AS Physical Education – Anatomy & Physiology Syllabus Skeletal System 1a Locations of specific bones 1b Functions of the skeleton 1c Axial and Appendicular skeleton 1d Types of bone 1e Types of cartilage Joints 2a Wrist Knowledge to include : joint type 2b Radio-ulna articulating bones 2c Elbow muscles @ the joint 2d Shoulder movement analysis 2e Spine strength exercises 2f Hip types of muscular contraction 2g Knee muscular function 2h Ankle Muscles 3a Structure and function of different muscle fibre types 3b Effect of warm up on skeletal muscle tissue Resting heart rate 4a The cardiac cycle 4b Definitions and values of Stroke Volume/Heart Rate/Cardiac Output Heart Rate response to exercise 5a How changes in heart rate are regulated 5b Changes in HR/SV/Q during sub-maximal and maximal exercise Control of blood supply 6a Pulmonary and Systemic networks 6b Distribution of Q during exercise 6c Role of vasomotor centre 6d How O2 and CO2 are carried within the vascular system 6e Effects of warm up and cool down on vascular system Respiration @ rest 7a Mechanics of breathing 7b Respiratory volumes @ rest 7c Gaseous exchange @ lungs and tissue respiration 7d Partial pressure Respiratory response to exercise 8a Use of additional muscles 8b Changes in lung volumes 8c How changes are regulated by respiratory centre 8d Changes in gaseous exchange 8e Effect of altitude on respiratory system Motion and Movement 9a Newton’s Laws of Motion 9b Linear/Angular/General motion 9c Effect of force on a body 9d Centre of mass

(1a) Location of major bones (1c) Axial Skeleton Skull, Sternum,

Vertebral Column, Ribs Appendicular Skeleton Shoulder/Pelvic Girdle,

Bones of arms and legs

Condyloid

Gliding

Saddle

Pivot

Ball &

socket

Hinge

Joints

(1b) Protection Attachment of muscles Shape FUNCTIONS OF SKELETON Levers Production of blood cells

(1d) Types of bone Long eg Femur Main job = Lever Short eg Tarsal Main job = Strength Irregular eg Vertebrae Main job = Protection Flat eg Pelvis Main job = Large area for muscle attachment (1e) Skeletal Connective Tissues Cartilage : Yellow elastic - Ear lobe Hyaline/Articular - Joint surfaces

White Fibrocartilage- Intervertebral discs (shock absorbers)

JOINTS

Movements allowed

Flexion - decreasing angle (bending) Extension - increasing angle (straightening) Abduction - moving away from the middle Adduction - moving back towards middle (ADD) Rotation - movement of a bone around its axis

Circumduction - combination of F/E, Ab/Ad Elevation - moving shoulders upwards Depression - moving shoulders downwards Plantar flexion - bending foot downwards Dorsiflexion - bending foot upwards towards shin

Pronation - palm of hand downwards Supination - palm of hand upwards

MUSCLES OF THE BODY

Specific joints ARM (2a)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

WRIST Condyloid Flexion Extension

Radius & Carpals

Flexors & Extensors of wrist.

2b)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

RADIO-ULNA

Pivot 1.Pronation 2.Supination

Radius & Ulna

1.Pronator Teres 2.Supinaitor

(2c)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

ELBOW Hinge 1. Flexion 2.Extension

Humerus Radius & Ulna

1.Biceps brachii 2.Triceps brachii

Shoulder/Spine and Hip (2d)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

SHOULDER GIRDLE

Gliding 1.Elevation 2.Depression 3.Rotation 4.Abduction 5.Adduction

Clavicle & Scapula

1.Trapezius 2.Trapezius 3.Trapezius Rhomboids 4.Serratus 5.Trapezius

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

SHOULDER JOINT

Ball & Socket

1.Flexion 2.Extension 3.Abduction 4.Adduction 5.Rotation

Humerus & Scapula

1.Deltiod 2.Latissimus Dorsi 3.Deltiod 4.Pectoralis Major 5.Subscapularis Infraspinatus

(2e)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

SPINE Gliding 1.Flexion 2.Extension 3.Rotation

Cervicle, Thoracic & Lumber vertebrae

1.Rectus Abdominis 2.Sacrospinalis 3.Internal/External Obliques

(2f)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

Hip Ball & Socket

1.Flexion 2.Extension 3.Abduction 4.Adduction 5.Rotation

Femur & Pelvis

1.Iliopsoas 2.Gluteus Maximus 3.Gluteus Maximus 4.Adductors longus/brevis & magnus 5.Gluteus Max/Minimus

LEGS (2g)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

KNEE Hinge 1.Flexion 2.Extension 3.Rotation

Femur & tibia

1.Biceps Femoris 2.Rectus Femoris 3.Biceps Femoris

(2h)

Joint Type Movements Allowed

Articulating Bones

Prime Movers

ANKLE Hinge 1.Dorsiflexion 2.Plantarflexion

Tibia, fibula & tarsals

1.Tibialis Anterior 2.Gastrocnemius

Types of muscle contraction Static = Isometric - muscle does not change length (eg – arm wrestle, scrummaging) Dynamic = Isotonic - normal contractions @ speed 2 types

1. Concentric - Shortening of the muscle. (eg Biceps work concentrically to flex (bend) the elbow.)

2. Eccentric - lengthening of the muscle under tension (eg Triceps work eccentrically during extension of the elbow)

Action of muscles Agonist (prime mover) - Active muscle (doing the work) Antagonist - Relaxes when agonist works. Fixator - Holds the joint in position Synergist - Holds the body position

Practical example - Curling a bar. Deltoid holds shoulder joint (FIXATOR) Triceps relax Biceps contract (ANTAGONIST) (AGONIST) Trapezius (back) Holds shoulder (SYNERGIST) Strength exercises Deltoid - Lateral raises Trapezius - Push Press Pectoralis Major - Bench Press Rectus Abdomius - Sit Ups Triceps - Bench Press Biceps - Arm Curl Quadriceps group - Squats Grastrocnemius - Calf raises (3a) 3 types of muscle fibres. Type I - Slow twitch Uses Oxygen, tires slowly, used for duration Type IIa - Fast twitch (Fast Oxidative Glycotic) FOG Middle between fast and slow Type IIb - Fast twitch (Fast Glycotic) FG Anaerobic, tires quickly, used for speed/explosive activity

Structural and functional differences

Slow Twitch FOG FG

Colour Red Red/Pink White

Capillaries High Medium Low

Myoglobin content

High Medium Low

Mitochondrial density

High High Low

Glycogen stores

Low High High

Aerobic Capacity High Medium Low

Force production Low High High

Contractile speed Slow Fast Fast

Anaerobic capacity

Low Medium High

Fatigue resistance High Medium Low

(3b) Effects of warm up on skeletal muscle

Prevention of injuries

Increase in muscle temperature which allows for: a greater stretch in the muscles (elasticity)

Conduction of nerve impulses is quicker, which improves contraction time

Blood vessels within muscle dilate

More energy available (6e) Effects of warm up on vascular system

Oxygen dissociates from haemoglobin more readily (inc. muscle temp) Enzyme activity increases for cellular respiration

Increased blood flow to working muscles Increased SV, CO, HR Increased ventilation/breathing rate Vascular shunt is initialised Increased hormonal activity Reduced blood viscosity

Effects of cool down Keeps HR slightly elevated allowing body to take in extra o2

Can reduce recovery time Keeps skeletal and respiratory pump active keeping good venous

return

Prevents blood pooling Capillaries at muscles remain dilated so muscles can be flushed with

extra blood

This increases the removal of lactic acid and Co2

The Heart

Aorta OXYGENATED To body Pulmonary Artery DEOXYGENATED To lungs Pulmonary Vein OXYGENATED From lungs Vena Cava DEOXYGENATED From body (4a) Cardiac Cycle Each cycle lasts approx 0.8 seconds Two phases : DIASTOLE - relaxation phase 0.5 secs SYSTOLE - contraction phase 0.3 secs Diastole

Atria fill with blood

Blood is prevented from entering ventricles because Atrioventricular valves are closed.

Systole

Heart fibres contract Atria contract first which forces blood into ventricles Ventricles contract

Right side into Pulmonary artery Left side into Aorta

(4b) Volume of blood ejected is called Stroke Volume (SV) 70-100 ml Beats per minute Heart Rate (HR) 72 average Volume of blood pumped each minute Cardiac Output (Q) = SV x HR

SV x HR Q

Untrained @ rest 70 X 72 5 litres

Untrained during exercise 120 X 202 24 litres

Trained @ rest 85 X 60 5 litres

Trained during exercise 170 x 202 34 litres

(5a) Control of Heart Rate

Heart is myogenic (heart beat is initiated from within muscle). HR is adjusted by nervous system Stimulus for the cardiac cycle is initiated by Sinoatrial Node

(SA Node).

SA Node is located in wall of right atrium. SA is known as the pacemaker of the heart. The electrical impulse by SA node travels across both atria This stimulates atrial systole.

Impulse then reaches Atrioventricular Node (AV Node) AV node lies between the atria Impulses travel from AV node along Purkinje fibres. (which together

form a Bundle of HIS)

This causes ventricular systole.

(5b) Control of heart rate.

1. NEURAL CONTROL Sympathetic = HR increases Parasympathetic = HR decreases

These are controlled by cardiac centre in medulla oblongata in the brain. Cardiac centre is stimulated by - chemoreceptors (chemical changes) baroreceptors (blood pressure changes)

2. HORMONAL CONTROL Adrenaline and Noradrenaline stimulate Sino-Atrial Node (SA). Increases both speed and force of muscle contraction.

3. INTRINSIC CONTROL During exercise, heart becomes warmer therefore HR increases. Drop in temperature reduces HR Venous return also increases which stretches the cardiac muscle, which stimulates SA node (SV increases)

Changes in HR during exercise Red line = SUBMAX. Eg a training run. Black line = MAXIMAL. Eg Full all out effort Sub Max Max Differences HR levels off HR carries on rising Short recovery Long Recovery Similarities Same starting HR, not at 0! Anticipatory rise 6a How is blood returned to the heart?

1. Skeletal Pump = Muscles contract which squeezes nearby veins. This forces the blood back towards the heart. (eg like squeezing a washing up liquid bottle)

2. Respiratory Pump = During breathing the volume of the thoracic cavity changes. This change of volume causes the abdominal veins to be squeezed (like skeletal pump) and forced the blood back to the heart.

3. Valves = They prevent backflow in the veins. As the blood passes past the valves they close to ensure that the blood cannot run backwards

4. Gravity = Blood above the heart is helped back by the process of gravity.

(6b) Distribution of cardiac output during exercise

Organ Rest % blood flow

Max % Blood flow

Difference Notes

Skeletal muscle 20 88 +66% Massive increase due to oxygen needed by muscles.

Skin 10 2.5 -7.5% Decrease to allow blood

Kidneys 20 1 -19% To be redirected away

Liver/gut 25 1.25 -23.75% From non-vital organs To the muscles

Brain 15 2.5 -12.5% % decreases but actual amount of blood stays the same

Coronary vessels

5 4 -1% Same as skin/liver/gut/kidneys

TOTAL 100 100 SAME At rest = 5litres per min Max = 24 litres per min

This redistribution of blood during exercise is called VASCULAR SHUNT. Two mechanisms help the vascular shunt

1. Vasodilatation of arterioles supplying skeletal muscle. Means = arterioles get wider to allow more blood through Vasoconstriction of arterioles supplying other organs. Means = arterioles narrow, restricting blood through.

2. Opening of pre-capillary sphincters in capillary network that supplies the skeletal muscle. (MORE BLOOD) Closing of pre-capillary sphincters to other organs. (LESS BLOOD)

6c Vasomotor Centre

Controls blood pressure and blood flow Located in Medulla Oblongata in brain Changes are initiated from information from receptors

CHEMorecpeptors detect CHEMical changes (eg CO2, lactic acid) Baroreceptors detect changes in blood pressure SYMPATHETIC = increase HR PARASYMPATHETIC = decrease HR

6d How are 02 and CO2 carried in vascular system Oxygen (o2) is carried in blood by HEAMAGLOBIN (hb). When joined together they become :

OXYHEAMAGLOBIN (Hbo2) When Hbo2 reaches muscle the o2 is taken by the muscle MYOGLOBIN. Myoglobin has a greater affinity for o2 than Hb. Co2 is transported in three ways

1. 7% in plasma 2. 23% combines with Hb 3. 70% in water to form carbonic acid

RESPIRATION (7a) mechanics of breathing Air ALWAYS will move from an area of HIGH PRESSURE to an area of LOW PRESSURE. The greater the differences in pressure, the faster air will flow. INSPIRATION = The inhaling of oxygen from the atmosphere

Ribcage moves out and up = External Intercostal Muscles Diaphragm contracts and flattens This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity Which in turn REDUCES PRESSURE in the lungs. Therefore air is drawn into lungs as atmospheric pressure is higher

than the pressure in the lungs. (8a) During exercise, extra muscles aid inspiration to increase volume of thoracic cavity. Sternocliedomastoid(lifts sternum), Scaleni and Pectoralis Major(lift ribs) EXPIRATION = Expelling Co2 from lungs

Ribcage falls Diaphragm relaxes and rises to dome shaped position This decreases the volume of thoracic cavity Which in turn INCREASES PRESSURE in the lungs Therefore air is expelled as lung pressure is higher than the

atmosphere. (8a) During exercise the INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS (pull ribs down and in) AND ABDOMINALS (push diaphragm up) aid expiration. (7b) Pulmonary ventilation is the movement of air in and out of the lungs

Lung Volume or capacity

Definition Average value @ rest (litres)

Average value during exercise

Change during exercise

Tidal Volume (TV)

Volume of air breathed in or out in one breath

0.5 2.8 Increase

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Volume of air that can be forcibly inspired after a normal breath

3.1 1.0 Decrease

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

Volume of air that can be forcibly expired after a normal breath

1.2 1.0 Slight decrease

Residual Volume (RV)

Volume of air that remains in the lungs after maximum expiration

1.2 1.2 Same

Vital Capacity (VC)

Volume of air forcibly expired after a maximum inspiration in one breath

4.8 4.8 Same

Minute Ventilation

Volume of air breathed in or out per minute

6 110 Increase

Total Lung Capacity

Vital Capacity + Residual Volume

6 6 Same

Pulmonary Ventilation Graphs

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Min

ute

Ven

tila

tio

nMax

Sub max

Rest - Exercise - Recovery - (7c) Gaseous Exchange at lungs Concerned with replenishment of o2 in the blood and removal of Co2.

Remember gases flow from areas of high pressure to low. PARTIAL PRESSURE : The pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases. Eg Oxygen makes up 21% of atmosphere. Atmosphere exerts a pressure of 760 mmHg. Therefore Partial Pressure of Oxygen is 21% of 760mmHg = 160mmHg Oxygen Carbon Dioxide 160mmHg Atmosphere 0.3mmHg 105mmHg Alveoli (in lungs) 40mmHg 40mmHg Tissue sites (muscles) 45mmHg Look at Oxygen. Remember gases go from high to low Atmosphere needs to be higher than the lungs for breathing in to take place. 160 (atmosphere) to 105 (lungs) - Inspiration can take place!! So, Partial pressure in tissues (40) needs to be …… LOWER than lungs (105). Oxygen then can travel from lungs to the working tissues - HOORAY! Carbon Dioxide is just the reverse of the oxygen principles from atmosphere to lungs to tissues. Obviously Partial Pressure in atmosphere needs to be lower than the lungs which needs to be in turn lower than the tissues! The difference between the two pressures is called the CONCENTRATION/DIFFUSION GRADFIENT. The steeper the gradient (bigger difference in the two numbers) the faster diffusion is. Along with partial pressure, the lungs are designed to allow gaseous exchange to be easy and efficient; RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE IS THIN, LENGTH OF DIFFUSION IS SHORT, LARGE SURFACE AREA OF LUNGS.

The relationship between oxygen and haemoglobin is represented by the oxyheamoglobin dissociation curve. At the lungs Hb is almost 100% saturated with o2. (full to capacity for carrying o2). Partial pressure of o2 is high (105mmHg). At the tissue site (muscles) partial pressure of o2 is lower (40mmHg). Therefore some of the o2 is GIVEN to the tissue. Under certain conditions, Hb gives up o2 more readily and these occur during exercise – Handy for us!

A decrease in partial pressure of o2 in muscle – HIGH to LOW

An increase in Co2 levels during exercise – INCREASES CO2 GRADIENT An increase in acidity (caused by exercise) – LOWERS Ph IN BODY.

Altitude and respiration High altitude there is less air and therefore less oxygen (NOT AIR IS THINNER). So the partial pressure of o2 will be lower than normal. Therefore the diffusion gradient will be less than at sea level. Sea Level = 160mmHg Altitude = less than 160mmHg Muscles will receive less oxygen Haemoglobin cannot be fully saturated. Body can adapt by training at altitude = increases red blood cells and haemoglobin Control of Ventilation Stretch receptors Muscle receptors (movement) (prevent over inflation

Baroreceptors (blood pressure) of the lungs) (send impulses to Chemoreceptors (chemicals) induce expiration Hering-Bruer reflex) Inspiratory Respiratory Expiratory Centre Centre Centre Phrenic nerve Intercostal nerve Diaphragm and Abdominals and External intercostals Internal intercostals INCREASE breathing INCREASE expiration rate

References Davis. B, Bull. R, Roscoe. J, Roscoe. D 2000 Physical Education and the Study of Sport 4th Edition. Honeybourne. J, Hill. M, Moors. H 2000 Advance Physical Education and Sport for A Level 2nd Edition

Marieb. E 1995 Human Anatomy and Physiology 3rd Edition Roscoe. D, Roscoe. J, Honeybourne. J, Davis. B, Gilligan. F 2001 Physical Education and Sport Studies. Advance Level Student Revision Guide 2nd Edition

Roscoe et al 2000 A Level Revision notes CD Smart. T 2001 Human Body Vander. A, Sherman. J, Luciano. D 1994 Human Physiology 6th Edition Walker. R 2002 Encyclopaedia of the Human body