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ROBOTICS

(As per New Syllabus of Leading Universities)

Dr. K. Elangovan,

Principal,

Srinivasan Engineering College

Perambalore,

Trichy.

Dr. S. Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

Professor

School of Mechanical Engineering

Sathyabama University.

Chennai – 600 119

Ms. P. Vijayalakshmi,

Asst. Professor – Mech.,

Sri Ramanujar Engineering College

Chennai.

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ROBOTICS-BPUT − ODISHA

B.Tech (Mechanical Engineering) Syllabus for Admission

Batch 2015 − 2016 − V Syllabus −7th

Semester

ROBOTICS

(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE)

MODULE – I

1. Fundamentals of Robotics: Evolution of robots and robotics, Definition of

industrial robot, Laws of Robotics, Classification, Robot Anatomy, Work

volume and work envelope, Human arm characteristics, Design and control

issues, Manipulation and control, Resolution; accuracy and repeatability, Robot

configuration, Economic and social issues, Present and future application.

2. Mathematical modeling of a robot: Mapping between frames, Description

of objects in space, Transformation of vectors. Direct Kinematic model:

Mechanical Structure and notations, Description of links and joints, Kinematic

modeling of the manipulator, Denavit-Hartenberg Notation, Kinematic

relationship between adjacent links, Manipulator Transformation matrix.

MODULE – II

3. Inverse Kinematics: Manipulator workspace, Solvable of inverse kinematic

model, Manipulator Jacobian, Jacobian inverse, Jacobian singularity, Static

analysis.

4. Dynamic modeling: Lagrangian mechanics, 2D- Dynamic model,

Lagrange-Euler formulation, Newton-Euler formulation.

5. Robot Sensors: Internal and external sensors, force sensors, Thermocouples,

Performance characteristic of a robot.

MODULE – III

6. Robot Actuators: Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators, Electrical actuators,

Brushless permanent magnet DC motor, Servomotor, Stepper motor, Micro

actuator, Micro gripper, Micro motor, Drive selection.

7. Trajectory Planning: Definition and planning tasks, Joint space planning,

Cartesian space planning.

8. Applications of Robotics: Capabilities of robots, Material handling, Machine

loading and unloading, Robot assembly, Inspection, Welding, Obstacle

avoidance.

ME464 Robotics and Automation – KERALA

Syllabus: Definition, Co-ordinate Systems, Work Envelope, types and

classification, Robot drive systems, End Effectors, Grippers, Sensors and

machine vision, Robot kinematics and robot programming, Application of

robots in machining.

Module I: Definition − Co-ordinate Systems, Work Envelope, types and

classification − Specifications − Pitch, Yaw, Roll, Joint Notations, Speed of

Motion, Pay Load − Basic robot motions − Point to point control, Continuous

path control. Robot Parts and Their Functions − Need for Robots Different

Applications.

Module II: Robot drive systems: Pneumatic Drives ? Hydraulic Drives −

Mechanical Drives − Electrical Drives − D.C. Servo Motors, Stepper Motor,

A.C. Servo Motors − Salient Features, Applications and Comparison of all

these Drives.

Module III: End Effectors − Grippers − Mechanical Grippers, Pneumatic and

Hydraulic Grippers, Magnetic Grippers, Vacuum Grippers; Two Fingered and

Three Fingered Grippers; Internal Grippers and External Grippers; Selection

and Design Consideration

Module IV: Sensors and machine vision: Requirements of a sensor, Principles

and Applications of the following types of sensors − Position of sensors (Piezo

Electric Sensor, LVDT, Resolvers, Optical Encoders), Range Sensors

(Triangulation Principle, Structured, Lighting Approach, Laser Range Meters).

Module V: Proximity Sensors (Inductive, Capacitive, and Ultrasonic), Touch

Sensors, (Binary Sensors, Analog Sensors), Wrist Sensors, Compliance Sensors,

Slip Sensors. Camera, Frame Grabber, Sensing and Digitizing Image Data –

Signal Conversion, Image Storage, Lighting Techniques.

Robot kinematics and robot programming: Forward Kinematics, Inverse

Kinematics and Differences; Forward Kinematics and Reverse Kinematics of

Manipulators with Two Degrees of Freedom (In 2 Dimensional) − Deviations

and Problems.

Module VI: Teach Pendant Programming, Lead through programming, Robot

programming Languages − VAL Programming − Motion Commands, Sensor

Commands, End effector commands, and Simple programs. Industrial

Applications: Application of robots in machining, welding, assembly, and

material handling.

*********

Dr. A.P.J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY −

LUCKNOW UTTAR PRADESH

NME-044: AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS

UNIT – I AUTOMATION: Definition, Advantages, goals, types, need, laws

and principles of Automation. Elements of Automation. Fluid power and its

elements, application of fluid power, Pneumatics vs. Hydraulics, benefit and

limitations of pneumatics and hydraulics systems, Role of Robotics in Industrial

Automation.

UNIT – II Manufacturing Automation: Classification and type of automatic

transfer machines; Automation in part handling and feeding, Analysis of

automated flow lines, design of single model, multimodel and mixed model

production lines. Programmable Manufacturing Automation CNC machine

tools, Machining centers, Programmable robots, Robot time estimation in

manufacturing operations.

UNIT – III ROBOTICS: Definition, Classification of Robots − Geometric

classification and Control classification, Laws of Robotics, Robot Components,

Coordinate Systems, Power Source. Robot anatomy, configuration of robots,

joint notation schemes, work volume, manipulator kinematics, position

representation, forward and reverse transformations, homogeneous

transformations in robot kinematics, D-H notations, kinematics equations,

introduction to robot arm dynamics.

UNIT – IV ROBOT DRIVES AND POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS:

Robot drive mechanisms: Hydraulic / Electric / Pneumatics, servo & stepper

motor drives, Mechanical transmission method: Gear transmission, Belt drives,

Rollers, chains, Links, Linearto-Rotary motion conversion, Rotary-to-Linear

motion conversion, Rack and Pinion drives, Lead screws, Ball Bearings.

ROBOT END EFFECTORS Classification of End effectors − active and

passive grippers, Tools as end effectors, Drive system for grippers. Mechanical,

vacuum and magnetic grippers. Gripper force analysis and gripper design.

UNIT – V ROBOT SIMULATION: Methods of robot programming,

Simulation concept, Off-line programming, advantages of offline programming.

ROBOT APPLICATIONS Robot applications in manufacturing-Material

transfer and machine loading/unloading, Processing operations like Welding &

painting, Assembly operations, Inspection automation, Limitation of usage of

robots in processing operation. Robot cell design and control, Robot cell

layouts-Multiple robots & Machine interference.

*********

Contents ii

Mechanical Engineering

ROBOTICS

III YEAR – II SEMESTER

UNIT – I INTRODUCTION: Automation and Robotics, CAD/CAM and

Robotics − An over view of Robotics − present and future applications −

classification by coordinate system and control system.

UNIT – II COMPONENTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS: Function

line diagram representation of robot arms, common types of arms. Components,

Architecture, number of degrees of freedom − Requirements and challenges

of end effectors, determination of the end effectors, comparison of Electric,

Hydraulic and Pneumatic types of locomotion devices.

UNIT – III MOTION ANALYSIS: Homogeneous transformations as

applicable to rotation and translation − problems.

MANIPULATOR KINEMATICS: Specifications of matrices, D-H notation

joint coordinates and world coordinates Forward and inverse kinematics −

problems.

UNIT – IV Differential transformation and manipulators, Jacobians − problems

Dynamics: Lagrange − Euler and Newton − Euler formulations − Problems.

UNIT – V General considerations in path description and generation.

Trajectory planning and avoidance of obstacles, path planning, Skew motion,

joint integrated motion − straight line motion − Robot programming, languages

and software packages-description of paths with a robot programming

language.

UNIT – VI ROBOT ACTUATORS AND FEED BACK COMPONENTS:

Actuators: Pneumatic, Hydraulic actuators, electric & stepper motors.

Feedback components: position sensors − potentiometers, resolvers, encoders

− Velocity sensors. ROBOT APPLICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING:

Material Transfer Material handling, loading and unloading − Processing −

spot and continuous arc welding & spray painting -Assembly and Inspection.

*********

iii Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

CONTENTS

CHAPTER – 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT 1.1 – 1.40

1.1. Introduction 1.1

1.2. Industrial robot 1.3

1.3. Robot 1.3

1.4. Laws of robotics 1.4

1.4.1. History of robotics 1.4

1.5. Robot anatomy 1.6

1.5.1. Degrees of freedom 1.7

1.5.2. Robot motions 1.7

1.5.3. Robot Joints 1.9

1.6. Co-ordinate system 1.12

1.6.1. Polar Co-ordinate system 1.13

1.6.2. Cylindrical co-ordinate system 1.14

1.6.3. Cartesian co-ordinate system 1.16

1.6.4. Joined arm co-ordinate system 1.17

1.7. Work envelope 1.19

1.7.1. Cartesian co-ordinate work envelope 1.19

1.7.2. Cylindrical co-ordinate work envelope 1.20

1.7.3. Polar co-ordinate work envelope 1.21

1.7.4. Joined arm work envelope 1.22

Contents i

1.8. Types of robot 1.22

1.8.1. Types of industrial robot 1.23

1.8.2. Based on physical configuration 1.23

1.8.3. Based on control system 1.23

1.8.4. Based on movement 1.23

1.8.5. Based on types of drive 1.24

1.8.6. Based on sensory systems 1.24

1.8.7. Degrees of freedom 1.24

1.8.8. Based on Application 1.24

1.8.9. Based on path control 1.24

1.9. Robot specification 1.25

1.9.1. Spatial resolution 1.26

1.9.2. Accuracy 1.26

1.9.3. Repeatability 1.27

1.9.4. Compliance 1.28

1.9.5. Three degree of freedom wrist assembly 1.28

1.9.6. Joint notation scheme 1.29

1.9.7. Speed of motion 1.30

1.9.8. Pay load 1.32

1.10. Robot parts and their functions 1.32

1.10.1. Power source 1.33

1.10.2. Controller 1.34

ii Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

1.10.3. Manipulator 1.34

1.10.4. End effector 1.35

1.10.5. Actuator 1.36

1.10.6. Sensors 1.36

1.11. Benefits of robot 1.36

1.12. Need for robot 1.37

1.13. Manufacturing applications of robot 1.37

1.13.1. Material handling 1.37

1.13.2. Machine loading / unloading 1.38

1.13.3. Spray painting 1.38

1.13.4. Welding 1.38

1.13.5. Machining 1.38

1.13.6. Assembly 1.39

1.13.7. Inspection 1.39

1.14. Non manufacturing robotic applications 1.39

1.14.1. Hazardous environment 1.39

1.14.2. Medical 1.40

1.14.3. Distribution 1.40

1.14.4. Others 1.40

1.15. The future of robotics 1.40

Contents iii

CHAPTER – 2: ROBOT DRIVE SYSTEMS

AND END EFFECTORS

2.1 – 2.48


2.2. Actuators 2.1

2.3. Factors considered for selecting drive system 2.2

2.4. Types of actuators or drives 2.2

2.4.1. Pneumatic power drives 2.3

2.4.2. Hydraulic drives 2.5

2.4.3. Electrical drives 2.8

2.4.4. Types of electrical drives 2.9

2.5. DC Servomotor 2.10

2.6. Types of D.C. motors 2.12

2.6.1. Permanent magnet D.C motor 2.12

2.6.2. Brushless permanent magnet D.C motors 2.14

2.7. A.C. motors 2.15

2.7.1. Comparison between A.C motor and D.C motor 2.17

2.8. Stepper motor 2.17

2.8.1. Variable reluctance stepper motor 2.18

2.8.2. Permanent magnet stepper motor 2.20

2.8.3. Hybrid stepper motor 2.21

2.9. Selection of motors 2.22

2.10. Comparison of pneumatic, hydraulic electrical drives 2.23

2.11. End-effectors 2.24

iv Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

2.12. Grippers 2.25

2.13. Classification of grippers 2.26

2.14. Drive system for grippers 2.26

2.15. Mechanical grippers 2.27

2.15.1. Mechanical gripper mechanism 2.28

2.15.2. Types of mechanical gripper 2.29

2.15.3. Mechanical gripper with 3 fingers 2.34

2.15.4. Multifingered gripper 2.35

2.15.5. External gripper 2.36

2.15.6. External grippers 2.37

2.16. Magnetic gripper 2.38

2.16.1. Electromagnetic gripper 2.38

2.16.2. Permanent magnetic gripper 2.40

2.17. Vacuum grippers 2.41

2.18. Adhesive grippers 2.42

2.19. Hooks scoops, other miscellaneous devices 2.43

2.20. Selection and design considerations of gripper 2.45

CHAPTER – 3: SENSORS AND MACHINE VISION 3.1 – 3.74

3.1. Sensors 3.1

3.2. Requirements of sensors 3.2

3.3. Classification of sensors 3.5

3.4. Position sensors 3.7

Contents v

3.4.1. Encoder 3.7

3.4.2. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 3.12

3.4.3. Resolver 3.16

3.4.4. Potentiometer 3.17

3.4.5. Pneumatic position sensor 3.19

3.4.6. Optical encoder 3.20

3.5. Velocity sensor 3.21

3.5.1. Tachometer 3.21

3.5.2. Hall-Effect sensor 3.22

3.6. Acceleration sensors 3.23

3.7. Force sensors 3.24

3.7.1. Strain gauge 3.25

3.7.2. Piezoelectric sensor 3.26

3.7.3. Microswitches 3.27

3.8. External sensors 3.28

3.8.1. Contact type 3.28

3.8.2. Non Contact type 3.35

3.9. Acquisition of images 3.48

3.9.1. Vidicon camera (analog camera) 3.49

3.9.2. Digital camera 3.50

3.10. Machine vision 3.51

vi Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

3.11. Sensing and digitizing function in machine vision 3.53

3.11.1. Imaging devices 3.53

3.11.2. Lighting techniques 3.55

3.11.3. Analog-to-digital conversion 3.58

3.11.4. Image storage 3.62

3.12. Image processing and analysis 3.62

3.12.1. Image data reduction 3.63

3.12.2. Segmentation 3.64

3.12.3. Feature extraction 3.68

3.12.4. Object recognition 3.69

3.13. Other algorithms 3.71

3.14. Robotic applications 3.71

3.14.1. Inspection 3.72

3.14.2. Identification 3.73

3.14.3. Visual serving and navigation 3.73

3.14.4. Bin picking 3.74

CHAPTER – 4: ROBOT KINEMATICS 4.1 – 4.60


4.2. Forward kinematics and reverse (inverse) kinematics 4.3

4.3. Forward kinematic of manipulators with 2 DOF IN 2D 4.5

4.4. Reverse kinematics of manipulators with 2 DOF IN 2D 4.6

Contents vii

4.5. Forward kinematics of manipulators with 3 DOF IN 2D 4.7

4.6. Forward and reverse transformation of manipulator with 4

DOF IN 3-D

4.11

4.7. Homogeneous transformations 4.13

4.7.1. Translation matrix 4.14

4.7.2. Rotational matrix 4.16

4.8. Jacobians 4.31

4.8.1. Differential relationship 4.31

4.9. Singularities 4.33

4.10. Static forces in manipulators 4.35

4.11. Jacobians in the force domain 4.37

4.12. Manipulator dynamics 4.38

4.12.1. Newton-Euler formulation of equations of motion 4.39

4.12.2. Newton’s equation in simple format 4.40

4.12.3. Euler’s equation in simple format 4.41

4.12.4. The force and torque acting on a link 4.41

4.13. Lagrangian formulation of manipulator dynamics 4.42

4.14. Manipulator kinematics 4.43

4.14.1. Link description 4.43

4.14.2. Link connection 4.45

4.14.3. First and last links in the chain 4.46

viii Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

4.15. Link parameters–denavite – hartenberg notation 4.46

4.15.1. Convention for affixing frames to links 4.46

4.15.2. Intermediate links in the chain 4.46

4.15.3. First and last links in the chain 4.47

4.15.4. Summary of the link parameters in terms of the

link frames

4.47

4.15.5. Summary of link-frame attachment procedure 4.48

4.16. Manipulator kinematics 4.52

4.16.1. Derivation of link transformations 4.52

4.16.2. Concatenating link transformation 4.55

4.17. The puma 560 4.55

CHAPTER – 5: IMPLEMENTATION AND

ROBOT ECONOMICS

5.1 – 5.48

5.1. Rail guided vehicle (RGV) 5.1

5.2. Automated guided vehicle system (AGVS) 5.5

5.2.1. Components of AGV 5.6

5.2.2. Advantages of using an AGV 5.7

5.2.3. Applications of AGV 5.8

5.3. Vehicle guidance technologies 5.15

5.4. Steering control 5.18

5.4.1. Path decision 5.19

5.5. Vehicle management and safety 5.20

5.6. Implementation of robots in industries 5.23

Contents ix

5.7. Safety considerations for robot operations 5.29

5.7.1. Installation precautions and workplace design

considerations

5.31

5.7.2. Safety monitoring 5.34

5.7.3. Other safety precautions 5.36

5.8. Economic analysis of robots 5.36

5.8.1. Methods of economic analysis 5.39

Interest Tables 5.43

CHAPTER – 6: ROBOT PROGRAMMING 6.1 – 6.32


6.2. Methods or robot programming 6.1

6.2.1. Leadthrough programming 6.2

6.2.2. Textual or computer like programming 6.5

6.2.3. Off-line programming 6.6

6.3. Defining a robot program 6.7

6.4. Method of defining position in space 6.8

6.5. Motion interpolation 6.10

6.6. Basic programming commands in workcell control (wait,

signal and delay commands)

6.15

6.7. Branching 6.17

6.8. Robot programming languages / textual programming 6.17

6.8.1. First generation languages 6.18

6.8.2. Second generation languages 6.18

x Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

6.8.3. Future generation languages 6.19

6.9. Structure of robot language 6.20

6.9.1. Operating system 6.21

6.9.2. Elements and functions of a robot language 6.22

6.10. VAL programming 6.23

6.10.1. Robot locations 6.23

6.10.2. Motion commands 6.24

6.10.3. End effector commands 6.27

6.10.4. Sensor and intercock commands 6.29

CHAPTER – 7: TRAJECTORY GENERATION 7.1 – 7.10


7.2. Joint-space schemes 7.2

7.2.1. Cubic polynomials 7.2

7.2.2. Cubic polynomials for a path with via points 7.7

7.3. Path generation at run time 7.9

7.4. Description of paths with a robot programming language 7.9

7.5. Collision-free path planning 7.10

CHAPTER – 8: MANIPULATOR

MECHANISM DESIGN

8.1 – 8.16


8.2. Based on the design on task requirements 8.2

8.2.1. Number of degrees of freedom 8.2

8.2.2. Workspace 8.3

Contents xi

8.2.3. Load capacity 8.3

8.2.4. Speed 8.3

8.2.5. Repeatability and accuracy 8.3

8.3. Kinematic configuration 8.3

8.3.1. Cartesian 8.4

8.3.2. Articulated 8.5

8.3.3. Spherical 8.6

8.3.4. Cylindrical 8.6

8.4. Wrists 8.7

8.5. Actuation schemes 8.9

8.5.1. Actuator location 8.9

8.5.2. Reduction and transmission systems 8.10

8.6. Stiffness and deflections 8.12

8.7. Actuators 8.12

8.8. Position sensing 8.14

8.9. Force sensing 8.15

Short Questions and Answers SQA 1 – SQA 44

Index I.1 – I.4

xii Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

CHAPTER – 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT

Robot − Definition − Robot Anatomy-Co-ordinate systems, Work Envelope

Types and classification − Specifications − Pitch, Yaw, Roll, Joint Notations,

Speed of motion, Pay load − Robot Parts and their functions − Need for

Robots − Different applications.

1.1. INTRODUCTION:

Today’s changes in every aspect of life and global activity are not

independent of one another. The field of robotics has its origin in science

fiction.

In recent days robots are highly automated mechanical manipulators

controlled by computers. Let us begin this chapter giving the fundamentals of

robotics and industrial automation.

Robotics:

Robotics is a form of industrial automation.

Robotics is the science of designing and building robots suitable for

real-life applications in automated manufacturing and non manufacturing

environment.

Industrial automation:

In reference with the industrial knowledge, Automation is nothing but

the “technology” that is concerned with the use of mechanical, electronic and

computer based systems in the operation and control of production.

The three basic classification of industrial automation are:

(i) Fixed automation

(ii) Programmable automation

(iii) Flexible automation.

(i) Fixed automation:

Volume of production is very high, then the fixed automation is

implemented.

Eg: Mainly finds its application in automobile industry, where the product

needs to be transferred to various number of workstations.

(ii) Programmable automation:

Volume of production is very low, then the programmable automation

is implemented.

In this automation, the instructions are followed by the ‘program’.

In this automation process, the program is read into the production

equipment, and the equipment will perform the series of operation of the

particular product.

(iii) Flexible automation:

I t is a f lexible manufacturing system which is nothing but

computer-integrated manufacturing system.

Flexible automation system consists of a series of workstation that are

interconnected by a material handling and storage system. “Of the three

automation, robotics coincides most commonly with programmable

automation”.

1.2 Robotics – www.airwalkpublications.com

1.2. INDUSTRIAL ROBOT:

An industrial robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator

designed to move materials, parts, tools or special devices through variable

programmed motions for the performance of various different task in their

operation.

An industrial robot is a general purpose, programmable machine which

possesses certain human like characteristics.

1.3. ROBOT:

The term ‘robot’ was derived from the English translation of a fantasy

play written in Czechoslovakia around 1920.

‘Robota’ means either a slave or mechanical item that would help its

master.

A robot carries out the task done by a human being.

A robot may do assembly work where some sort of intelligence or

decision making capability is expected.

Various Definitions of Robot:

A Robotics Industries Association in November, 1979 defined Robot as

“a re-programmable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material,

parts, tools or specialized device through various programmed motions for the

performance of a variety of tasks”.

This definition indicates that a robot is a manipulator that is

re-programmable and multifunctional.

The reprogrammability has got its meaning only when a computer or a

microprocessor is interfaced with it.

It can perform various activities, sometimes it can use end effectors to

move raw materials for further processing.

Webster’s defined robot as “an automatic device that performs functions

ordinarily ascribed to human beings”.

Fundamentals of Robot 1.3

1.4. LAWS OF ROBOTICS:

Law 1:

A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a

human to be harmed.

Law 2:

A robot must obey orders given by humans except when they conflicts

with the first law.

Law 3:

A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the first

or second law.

1.4.1. History of Robotics:

The Table 1.1 summarizes the historical developments in the technology

of robotics

Table 1.1: Historical Development

Year Inventor Development

1700’s J.de.Vaucansol • Machine dolls that played music.

1801 J. Jacquard • Programmable machine for weaving

threads for cloths.

1805 H. Maillardet • Mechanical doll capable of drawing

pictures.

1946 G.C. Devol • Developed a controller device that

could record e lec trical signals

magnetically and play them back.

1951 Goertz & Bergsland • Development on teleoperators.

1952 Massachusetts

Institute of technology

• Prototype of Numerical control

machine.

1954 C.W. Kenward • Got patent for robot design


1954 G.C. Devd • “Programmed article transfer”.

1959 Planet corporation • First commercial robot for limit

switches and cams.

1960 Devolv’s • Hydraulic drive robot.

1961 Ford Motor company • Unimate robot for die casting

machine.

1966 Trallfa • Built and installed a spray painting

robot

1968 Stanford Research

Institute (SRI)

• A mobi le robot wi th sensors,

including a vision camera and touch

sensors, and it can move about floor.

1971 Stanford University • A small electrically powered robot arm.

1974 ASEA • Electric drive IRb6 robot.

1974 Cincinnati Milacron • T3 robot with computer control.

1975 Olivetti • Robot for assembly operation.

1978 General motors study • Programmable universal machine for

assembly (PUMA) for assembly by

Unimation.

1979 Yamanashi University

from Japan

• SCARA type robot for assembly.

1980 Rhode Island University • Bin − Picking robot.

1981 Carnegie − Mellon

University

• A direct drive robot.

1989 MIT • Genghis, a walking robot.

1995 SRI, IBM, MIT • A surgical robot.

2000 Honda • A humanoid robot walking like a

human being.

2005 Cornell University • A self-replicating robot. Fish robot for

navigation.


1.5. ROBOT ANATOMY:

A system is nothing but the integration of whole of parts or subsystems.

A robot is a system as it combines many sub-systems that interact among

themselves as well as with the environment in which the robot works.

A robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction of the body,

arm, and wrist of the machine.

The basic anatomy of robot is shown in the Figure 1.1.

A robot has many components which include:

1. A base-fixed or mobile.

2. A manipulator arm with several degrees of freedom (DOF).

3. An end-effector or gripper holding a part.

4. Drives or actuators causing the manipulator arm or end-effector to

move in a space.

5. Controller with hardware and software support for giving commands

to the drives.

Fig. 1.1: Anatomy Robot


6. Sensors to feed back the information for subsequent actions of the

arm or gripper as well as to interact with the environment in which

robot is working.

7. Interfaces connecting the robotic subsystems to the external world.

Explanation:

The body is attached to the base and the arm assembly is attached to

the body.

At the end of the arm is the wrist.

The wrist consists of a number of components that allow it to be oriented

in a variety of positions.

The body, arm, and wrist assembly is some times called as manipulator.

Attached to the robot’s wrist is hand. The technical name of hand is

“end effector”.

The arm and body joints of the manipulator are used to position the end

effector, and the wrist joints of the manipulator are used to orient the end

effector.

1.5.1. Degrees of freedom:

The individual joint motions associated with these two categories are

sometimes referred to as “degrees of freedom”.

A typical industrial robot is equipped with 4 to 6 degrees of freedom.

1.5.2. Robot Motions:

Industrial robots are designed to perform productive work. The work is

accomplished by enabling the robot to move its body, arm and wrist through

a series of motions.

Generally Robotic motion is given by, LERT classification system.


where,

L → Linear motion

E → Extension motion

R → Rotational motion

T → Twisting motion.

1. Linear Motion:

Linear motion is obtained by a part moving outside another part, as in

a rack and pinion system.

2. Extension Motion:

Extension motion is obtained where one part of the system comes out

from the other part of the same system.

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.3


3. Rotation Motion:

Rotation motion is obtained when one part of the system moves in any

circular direction other than its center. i.e. Rotating about a pivot point.

4. Twisting Motion:

Twisting motion is obtained when the part of the system moves about

its center twisting and untwisting.

Eg: Neck from human body

1.5.3. Robot Joints:

The robot’s motions are accomplished by means of powered joints.

The joints used in the design of industrial robots typically involve a

relative motion of the adjoining links that is either linear or rotational.

Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.5


The common four types of joints are:

1. Linear (L)

2. Rotational (R)

3. Twisting (T)

4. Revolving (V)

Linear Joints:

Linear Joint involves a sliding or translational motion of the connecting

links.

This motion can be achieved in a number of ways like a piston, a

telescoping mechanism, and relative motion along a linear track or rail.

Linear Joint is also known as prismatic joint or sliding joint.

The example of Linear Joint is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Rotational Joints (R):

The three Rotating Joints are

1. Rotational (R)

2. Twisting (T)

3. Revolving (V)

Fig. 1.6: Linear Joint (L)


In Rotational Joint (R), the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the axes

of the two connecting links.

The Example of Rotational joint is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Twisting Joint (T):

Twisting motion is the second type of rotating joint.

In this motion twisting involves between the input and output links.

The axis of rotation of the twisting joint is parallel to the axis of rotation.

(i.e.) Parallel to the both links.

The example of Twisting Joint is shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.7: Rotational Joint (R)

Fig. 1.8: Twisting Joint


Revolving Joint:

Revolving Joint is the third type of rotating Joint.

In this joint, the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation and output

link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

(i.e.) Output link revolves about input link.

The example of Revolving Joint is shown in Fig. 1.9.

1.6. CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM:

Industrial robots are available in a wide variety of sizes, shapes and

physical configuration.

There are some major co-ordinate system based on which robots are

generally specified.

The common design of robot co-ordinates are:

1. Polar co-ordinate system.

2. Cylindrical co-ordinate system.

Fig. 1.9: Revolving Joint


3. Cartesian co-ordinate system.

4. Joined − arm configuration or co-ordinate system.

1.6.1. Polar Co-ordinate system:

In this system, robot has one linear and 2 angular motion.

1. The Linear motion corresponds to a radial in and out

translation (1)

2. The one angular motion corresponds to a base rotation about

vertical axis (2)

3. The second angular motion is the one that rotates about an axis

perpendicular to the vertical through the base (3)

H Polar co-ordinates are also referred as spherical co-ordinates

H The polar configuration is illustrated in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10: Polar Co-ordinate


Advantages:

1. Simpler and smaller in design.

2. Easily applicable for commercial purpose.

3. Less space is enough for its installation.

4. High capability.

Applications:

1. Used for machine loading and unloading operation.

2. Water − etching application in electronics industry.

3. Forging.

4. Injection moulding.

1.6.2. Cylindrical co-ordinate system:

H In this system, linear motions and one rotational motion.

H Work envelope is cylindrical.

H The two linear motions consist of a vertical column up & down (1)

and the sliding column (2) for right & left motion.

H The vertical column is capable of rotating.

H The manipulator is capable to reach any point in a cylindrical volume

of space.


H The cylindrical coordinate illustration is shown in Fig. 1.11.

Advantages:

H Good accuracy, High capability.

H Large work envelope, High load carrying capacity.

H Suitable for pick and place operation.

H High accuracy, High rigid

Disadvantages:

H The robot cannot rotate through a complete circle in the space

bounded between two cylinders.

Applications:

H Used in material handling (mainly for pick and place operation).

H Used in machine loading and unloading.

H Used in conveyor parallel transfer.

Fig. 1.11


1.6.3. Cartesian co-ordinate system:

H In this co-ordinate system, three linear motions x, y, z exist.

H X-co-ordinate axis represents left and right motion.

H Y-co-ordinate axis represents forward and backward motion.

H Z-co-ordinate axis represents up and down motions.

H Motion in any co-ordinate is independent of other two motions.

H The manipulator can reach any point in a cubic volume of space or

rectangular.

H The robots with cartesian co-ordinate system are called as rectilinear

or gantry robots.

H Cartesian co-ordinate illustration is shown in Fig. 1.12.

H The DOF (Degree of Freedom) is 3 since it has 3 motions.

Fig. 1.12: Cartesian Co-ordinate System


Advantages:

H It has rigid structure because of box frame.

H It has minimum error.

H Simple controls.

H Good accuracy and repeatability.

H Easy program and easy to operate.

Disadvantages:

H Restriction in movement.

H More floor space is needed for its operation.

Applications:

H Used for inspection

H Used to obtain good surface finishing.

H Find its application in assembly of parts.

1.6.4. Joined arm co-ordinate system:

H Joined arm co-ordinate system is also called as revolute or

anthropomorphic configuration.

H It is nothing but the design corresponds to the human arm having

wrist, shoulder and elbow.

H The link of the arm mounted on the base joint can rotate about z-axis.

H The shoulder can rotate about horizontal axis.

H The elbow can rotate about horizontal axis or may be at location

space depending on the base and shoulder


H The work envelope is spherical or it may be revolute.

H Joined arm system illustration is shown in Figure 1.13.

Advantages:

H Can occupy large work envelope.

H It is flexible to reach.

Disadvantages:

H System is very complex.

H Require skilled labour for its operation.

H Accuracy is poor.

H Controlling on the base of rotation is difficult.

H Complex programming.

Fig. 1.13: Joined arm Co-ordinate System


Applications:

H Spraying, painting, welding.

H Automated Assembly.

1.7. WORK ENVELOPE:

H The volume of the space surrounding the robot manipulator is called

work envelope.

H The work volume is the term that refers to the space with in which

the robot can manipulate its wrist end.

H The work envelope is determined by the following physical

specification of the robot:

1. Robot’s physical configuration.

2. The size of the body, arm and wrist components.

1.7.1. Cartesian co-ordinate work envelope:

Fig. 1.14 shows the work envelope of rectangular cartesian co-ordinate.

Fig. 1.14: Work Envelope of Rectangular Area


Uses: Rectangular co-ordinate robot is very rigid and suitable for pick and

place in hot environment as in furnace.

It is also a suitable manipulator for overhead operations as it covers a

large work area.

1.7.2. Cylindrical co-ordinate work envelope:

Fig. 1.15 shows the work envelope of cylindrical co-ordinate robot.

The plan view indicates the robot arm pivoted at the center of the base

which can form a portion of a circle by the action of swing.

Thus the work envelope of cylindrical co-ordinate robot is a portion of

a cylinder.

Uses:

Cylindrical co-ordinate robot is suitable for handling parts in machine

tools or other manufacturing equipment.

It can pick-up objects from the floor on which the robot is mounted.

Fig. 1.15: Cylindrical Co-ordinater

Work Envelope


1.7.3. Polar co-ordinate work envelope:

Fig. 1.16 shows the polar co-ordinate work envelope.

The plan view indicates a swing of the robot’s arm as it is rotated around

its base.

The work envelope of the extension arm of a spherical co-ordinate robot

is the volume swept between two partial sphericals.

Uses:

Spherical or polar co-ordinate robots are most suitable for transferring

parts on machine tools.

They are suitable for picking components from the floor.

They are extensively used in flexible manufacturing system.

Fig. 1.16: Spherical Co-ordinate

Work Envelope


1.7.4. Joined arm work envelope:

Fig. 1.17 shows the joined arm co-ordinate work envelope.

The plan view indicates the same as shown in the plan view of the

cylindrical co-ordinate robot.

Uses:

Joined arm robot is flexible and versatile as it can easily reach up and

down and can also swing back.

Joints are rotary joints.

1.8. TYPES OF ROBOT:

The common types of robot are:

(i) Industrial Robot.

(ii) Laboratory Robot.

(iii) Explore Robot.

(iv) Hobbyist Robot.

Fig. 1.17: Joined Arm

Work Envelope


(v) Class Room Robot.

(vi) Educational Robot.

(vii) Tele − Robots.

1.8.1. Types of Industrial Robot:

(i) Sequence Robot.

(ii) Playback Robot.

(iii) Intelligent Robot.

(iv) Repeating Robot.

1.8.2. Based on physical configuration:

(i) Cartesian co-ordinate configuration.

(ii) Cylindrical co-ordinate configuration.

(iii) Polar co-ordinate configuration.

(iv) Joined arm configuration.

1.8.3. Based on control system:

(i) Point to point robots.

(ii) Straight line robots.

(iii) Continuous robot.

1.8.4. Based on movement:

(i) Fixed robot.

(ii) Mobile robot.

(iii) Walking robot.


1.8.5. Based on Types of Drive:

(i) Pneumatic drive.

(ii) Electric drive.

(iii) Hydraulic drive.

1.8.6. Based on Sensory systems:

(i) Intelligent robot.

(ii) Vision robot.

(iii) Simple and blind robot.

1.8.7. Degrees of freedom:

(i) Single degree of freedom.

(ii) Two degree of freedom.

(iii) Three degree of freedom.

(iv) Six degree of freedom.

1.8.8. Based on Application:

(i) Manufacturing.

(ii) Handling.

(iii) Testing.

1.8.9. Based on path control:

(i) Stop-to-stop.

(ii) Point-to-point.

(iii) Controlled path.

(iv) Continuous.


A typical classification system of robot is based on skill of operation

required in various manufacturing applications.

They are,

1. Low accuracy contouring (For spray painting, spot welding, etc.)

2. Low accuracy point-to-point (Loading, unloading from heat treatment

furnaces, die casting machine, etc.)

3. Moderate accuracy contouring (arc welding, deburring etc.)

4. Moderate accuracy point-to-point (Forging, loading/unloading machine

tools, part orientation, etc.)

5. Close tolerance and assembly application.

1.9. ROBOT SPECIFICATION:

The common robot specifications are given as below:

1. Spatial resolution.

2. Accuracy.

3. Repeatability.

4. Compliance.

5. Pitch.

6. Yaw.

7. Roll.

8. Joint Notation.

9. Speed of motion.

10. Pay Load.


1.9.1. Spatial Resolution:

The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of movement

into which the robot can divide its work volume. The spatial resolution depends

on two factors.

1. Control resolution.

2. Mechanical resolution.

1. Control Resolution:

Control resolution is determined by the robot’s position control system

and its feedback measurement system.

Controller’s ability to divide the total range of movement for the

particular joint into individual increments that can be addressed in the

controller.

Number of increments = 2n

2. Mechanical Inaccuracy:

Mechanical inaccuracy comes from elastic deflection in structural

members, gear backlash, stretching of pulley cords, leakage of hydraulic fluids

and other imperfections in the mechanical system.

These inaccuracies tend to be worse for larger robots simply because the

errors are magnified by the larger components.

1.9.2. Accuracy:

Accuracy refers to a robot’s ability to position its wrist end at a desired

target point within the work volume.

The accuracy of a robot can be defined in terms of spatial resolution

because the ability to achieve a given target point depends on how closely

the robot can define the control increments for each of its joint motions.


The moment the mechanical inaccuracy reduces the robot accuracy, we

could initially define accuracy under this worst case assumption as one half

of the control solution.

Fig. 1.18 shows the mechanical inaccuracies would affect the ability to

reach the target position.

1.9.3. Repeatability:

Repeatability is concerned with the robot’s ability to position its wrist

or an end effector at a point in space that had previously been brought.

Repeatability refers to the robot’s ability to return to the programmed

point when commanded to do so.

Repeatability errors form a random variable and constitute a statistical

distribution.

Fig. 1.18: Mechanical Inaccuracy


1.9.4. Compliance:

The compliance of the robot manipulator refers to the displacement of

the wrist end in response to a force or torque exerted against it.

Compliance is important because it reduces the robot’s precision of

movement under load.

If the robot is handling a heavy load, weight of the load will cause the

robot arm to deflect.

If the robot is pressing a tool against a workpart, the reaction force of

the part may cause deflection of the manipulator.

Robot manipulator compliance is a directional features.

The compliance of the robot arm will be greater in certain directions

than in other directions because of the mechanical construction of the arm.

1.9.5. Three degree of freedom wrist assembly:

To establish the orientation of the object, we can define three degrees

of freedom for the robot’s wrist as shown in Fig. 1.19. The following is one

possible configuration for a three DOF, wrist assembly

1. Roll: This DOF, can be accomplished by a T-type joint to rotate the

object about the arm axis.

2. Pitch: This involves the up-and-down rotation of the object, typically

by means of a type R joint.

3. Yaw: This involves right-to-left rotation of the object, also

accomplished typically using an R-type joint.


1.9.6. Joint Notation scheme:

H The physical configuration of the robot manipulator can be described

by means of joint notation scheme

H This notation scheme is given by using the joints L, R, T, V.

H The joint notation scheme permits the designation of more or less

than the three joints typically of the basic configurations.

H Joint notation scheme can also be used to explore other possibilities

for configuring robots, beyond the common four types LVRT.

Fig. 1.19


The basic notation scheme is given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Joint Notation Scheme

Robot co-ordinate Joint Notation

1. Polar co-ordinate TRL

2. Cylindrical co-ordinate TLL, LTL, LVL

3. Cartesian co-ordinate robot LLL

4. Joined arm configuration TRR, VVR

Generally the notation starts with the joint closest to the arm interface,

and proceeds to the mounting plate for end effector.

We can use the letter symbols for the four joint types (i.e., L, R, T and

V) to define a joint notation system for the robot manipulator. In this notation

system, the manipulator is described by the joint types that make up the

body-and-arm assembly, followed by the joint symbols that make up the wrist.

For example, the notation TLR: TR represents a 5-d.o.f. manipulator whose

body-and-arm is made up of a twisting joint (joint 1), a linear joint (joint 2)

and a rotational joint (joint 3). The wrist consists of two: a twisting joint (joint

4) and a rotational joint (joint 5). A colon separates the body-and-arm notation

from the wrist notation.

1.9.7. Speed of Motion:

The speed capabilities of current industrial robot range up to a maximum

of about 1.7 m/s.

Generally the speed of motion is measured at the wrist.

High speed can be obtained by large robot with the arm extended to its

maximum distance from vertical axis.

Hydraulic robots are faster than the electric drive robots.


The factors by which the speed of the robot determined are:

1. The accuracy with which the wrist must be positioned.

2. The weight of the object that is being manipulated.

3. The distance to be moved.

There is always inverse relationship between the accuracy and the speed

of the robot motions.

As the accuracy is increased, the robot needs more time to reduce the

location errors in its various joints to achieve the desired final position.

Heavier object means greater inertia and momentum, and the robot must

be operated more slowly and safely deal with the factors.

Fig. 1.19 shows the motion of robot with respect to time.

Fig. 1.19: Time / distance Vs Speed of Motion


Due to acceleration and deceleration problem, a robot is capable of

travelling one long distance in less time than a sequence of short distances

whose sum is equal to long distance.

1.9.8. Pay load:

The size, configuration, construction and drive systems are determined

on the basis of load carrying capacity or payload of the robot.

The load carrying capacity is specified under the condition of robot’s

arm in its weakest position.

For polar, cylindrical or Joined-arm configuration, the robot arm is at

maximum extension.

The common pay load carrying capacity of industrial robot ranges from

0.45 kg. for small robots and 450 kg. for very large robot.

Example:

If the rated load capacity of a given robot were 3 kg. and the end

effector weighed 1 kg., then the net weight − carrying capacity of the robot

would be only 2 kg.

1.10. ROBOT PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

Before knowing the parts and function, the working of robot need to be

understood.

1. As per the application, the operator starts the cycle.

2. Signal is sent to the robot controller through an external feed back.

3. On the basis of the command, the controller sends signal to

manipulator.

Once signal is received in the manipulator, the operation of the robot

will start.


A robot has six major components, they are as follows.

1. Power source

2. Controller

3. Manipulator

4. End effector

5. Actuator

6. Sensors.

1.10.1. Power source:

Power source is the unit that supplies the power to the controller and

the manipulator.

All modern robots are driven by brushless AC servo motors, but the

industrial robot uses either hydraulic drive or pneumatic drive.

Fig. 1.20: Parts of a Robot


Normally the manipulator is controlled by hydraulic or pneumatic drives.

A detailed explanations of these drives are given in Chapter 2.

Pneumatic drive:

Pneumatic power can be readily adapted to the actuation of piston to

give movement.

Hydraulic drive:

Hydraulic drives are more controllable than the pneumatic drive.

It could provide more power than the electric drive.

Electric drive:

It is operated either by stepper motor, DC servos or by AC servos.

1.10.2. Controller:

Controller is the robot’s brain. It ensures that the entire movement of

the robot is controlled by the controller.

The controller consists of programs, data algorithm, logic analysis and

various other processing activities.

1.10.3. Manipulator:

The robot manipulator comprises of arm, body and wrist.

Arm:

Arms are used to move and position the parts or tools within the work

cell.

Wrist:

Orientation of the tools and parts are made by wrist.

A robot manipulator is created from a sequence of link and joints

combinations.


The arm body section of the manipulator is based on one of four

configurations which are

1. Polar

2. Cartesian

3. Cylindrical

4. Joined arm

1.10.4. End effector:

The end-effector is mounted on the wrist and it enables the robot to

perform various tasks.

The common end effectors are:

1. Tools

2. Gripper.

Tools:

At certain times, the end effector will itself act as the tool.

Certain tools are spot-welding, spray painting nozzles, rotating spindles

for grinding etc.

Grippers:

Grippers are used to hold the object and place it at the needed location.

The various types of grippers are:

1. Mechanical gripper.

2. Magnetic gripper.

3. Pneumatic and hydraulic gripper.

4. 2 fingered, 3 fingered gripper, etc.


1.10.5. Actuator:

Actuators are used for converting the hydraulic, electrical or pneumatic

energy into mechanical energy.

The special applications of actuators are lifting, clamping, opening,

closing, mixing bending, buckling etc.

Actuators perform the function just opposite to pumps.

1.10.6. Sensors:

Sensor is a device which will convert internal physical phenomenon into

an electrical signal.

Sensors use both internal as well as external feed in robots.

Internal feedback → Temperature, pressure can be checked.

External feedback → Environmental feedback can be analysed.

Sensors are used for an element which produces a signal relating to the

quantity that is being measured.

1.11. BENEFITS OF ROBOT:

1. Increased accuracy.

2. Increased applications.

3. Rich in productivity.

4. Reduced labour charges.

5. Reduces scrap and wastage.


1.12. NEED FOR ROBOT:

H In initial stage, major applications of robot have been in unpleasant

and hazardous task.

H Robots have found wide applications in doing repetitive and

monotonous job where consistency and product quality are primary

importance.

H Usually robots are suitable for automated task which requires little

sensing capability.

H The need for robot is emerging in the field of Flexible Manufacturing

System (FMS).

FMS:

It is the field where the flexibility of the cell and consistency of the

products are combined.

FMS works at various levels and replaces hard automation technology

by comprising transfer machines as well as automated machine.

FMS is very helpful for batch manufacturing.

In FMS, robots and automated vehicle systems are extensively employed.

In FM module, a robot may be employed to load and unload parts or

tools through a single computer.

1.13. MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS OF ROBOT:

The very helpful applications of robot in manufacturing industry are:

1.13.1. Material handling:

1. Bottle loading.

2. Parts handling.

3. Transfer of components / tools

4. Depalletizing / Palletizing.

5. Transporting components.


1.13.2. Machine loading / unloading:

1. Loading parts to CNC machine tools.

2. Loading a punch press.

3. Loading a die casting machine.

4. Loading electron beam welding.

5. Loading / orientating parts to transfer machine.

6. Loading parts on the test machine.

1.13.3. Spray painting:

1. Painting of trucks / automobiles.

2. Painting of agricultural equipment.

3. Painting of appliance components.

1.13.4. Welding:

1. Spot Welding

2. Arc welding.

3. Seam welding of variable width.

1.13.5. Machining:

1. Drilling

2. Welding

3. Forging

4. Cutting

5. Sanding

6. Grinding

7. Deburring.


1.13.6. Assembly:

1. Mating components.

2. Riveting small assemblies.

1.13.7. Inspection:

1. In process measuring and quality control.

2. Searching of missing parts.

1.14. NON MANUFACTURING ROBOTIC APPLICATIONS:

The common non manufacturing robotic applications are:

1.14.1. Hazardous Environment:

(i) Mining:

1. Exploration.

2. Search and rasure.

3. Tunneling for main road ways.

4. Operation in short passage.

(ii) Service:

1. Fire Fighting.

2. Underground cleaning.

(iii) Nuclear:

H Maintenance of atomic reactors.

(iv) Space:

H Used in space vehicles.

(v) Under sea:

1. Oil / mineral exploration.

2. Salvage operation.


1.14.2. Medical:

1. Surgery

2. Non-invasive / invasive diagnostics.

3. Rehabilation engineering for handicapped.

1.14.3. Distribution:

1. Wearhouseing.

2. Retailing.

1.14.4. Others:

1. Agricultural purpose.

2. Hobby / household purpose.

3. Military applications of robot maybe in both manufacturing and

non-manufacturing area.

1.15. THE FUTURE OF ROBOTICS:

The trends in the future robotics are in the development of

1. Robotic vehicle.

2. Space robotics.

3. Humanoid and walking robots.

4. Personal and service robots.

5. Robots for biological applications.

6. Robots for medical applications.

7. Sensor integrated intelligent robot and for health care − some times

called network robot.

*********


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