP/VISTA environments.


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AVR Studio provides a project management tool, source file editor, simulator, assembler

and front-end for C/C++, programming, emulation and on-chip debugging.

26

AVR Studio supports the complete range of ATMEL AVR tools and each release will

always contain the latest updates for both the tools and support of new AVR

devices.AVR Studio 4 has a modular architecture which allows even more interaction

with 3rd party software vendors. GUI plug-ins and other modules can be written and

hooked to the system.

4.3 Embedded C

Embedded C is extensive and contains many advanced concepts. The range of modules

covers a full introduction to C, real-time and embedded systems concepts through to the

design and implementation of real time embedded or standalone systems based on real-

time operating systems and their device drivers. Real time Linux (RTLinux) is used as an

example of such a system. The modules include an introduction to the development of

Linux device drivers. Embedded C covers all of the important features of the C language

as well as a good grounding in the principles and practices of real-time systems

development including the POSIX threads (pthreads) specification.

The design of the modules is intended to provide an excellent working knowledge of the

C language and its application to serious real time or embedded systems. Those wanting

in-depth training specifically on RTLinux or Linux kernel internals should contact us to

discuss their requirements; this set of modules is geared more towards providing the

groundwork for approaching those domains rather than as in-depth training on a specific

approach.

Embedded C contains essential information for anyone developing embedded systems

such as microcontrollers, real-time control systems, mobile device, PDAs and similar

applications. This C course is based on many years experience of teaching C, extensive

industrial programming experience and also participation in the ANSI X3J11 and BSI

standards bodies that produced the standard for C. We focus on the needs of day-to-day

users of the language with the emphasis being on practical use and delivery of reliable

software.

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