as110-americancultures

AS-110AC The Business of America

Carlos Camargo Summer 2003

AMERICAN STUDIES 110AS/AC

THE BUSINESS OF AMERICA:MAKING MONEY, CITIZENS, & $EN$E

“To observe the character of a particular people we must examine the objects of its love.And yet, whatever these objects, if it is the association of a multitude not of animals but

of rational beings, and is united by a common agreement about the objects of its love,then there is no absurdity in applying to it the title of a “People.”

—St. Augustine, Civitas Dei

“Give me the liberty to know, to utter & to argue freelyaccording to conscience, above all liberties”

— John Milton

" After all, the chief business of the American people is business. …Of course the accumulation of wealth cannot be justified as the chief end of existence. … American newspapers have seemed to me to be particularly

representative of this practical idealism of our people."— Calvin Coolidge, “The Press Under a Free Government"

"The past is never dead; it's not even past."—William Faulkner, Requiem for a Nun

“It depends on what the meaning of ‘is’ is.”—William Jefferson Clinton

An Upper Division Course in American Studies &Interdisciplinary Studies to fulfill

the American Cultures Requirement.

Instructor: Carlos F. CamargoDepartment of English, UC-BerkeleyE-mail: [email protected]

Dates: Tuesday, Wednesday & Thursday (July 8 - Aug. 14, 2003)Lecture: 10 AM - 12:30 PM

Location: TBD

URL: TBD --http://www-learning.berkeley.edu/Courses/AS110Sum02/index.html



TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................2

SYLLABUS & DETAILED COURSE OUTLINE ..................................................................................4

DESCRIPTION..................................................................................................................................................................4INTELLECTUAL & CONCEPTUAL AIMS ..............................................................................................................4COURSE CONTENT & STRUCTURE .......................................................................................................................4BRIEF AS110-AC COURSE OUTLINE FOR JULY AND AUGUST 2003.........................................................5INTER-DISCIPLINARY MODES OF INQUIRY COVERED IN COURSE: ...................................................5REQUIRED TEXTS: ........................................................................................................................................................6DOCUMENTARIES AND FILMS (TO BE VIEWED INDEPENDENTLY BY STUDENTS):.......................................6COURSE WORK REQUIREMENTS:..........................................................................................................................6

INTENDED INTERDISCIPLINARY LEARNING OUTCOMES .......................................................7

AMERICAN CULTURES PERFORMANCE & LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................8

PROLOGUE: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW & POLEMICAL BACKGROUND .....................................9

A Plausible Historical Materialist Fiction: Or, It’s the Economy, Stupid!........................................................................9THE PAST AS A KEY TO THE PRESENT: HISTORICAL HOMOLOGIES? ................................................9INDUSTRIAL AND IMPERIAL TRANSFORMATIONS......................................................................................9TOCQUEVILLEAN CALCULUS: SELF INTEREST RIGHTLY UNDERSTOOD?.................................... 10FROM RES PUBLICA TO THE RETURN OF THE OLIGARCHS................................................................. 11HISTORY’S REPETITION COMPULSION........................................................................................................... 12

WEEK ONE: JULY 8, 9, 10 ................................................................................................................... 13

NATIONAL MYTHS, IDEOLOGIES & LIES—THE IDEOLOGICAL NATURE AND PROJECT OFAMERICAN STUDIES ................................................................................................................................................. 13

8 July, Tues.--Myths Of Regeneration: New Worlds, Virgin Lands, And Promise Lands............................................... 139 July, Wed.--Ideologies Of Critique: Instrumental Reason In Search Of New Frontiers .................................................. 1310 July, Thurs.--Noble Lies?: Goodwill Towards Latin America--Better Dead, Than Red!............................................. 14

WEEK TWO: JULY 15, 16, 17 ................................................................................................................ 15

THE MAKING OF “AMERICANS”: IDENTITY FORMATION IN THE SHADOW OF THECOMMODITY & U.S. RACIAL STATE................................................................................................................... 15

15 July, Tues.-- Historical Explorations: Ethnicity in the U.S. Racial State................................................................... 1516 July, Wed.--Theoretical Explorations: Identity & Cultural Productions...................................................................... 1617 July, Thurs.-- Writing The Nation, Writing The Self: The Politics Of Mobility In The World System....................... 16

WEEK THREE: JULY 22, 23, 24 .......................................................................................................... 18

BIRTH OF A NATION & MANIFEST DESTINIES: PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN POLITICALDEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................................................................... 18

22 July, Tues.-- The U.S. Constitution & The “Founding Fathers”: Anglo-american Imperial fantasies, imaginedCommunities & the Development of American Politics................................................................................................... 1823 July, Wed.—Foundations: Rules, Founders & Constitutional Institutionalism .......................................................... 1924 July, Thurs.-- Patrician America: “Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori”................................................................... 19

WEEK FOUR: JULY 29, 30, 31...............................................................................................................20

WE THE PEOPLE: TELLING STORIES OF NATION, SELF & OTHER .................................................. 2029 July, Tues.—Approaches to American Historiography—Or, Who were our Romulus and Remus.............................. 2030 July, Wed.—Giants In The Earth, Strangers In The Land & Other Huddled Masses............................................. 2131 July, Thurs.—Gendered transitions: He said, she said, we said................................................................................... 21



WEEK FIVE: AUGUST 5, 6, 7 ...............................................................................................................22

AMERICANS: A COLLISION OF HISTORIES..................................................................................................... 2222 July, Tues.—The New ‘Heroic Triad’: Re-inscribing the Nation in Red, White & Black ......................................... 2223 July, Wed.-- E Pluribus Unum—One Out Of Many Or Many Out Of One ............................................................ 2324 July, Thurs.—Crisis of Triumphant Democracy—or, the Paradox of Plenty .............................................................. 23

WEEK SIX: AUGUST 12, 13, 14..............................................................................................................24

THE INTERNATIONALIZATION & MILITARIZATION OF THE U.S.-MEXICO BORDERLANDSIN 20TH CENTURY ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

12 August, Thurs.-- Industrializing The Border: From Fordism To Flexible Accumulation Under Late Capitalism....... 2413 August, Tues.--Technologies Of Mass Social Control: Low-Intensity Conflict Doctrine................................................ 2514 August, Wed.--U.S. Domestic & Foreign Policy In The Reagan-Bush I Era ............................................................ 2515 August, Friday--FINAL EXAM Due 5PM In Instructor Inbox Or Mailbox In Campbell................................... 25

MAKING BLACKS FOREIGNERS—OR, THE ONTOLOGY OF THE METAPHORS WE LIVEBY ..........................................................................................................................................................26

Excerpted from: Kunal M. Parker, Making Blacks Foreigners: The Legal Construction of Former Slaves in PostRevolutionary Massachusetts, 2001 Utah Law Review 75-124, 75-84 (2001)(116 Footnotes & Diacritics Omitted). ........ 26

A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY & ESSAY ON AMERICAN STUDIES ADAPTED FROM PROF.T.V.REED’S WEBSITE.........................................................................................................................33

I. ON THE GENEALOGY OF AMERICAN STUDIES...................................................................................... 33II. MYTH AND SYMBOL SCHOOL......................................................................................................................... 35III. INTERPRETIVE SOCIAL SCIENCE, SEMIOTICS, AND MATERIAL CULTURE............................ 36IV. LITERARY THEORIES & METHODS............................................................................................................. 40V. THEORIZING DIFFERENCE & COMMONALITY: GENDER, SEXUALITY,RACE/ETHNICITY, AND THEIR INTERSECTIONS...................................................................................... 42VI. NEO-MARXISMS AND CULTURAL MATERIALISMS .............................................................................. 50

A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MEXICAN AMERICAN & CHICANO HISTORY &CULTURE.............................................................................................................................................53

LITERATURE................................................................................................................................................................. 53MEXICAN AMERICAN POLICE RELATIONS................................................................................................... 55MEXICAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS.................................................................................................................... 55MUSIC............................................................................................................................................................................... 55ORAL HISTORY............................................................................................................................................................ 56ORGANIZATIONS....................................................................................................................................................... 56POLITICS......................................................................................................................................................................... 56REGIONS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 57RELIGION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 63REPATRIATION ........................................................................................................................................................... 63RESISTANCE.................................................................................................................................................................. 63SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ........................................................................ 63THEATER........................................................................................................................................................................ 64WARTIME EXPERIENCES........................................................................................................................................ 64WOMEN........................................................................................................................................................................... 64YOUTH............................................................................................................................................................................. 65

A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ON NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS WITH A FOCUS ONCALIFORNIA & THE NEW WEST.....................................................................................................66

CALIFORNIA TRADITIONAL STORIES.............................................................................................................. 66CALIFORNIA NON-FICTION.................................................................................................................................. 66WESTERN NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL, HISTORICAL & LITERARY TRADITIONS............... 69

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF COMMODITIES—OR, A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OFCAPITALISM, CONSUMERISM, GLOBALIZATION & THE RISE OF WORLD MARKETSYSTEMS...............................................................................................................................................74



THE BUSINESS OF AMERICA: MAKING MONEY, CITIZENS, & $EN$E

Syllabus & Detailed Course Outline

DESCRIPTIONThis course traces and examines the social, economic, and political organization and

symbolic representation of the “Making of Americans” & U.S. Nationalism & Citizenship as“the business of America” throughout the life-course of the Republic. The practical,theoretical and methodological foci of this course are an interdisciplinary exploration of the"American," as both subject and object of representation and analysis within and acrossdiverse U.S. literary and cultural traditions.

We will trace an analytical trajectory from conflict and contestation to cooperationand integration among historical actors in North America and the Western Hemisphere,keeping in mind that while conflict characterizes the history of the interactions amonghistorical agents & actors since the 16th century, the growing social interdependence andeconomic integration of U.S. & global life in the 20th century will also need to be analyzedand theorized as we step into the 21st.

Focusing on the cultural and social formations of Anglo-Americans, NativeAmericans, and Mexican Americans in a dynamic contact zone (i.e. The “New” World), thiscourse also explores the continuities and discontinuities in popular and academicrepresentations of the “American” experience & mission from the disciplinary perspectivesof American & Cultural Studies, History, Geography, Sociology, and Political Science. Ouranalysis of the “the business of America” as a discursive formation, a constellation ofmetaphors and symbols surrounding the phenomenon and experience of life in the industrialand post-industrial 20th century United States (AMERICA=U$), will include a study of thepublic policy, ethno-history, literary productions, and the filmic responses of diverse“American” cultures in transition.

INTELLECTUAL & CONCEPTUAL AIMSThe course aims to introduce students to the interrelationship between diverse American

populations, cultural traditions, institutions, resources, and economic agents during theprocess of North American economic development & integration from 1776 to the presentwithin the context of the U.S. polity. A thematic approach is adopted to explain the“Business of America,” the principal focus being the influences that shaped the developmentof social institutions, social identity, and business enterprises at various periods in Americansocial, cultural & economic history.

Concomitantly, the effects of the growth of big business, monopoly capital, labor and inthe mobility of other factors of production on the evolving nature of capitalist productionand distribution that have led to the ascendancy of the U.S. as “global hegemon” will also beconsidered.

COURSE CONTENT & STRUCTUREThe course will consist of 45 contact hours and will be delivered using lectures,

independent student screenings of A/V materials on reserve and ad-hoc workshops.Lectures will introduce the thematic, conceptual & chronological issues involved inexplanations of American nationalism, identity structures, social formations, economicperformance and business development. Attendance is compulsory.



BRIEF AS110-AC COURSE OUTLINE FOR JULY AND AUGUST 2003

n WEEK ONE: JULY 8, 9, 10National Myths, Ideologies & Lies: The Ideological Nature &Project of “American Studies”

n WEEK TWO: JULY 15, 16, 17The Making of “Americans”: Identity Formation in the Shadow of the Commodity& the U.S. Racial State

n WEEK THREE: JULY 22, 23, 24Birth of a Nation & Manifest Destinies: Perspectives on American Socio-PoliticalDevelopment

n WEEK FOUR: JULY 29, 30, 31We the People: Telling Stories of Nation, Self & Other

n WEEK FIVE: AUGUST 5, 6, 7Americans: A Collision of Histories

n WEEK SIX: AUGUST 12, 13, 14The Internationalization & Militarization of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands in 20th

Century

INTER-DISCIPLINARY MODES OF INQUIRY COVERED IN COURSE:

fi Week 1: History, American Studies & Latin American Studies

fi Week 2: Comparative Ethnic Studies, Political Science & Literary History

fi Week 3: History, Political Economy, & Public Policy

fi Week 4: Historiography, Narratology and Comparative Ethnic Studies

fi Week 5: American History and Comparative Ethno-History

fi Week 6: Political Science, International Relations & Sociology



REQUIRED TEXTS:These texts have all been selected for the opportunities they provide to examine

how and why "American National Identities" are (re) constructed under a wide rangeof socio-historical conditions, as mediated by such factors as nativity, ideology,

gender, race/ethnicity, social class & religion.

n AS110-AC COURSE READER (available from Copy Central on Bancroft Ave)

n Edward Countryman. Americans: A Collision of Histories. New York: Hill &Wang, 1996.

n Timothy J. Dunn. The Militarization of the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1978-1992: Low-Intensity Conflict Doctrine Comes Home. Austin: CMAS Books, 1996.

n Ira Katznelson and Martin Shefter, eds., Shaped by War and Trade: InternationalInfluences on American Political Development. Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 2002.

n Jon Gjerde, Editor. Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. (Part of Major Problems in American History Series,Thomas G. Patterson, Gen. Ed.)

n Frederick B. Pike. The United States and Latin America: Myths and Stereotypes ofCivilization and Nature. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1992.

n The Federalist Papers. Clinton Rossiter, ed., (New York: Mentor). Can be read &downloaded on-line at <http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/federal/fed.htm>.The definitive edition of the Federalist Papers is Jacob E. Cook. Wesleyan UniversityPress, 1961.

DOCUMENTARIES AND FILMS (to be viewed independently by students):

• Chulas Fronteras (1976): V/C #1304 (58 min.)• Del mero corazon = Straight from the heart (1976): V/C #1303 (28 min.)• Leaving Home / We Do the Work (1990s): V/C #2626 (60 min.)• The Americanization of Emily (1964): V/C # TBD (117 min.)• The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez (1988): V/C #999:252 (105 min.)• The Global Assembly Line (1986): V/C #1580 (58 min.)• The Nine Nations of North America (1987): V/C #1328 (70 min.)

COURSE WORK REQUIREMENTS:

A. A great deal of reading, some writing and constant thinking.B. Six Critiques--Weekly 500-1000 word Critiques (reading logs) of one of the A/V

resources ON RESERVE at Moffitt Library or instructor-approved substituteC. One Mid-term Exam: Week 3D. One Final Exam: Week 6



INTENDED INTERDISCIPLINARY LEARNING OUTCOMES

A knowledge and understanding of

1. broad trends in American socio-economic & cultural development sinceindependence;

2. the changing nature of political and economic institutions;3. the role of technology & business enterprise in the growth of the economy;4. the relationship between markets, resources and the choice of technology;5. how businessmen & citizens have sought to control their environment.

The intellectual skills to

1. abstract the essential features of the American Dream/American Creed, LiberalDemocratic Ideology and American socio-economic history

2. apply simple economic, historical and analytical reasoning to the processes ofsocial change and transformation;

3. frame structural, institutional & economic problems within their broader social,political and historical context;

4. analyze the causes and consequences of the organizational & structural changesthat occur within American business enterprises, the burgeoning world system,and American culture.

The practical skills to

2. engage in searches for published primary and secondary interdisciplinary materialon American Cultures and prepare comprehensive bibliographies and critiques;

3. critically review and synthesize published materials, cultural artifacts & specimensof material culture on a range of issues in American Studies (e.g. civil society, arts& letters, business, social, diplomatic and economic history;

4. research, prepare, and write analytical/critical essays incorporating bothquantitative and qualitative data.



American Cultures PERFORMANCE & LEARNING OBJECTIVESGOAL: “Developing an Integrative & Comparative Understanding of America”, thusby listening actively, reading critically & thinking diligently, students will be able to:

1. Obtain an understanding of early Native American society and culture. Concentrate on the cultural diversityof the various tribes.

2. Obtain an understanding of the Native American experience with the early European settlers. Studentsshould be familiar with the motivations of the Europeans especially the concepts of mercantilism andurbanism and the Native American response to their settlement.

3. Obtain an understanding of conflicting cultural values in early America. Concentrate on the class structure,ethnicity, and religion.

4. Obtain an understanding of early family life. Concentrate on the relationship between husband and wife aswell as the nuclear and extended family unit.

5. Obtain an understanding of the system of slavery. Concentrate on both the slave experience during captureand captivity as well as North America.

6. Obtain an understanding of society and culture during the American Revolution.7. Obtain an understanding of the industry and ideology in the emerging nation. Concentrate on Hamiltonian

economic policy and its clash with Jeffersonian agrarianism.8. Obtain an understanding of America's early American Native policy. Concentrating especially on the

removal policy.9. Obtain an understanding of the westward movement. Concentrate on the impact this movement had on

American society and culture.10. Obtain an understanding of pre Civil War immigration. Concentrate on who came, why they came and how

did the population already here respond to this recent immigrants. Obtain an understanding of the ante-bellum reform movement. Concentrate on labor, temperance, education, abolition, and women's rights.

11. Obtain an understanding of plantation society. Concentrate on culture, community, and conflict.12. Obtain an understanding of society and culture during the Civil War and Reconstruction.13. Obtain an understanding of the Trans Mississippi community. Concentrate on the last frontier, family

relations and the Native American reaction to this final push west.14. Obtain an understanding of the rise of big business and the new industrial economy. Concentrate on the rise

of big business and the rise of organized labor.15. Obtain an understanding of the new immigration. Concentrate on who came, why the came and the conflict

between nativist and immigrant.16. Obtain an understanding of black migration north after the Civil War. Concentrate on motivation for this

migration and the experience of blacks once they arrived in their new location.17. Obtain an understanding of the birth of Metropolitism. Concentrate on the urban political machine and

progressivism.18. Obtain an understanding of society and culture during World War I.19. Obtain an understanding of social change and society in the 1920s. Concentrate on prohibition, the sexual

revolution, women's rights the red scare, and the rise of the Klan.20. Obtain an understanding of the economic causations of the Great Depression and the eventual solutions to the

crisis. Concentrate on the role of the consumer, business and government in both the pending crisis and theoutcome.

21. Obtain an understanding of the impact that World War II had on society and culture. Concentrate on theeconomy, impact on the family, women, minorities, and the policy of reconversion.

22. Obtain an understanding of the City/Suburb debate. Concentrate on the decentralization of the Americancity.

23. Obtain an understanding of the government's role in the Post War economy. Concentrate on federal spending,defense spending, social welfare expenditures, and energy policy.

24. Obtain an understanding of the Crisis in the Post Industrial, Postmodern City. Concentrate on both Social(War protest, Civil Rights, women's rights, gay rights, riots) and Fiscal challenges.



PROLOGUE: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW & POLEMICAL BACKGROUND

A Plausible Historical Materialist Fiction: Or, It’s the Economy, Stupid!

THE PAST AS A KEY TO THE PRESENT: HISTORICAL HOMOLOGIES?

In order to understand how the rise of Monopoly Capital & Big Business, the rise oflarge, national corporations, affected American society, we need to briefly compare Americain the 1870s with America in the 1920s. America in the 1870s was a nation of small farmersand small businessmen who sold their goods and products to a local and regional market.Americans believed that owning land and owning one's own business gave them freedom.Not being dependent on others' for a job or one's livelihood made American free. Inaddition, in the 1870s Americans believed that our society and economy was based on freeenterprise, free and open competition between small farmers and businessmen in a freemarket. In such an economy, Americans were guaranteed higher quality goods and productsat lower costs. Few Americans in the 1870s could really imagine how quickly their economyand way of life would change by the 1920s.

In the 1920s, America was a nation of large, national corporations, which dominateda national market. The majority of Americans now lived in cities. Instead of owning theirown small farms and small businesses, Americans were increasingly employed by largecorporations. Instead of buying goods and products from people and companies they knew,and could trust and depend on, Americans were forced to buy goods from large, powerful,dominant corporations, which dominated their industries. In many industries, four or fivenational corporations dominated the production and sale of goods. Instead of free enterpriseand free and open competition in a free market. These dominant national corporationsformed trusts or cooperated with each other to ensure higher prices and lower quality goods.This cooperation between giant corporations allowed them to divide up the market for theirgoods and no longer compete with each other to produce higher quality goods at lowerprices. By the 1920s, because these corporate oligopolies--several companies dominate andcontrol an industry--were so powerful they attempted to use their money and influence toshape and control state and federal governments. As a result, many Americans since the early1900s have questioned whether we are, in fact, a democracy when such large, powerfulcorporations and interests can exert more power and control than most Americans.

INDUSTRIAL AND IMPERIAL TRANSFORMATIONS

How then was the American economy transformed from a nation of small farmersand businessmen to a nation of powerful, dominant corporations who threatened toundermine free enterprise and the free market and American's democratic control over theirgovernment and society? Why didn't Americans choose to remain a nation of smallproducers, serving local and regional markets? The answer lies in the same forces that arenow transforming the American national economy into a global economy in which giantglobal corporations are threatening to undermine national companies and nationalgovernments' control over their own economies.

But let's start with America in the 1870s. In order to understand the rapid growth of



the national economy we need to look at a specific industry, let's say shoe companies, forexample. In 1870, there were small shoe companies that produced shoes for the NewEngland, upper Midwest, the South, and the Western markets. These companies weren'tdirectly competing with each other. They were still making shoes using skill craftsmen tomake and finish the shoes. As a result of their dependence on skilled craftsmen and theirdependence on local and regional customers, these shoe companies did not produce a largevolume of shoes. They produced as much shoes as their customers needed and demanded.Given the success of these regional shoe companies, why did some of them decide to try toexpand their market from their region to other regions in the 1870s and 1880s?

In the 1870s and 1880s, the railroads linked the country together. Instead of onlybeing able to ship goods to a local and regional market, railroads now made it possible forshoe companies to ship and sell their goods outside their traditional regional markets. Eventhough the railroad now made it possible for these shoe companies to sell their shoes toother regional markets, they would have to find a way of paying for shipping their shoes andstill be able to sell their shoes at or below the costs of shoes charged by their other regionalcompetitors. How would these companies manage to still compete with their regionalcompetition in price and quality for shoes and pay for shipping and transportation?

TOCQUEVILLEAN CALCULUS: SELF INTEREST RIGHTLY UNDERSTOOD?

The larger question we must now ask is this: Why would these regional shoe companies wantto go through the bother of expanding their market and competing with other regional shoecompanies? They would have to produce more shoes and find a way of paying for theadditional costs of shipping their shoes? Why didn't they simply refuse to take the risk andcontinue to make and market their shoes for their regional customers? The answer lies in thepromise of increased profits and control over the market for shoes. Those businessmen whotook the risks believed that they could make a lot of money by expanding their market forshoes.

Having decided to take the risk, what would the New England shoe company haveto do to expand its market for shoes to include the Midwest and Southern regional marketsfor shoes? The first thing the company would have to do is to greatly expand its productionof shoes? Should they hire more skilled craftsmen? No, because skilled craftsmen were veryexpensive, and the New England shoe company couldn't compete and pay such highsalaries. Instead, the company buys builds new factors, buys new machinery, and hireunskilled workers to mass-produce shoes on the assembly line. As you might guess, in orderto expand their markets for shoes, the New England company depended not only on therailroad but on the new steam engines that now could power and run assembly lines forproduction of shoes. But in order to build these new factories, buy new machines, and hirelarge number of workers to run the assembly line, the New England shoe company needs agood deal of money. Where is the company going to get the money and capital to invest inthese new factories and machinery?

In the 1870s and 1880s, American companies begin to aggressively take their onceprivately owned companies public and sell stock, or shares in their company, to investors. Inthis case, the New England shoe company is going to sell thousands of shares of stock toinvestors and borrow thousands of dollars from banks. But selling stock and borrowing



money from banks is risky. The New England shoe company now not only has to pay theinterest on the money it borrowed, it must guarantee profits for its stockholders whoinvested in the company expecting a good rate of return on their investment. In order to payoff its debts and make a profit, the New England shoe company is going to have to rapidlyexpand its market for shoes, trying to sell shoes to customers in the Midwest and the Southwho have traditionally bought shoes from regional companies. In order to attract newcustomers, the New England shoe company is going to have to try to sell its shoes for lessthan its competitors, offer higher quality shoes, and spend thousands of dollars advertisingits shoes to new regional customers who have never bought shoes from them before.

There is, however, another problem facing the New England shoe company: Whatwill it do if its competitor, let's say, the Midwestern shoe company, builds new factories,invests in new machinery, and expands its production of shoes? Can the New England shoecompany expand its market for shoes in the face of stiff competition from other expandingregional shoe companies? It is at this point that the New England shoe company must pauseand rethink its strategy. For the most part, its new investment in factories and machines haveallowed it to expand and out compete other, smaller, more regional competitors who haven'ttried to expand their operations. As a result, the New England shoe company is now facedwith three or four other expanding, national shoe companies, all eagerly trying to expandtheir market for shoes in order to pay off their debts and increase their profits in order tokeep their investors happy. What should the company do? Should it borrow even moremoney, buy even more advanced equipment, and produce even more shoes, trying to driveits competition out of business? It is at this point that the New England shoe company mustreassess the increased costs of competition. What happens its competitors decide to dolikewise and invest in even more advanced equipment? This ruinous competition betweenexpanding, increasingly national shoe companies could make it difficult for any of thecompeting companies to profit and pay off their debts.

FROM RES PUBLICA TO THE RETURN OF THE OLIGARCHS

It is at this point that the New England shoe company decides to try to make a dealwith the remaining three or four large, national shoe companies. It will go to them and try toconvince them that further competition could ruin them all. Instead of this ruinouscompetition, the remaining four or five companies should get together and make a deal; theywill agree to divide up the national market for shoes, selling shoes at a higher price and ataverage quality, and not try to further encroach on each others' markets. In the late 1800sand early 1900s, American companies in the oil, the meat, grain, and tobacco industries didjust this. They formed "trusts" and agreed to limit their competition with each other. As aresult, we get the rise of the oligopolies that have dominated American industry and businessever since. Because they don't compete on the basis of price or quality of goods, thesecompanies compete with each other by using advertising to establish brand name loyalty.And, of course, their power and size as well as their advertising dominance prevents otherregional or start-up companies from challenging these companies domination of an industry.By the 1890s, many Americans worried about the increasing power of these trusts anddominant companies to control the American economy. They worried that free enterpriseand the free market were increasingly things of the past. But in response to their critics,corporate giants such as John Rockefeller argued that the trusts were more efficient, andcould produce more goods at a cheaper price than smaller, more competitive companies



could. Rockefeller claimed that the giant corporation would pass on its ability to producegoods more cheaply and efficiently to the consumer in terms of lower prices.

HISTORY’S REPETITION COMPULSION

But is this true? Let's look at an example of an American industry dominated by anoligopoly. After World War II, four companies increasingly dominated the American autoindustry: General Motors, Ford, Chrysler, and American Motors. By the 1960s and 1970s,the big three or big four collectively set prices for cars and together set quality standards. Bythe 1970s, facing increasing costs for energy and materials to manufacture cars, theAmerican auto industry began to make high priced cars of very little quality, usingadvertising to try to sell these cars to the American consumer. It worked for a while,American were forced to buy low quality, high-priced cars. But then something happened.By the mid-1970s the Japanese and German auto companies began to flood the Americanmarket with lower priced, higher quality cars. These foreign companies began to directlychallenge the oligopoly created by the American auto companies.

At first, the American auto companies tried to use advertising and patriotism--tellingtheir customers to buy American, but this didn't seem to work. Because the Americancompanies didn't rise up and compete with these foreign competitors, one of them, Chrysler,nearly went bankrupt. However, the government bailed out Chrysler by lending it billions ofdollars, fearing the political consequences of losing hundreds of thousands of Americanjobs. By the early 1980s, the American auto industry was pressuring the federal governmentto restrict the importation of Japanese and German cars into the United States. Owing totheir political and economic power, the American government put strict limits on importedcars. But by the late 1980s and 1990s, Japanese and German car companies had discovered away around this maneuver by the American companies to try to maintain control of theAmerican automobile market. Japanese and German companies began to buildmanufacturing plants in the United States and started producing hundreds of thousands ofcars in the United States. This development finally forced the American auto industry toonce again compete freely on the basis of price and quality. They could no longer use theircombined power to dominate the American auto market and undermine free enterprise andfree competition. As a result, Americans now could buy less expensive, higher quality cars.

But the story doesn't end here. Just as the growth of a national market caused manysmaller, regional companies to fail and go out of business, costing workers thousands ofjobs, the growth of a global economy is threatening to undermine many national companies,who don't have the money or power to compete with global corporations. The movement ofJapanese and German auto companies to the United States is a larger example of the newthreat caused by globalization and increased global competition. The larger problem facingAmerica is this: If larger, national corporations threatened free enterprise and the democraticcontrol of the economy and society, how will giant global corporations threaten Americandemocratic control of their economy, society, and culture? Is globalization the inevitableresult of the same competitive forces that caused the growth of national markets andindustries dominated by national oligopolies? Americans have been debating whether largenational and global companies are a benefit or a threat to our society and economythroughout the twentieth century. The debate will prove no less salient or relevant in the21st century if the Republic is to remain a Democracy rather than a Dream or a Nightmare.



SYLLABUS

WEEK ONE: JULY 8, 9, 10

NATIONAL MYTHS, IDEOLOGIES & LIES—THE IDEOLOGICAL NATUREAND PROJECT OF AMERICAN STUDIES

Modes of Inquiry: American Studies and Latin American Studies

Weekly Critique #1: The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez (1988) V/C #999:252 ((105 min.)Summary: On August 12, 1901, Gregorio Cortez, a young Mexican family man, shoots and kills a sheriffin self-defense. For the next 11 days, he eludes an inflamed posse of 600 Texas Rangers in a 450 mile chaseacross Texas. His manhunt captures the nation's interest and his eventual trial is tainted by the extremeemotions of the country.

8 July, Tues.--Myths Of Regeneration: New Worlds, Virgin Lands, And Promise Lands

LECTURE THEMES:• Nature Myths: Regeneration Through Violence & the Fusion of Opposites• Stereotyping the Other: Wild People in Wild Lands• Urban Pastorals: The Metaphorics of Nature vs. Civilization• Frontier Mythology and the Poisoning of Hemispheric Relations• American Ethno-genesis: The Racial State and Racial Formations in the U.S.

READINGS:fi Frederick B. Pike, "Chapters 1, 2, 3, & 4," The United States and Latin America. Austin,

TX: University of Texas, 1992. pp. 1-153.fi David J. Weber, "'Scarce More than Apes': Historical Roots of Anglo-American

Stereotypes of Mexicans in the Border Region," Myth and History of the HispanicSouthwest. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1987. pp. 153-167.

9 July, Wed.--Ideologies Of Critique: Instrumental Reason In Search Of New Frontiers

LECTURE THEMES:• Las Americas in the Age of New Imperialism• From Arielism to Modernism in Nuestra America• La Raza Cosmica: Hemispheric Visions in the Age of Roosevelt & Wilson• American Babbits Confess: For a Ruthless Criticism of Everything Existing• Water and The Ecology of Power: Irrigation, Domination and Instrumental Reason

READINGS:fi Frederick B. Pike, "Chapters 5, 6, 7," The United States and Latin America. Austin, TX:

University of Texas, 1992. pp. 154-257.fi Donald Worster, "The Flow of Power in History: Wittfogel, Marx, and the Ecology

of Power," Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West. NewYork: Pantheon Books, 1985. pp. 22-60.



10 July, Thurs.--Noble Lies?: Goodwill Towards Latin America--Better Dead, Than Red!

LECTURE THEMES:• The Good Neighbor Policy, 1933-1945• The Owl of Minerva takes Wing at Dusk: Hot & Cold Wars in the Americas• The North-South Divide: Dependency Theory & Politics of Development• The U.S. as Latin America's Frontier: Latinamericanization of the Border• Cultural Nationalism on the Border: A Theoretical Perspective on “Gringo” Justice

READINGS:fi Frederick B. Pike, "Chapters 8, 9, 10," The United States and Latin America. Austin, TX:

University of Texas, 1992. pp. 258-365.fi Alfredo Mirande, "A Theoretical Perspective on Gringo Justice," Gringo Justice. Notre

Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1987. pp. 216-236.



WEEK TWO: JULY 15, 16, 17

THE MAKING OF “AMERICANS”: IDENTITY FORMATION IN THESHADOW OF THE COMMODITY & U.S. RACIAL STATE

Modes of Inquiry: Comparative Ethnic Studies, Political Science & Literary History

Weekly Critique #2: The Nine Nations of North America--MexAmerica (1987):V/C #1328 (70 min.)Summary: This episode concentrates on MexAmerica, defined as the area between Los Angeles, CA--Houston, TX and Pueblo, CO--San Luis Potosi, Mexico. This region is not limited by political boundaries,but is rather a state of mind, which is defined by power, water, money, and immigration. Throughconversations with European Americans, Mexican Americans, and Asian Americans one tries to sketch thecharacteristics of this particular nation in North America.

15 July, Tues.-- Historical Explorations: Ethnicity in the U.S. Racial State

LECTURE THEMES:• Racial Formations in the United States• Ethic Options?: Race, Ethnicity and Identity• Cultural vs. Political Citizenship within the U.S. Polity• Constitutional Rhetoric and American Identity• The Boundaries of Citizenship• Race, Ethnicity & Nationality in the Liberal State• Cultural Production as/and Identity Formation• Discursive Formations: The Ontology & Ethics of the Metaphors We Live By• Stratified Acculturation & Segmented Assimilation: American Identities &

Americanization Processes

READINGS:fi Philip Gleason, "American Identity and Americanization," Harvard Encyclopedia of

American Ethnic Groups. pp. 31-58.fi Martin N. Marger, "Patterns of Ethnic Relations: Assimilation and Pluralism," Race

and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: WadsworthPublishing Co., 1991. pp. 113-150.

fi Michael Omi and Howard Winant, "Racial Formation," Racial Formation in the UnitedStates from the 1960s to the 1990s. New York: Routledge, 1994. pp. 53-76.

fi Michael Omi and Howard Winant, "The Racial State," Racial Formation. pp. 77-91.fi Reed Ueda, "Naturalization and Citizenship," Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic

Groups. pp. 734-748.fi Kunal M. Parker, “Making Blacks Foreigners: The Legal Construction of Former

Slaves in Post Revolutionary Massachusetts,” 2001 Utah Law Review (2001): pp. 75-124, 75-84 (cf. pp. 27-33 of this document).



16 July, Wed.--Theoretical Explorations: Identity & Cultural Productions

LECTURE THEMES:• Overview of American Autobiographical Practice• Canonical vs. Ethnic vs. Immigrant Autobiography• The Autobiographical Subject: Modern/Postmodern Selves• Literary/Cultural Production and The Ethnicity School• Critique of the Ethnicity School• The Identity Fetishism of Liberal Pluralism• American Subjectivities: Commodity Culture & Sources of the Self• Melodramas of Beset Personhood & The Commodity Fix

:READINGS

fi William Boelhower, "The Necessary Ruse: Immigrant Autobiography and theSovereign American Self," American Studies/Amerika studien 35.3 (1990): 297-319.

fi William Boelhower, "The Making of Ethnic Autobiography in the United States,"Paul John Eakin, ed. American Autobiography: Retrospect and Prospect. Madison, WI: UOf Wisconsin P, 1991. pp. 123-141.

fi Sau-ling C. Wong, "Immigrant Autobiography: Some Questions of Definition andApproach," Paul John Eakin, ed. American Autobiography: Retrospect and Prospect.Madison, WI: U Of Wisconsin P, 1991. pp. 142-170.

fi Fredric Jameson, "Conclusion: Groups and Representations, The Anxiety of Utopia,The Ideology of Difference," Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism.Durham, NC: Duke UP, 1991. pp. 318-356.

fi E. San Juan, Jr., "Hegemony and Resistance: A Critique of Modern and PostmodernCultural Theory in Ethnic Studies," Racial Formations/Critical Transformations:Articulations of Power in Ethnic and Racial Studies in the United States. Atlantic Heights, NJ:Humanities Press, 1992. pp. 60-96.

17 July, Thurs.-- Writing The Nation, Writing The Self: The Politics Of Mobility In TheWorld System

LECTURE THEMES:• What's at stake in defining a National Identity?• Americanization as Rebirth: The more things change, the more they stay the same• The Necessity of Invention: Narrative and History• History and the Self: Narratives of Dislocation From Different Shores• The Migratory Process & the Formation of “Ethnic Minorities”• Migration & Americanization in Multicultural America• Therapeutic Culture and Ethnic (de)Formation• Postmodernism and the Bourgeois Narrative of the (Fragmented) Self• A Different Mirror: Takaki’s Tempest & Other American Calibans

READINGS:fi Sau-ling C. Wong, "The Politics of Mobility," Reading Asian American Literature: From

Necessity to Extravagance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1993. pp. 118-165.fi Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, "Metaphors of Self in History: Subjectivity, Oral



Narrative, and Immigration Studies," Immigration Reconsidered. pp. 254-290.fi Paul Ong, Edna Bonacich, and Lucie Cheng, "The Political Economy of Capitalist

Restructing and the New Asian Immigration." The New Asian Immigration in LosAngeles and Global Restructuring. Ong, Bonacich & Cheng, eds. Philadelphia, PA:Temple UP, 1994.

fi Mario T. Garcia, "Americanization and the Mexican Immigrant, 1880-1930," FromDifferent Shores: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America. Ronald Takaki, ed. NewYork: Oxford UP, 1987. pp. 69-77.

fi Ramon Saldivar, "Race, Class and Gender in the Southwest: Foundations of anAmerican Resistance Literature and Its Literary History," Chicano Narrative: theDialectics of Difference. Madison, WI: U of Wisconsin P, 1990. pp. 10-25.

fi Genaro M. Padilla, "The Mexican Immigrant as *: The (de)Formation of MexicanImmigrant Life Story," Robert Folkenflik, ed. The Culture of Autobiography. Stanford,CA: Stanford UP, 1993.



WEEK THREE: JULY 22, 23, 24

BIRTH OF A NATION & MANIFEST DESTINIES: PERSPECTIVES ONAMERICAN POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Modes of Inquiry: History, Political Economy, & Public Policy

Weekly Critique #3: The Americanization of Emily!!(1964)--117 min.— MGM ComedySynopsis: A cynical American naval officer (Garner) first clashes with and then falls in love with hisidealistic British driver (Andrews), a war widow. After convincing her to enjoy life, he is selected by theNavy's PR machine to become "the Unknown Sailor," the first man to die landing at Normandy onD-Day. An often-brilliant and chatty script by Paddy Chayefsky with a 50s look & feel but a decidedly60s sensibility. Starring: Julie Andrews, James Garner, James Coburn, & Melvyn Douglas. Original storyby William Bradford Huie.

22 July, Tues.-- The U.S. Constitution & The “Founding Fathers”: Anglo-americanImperial fantasies, imagined Communities & the Development of American Politics

LECTURE THEMES:• What, then, were these Americans? A Collision of Histories? A Crucible of Race?• The Republican Mosaic: Natives, Citizens, Subjects, Foreigners & Slaves• When does the U.S. Constitution follow the flag?• The Constitution as Public Policy• How Historians and Social Scientists Have Approached the Constitution• A Public Policy Approach to the Constitution• Constitutional Context: Political Pretexts and Economic Circumstances• The Founders’ “Policy” Strategy: The Constitutional Institutionalism of Empire• A Policy Map of the Constitution: Agency, Authority, & Process

READINGS:fi The Federalist Papers, pp. 1-13, 21-24, 26, 28, 36-51 (Note: Can be read & downloaded

on-line at <http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/federal/fed.htm>.fi Katznelson & Shefter, Shaped by War and Trade, pp. 3-23fi Karen Orren & Steve Skowronek, “The Study of American Political Development,"

in Ira Katznelson and Helen Milner, eds. Political Science: The State of the Discipline,(New York: W.W. Norton, 2002).

fi David Brian Robertson, “Chapter 1: The Constitution as Social Policy, “ ConstitutingAmerican Politics: The Framers and America's Political Destiny, Fall 2003. pp 1-30.

(Advance manuscript draft copy obtained from author.)



23 July, Wed.—Foundations: Rules, Founders & Constitutional Institutionalism

LECTURE THEMES:• Deontology & Rules—Or, What You Can and Kant Do.• “I/We“--Necessary Illusions and Discursive Formations: Origins-Anxiety,

Identity and Homemaking through Kinship, Sacrifice, Ideology & Polity• Founding: (re)Writing the Rules, Rights & Institutions of the Social Compact• Civil War: (re)Writing the Social Compact in Blood

READINGS:fi The Federalist Papers, pp. 36-78, 84-85fi Katznelson & Shefter, Shaped by War and Trade, pp.57-81fi Katznelson & Shefter, Shaped by War and Trade, pp. 24-54, 82-110

24 July, Thurs.-- Patrician America: “Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori”

LECTURE THEMES:• The New Deal: (re)Writing the Social Compact• The 1960s Transformation—Culture—Making Sense• The 1970s Transformation—Economy—Making Money & Dumping Gold• Cold War to Culture Wars: Making Citizens from Brown to Loving to Hardwick• The Crisis in & The Politics of Representation: One man, one vote?• Art and the Politics of Identity: Postmodern Pursuits, Play, Paranoia & Profit• Public Art and Public Interest: American Kulturkampf• Return of the Repressed: Electoral Politics & The Imperial Presidency• Whither Cincinnatus?

READINGS:fi Katznelson & Shefter, Shaped by War and Trade, pp. 134-180fi Katznelson & Shefter, Shaped by War and Trade, pp. 113-133, 211-235fi Katznelson & Shefter, Shaped by War and Trade, pp. 301-35fi Frances K. Pohl, “From Cold War to Culture Wars” & “Public Art and Public

Interest,” Framing America: A Social History of American Art. New York: Thames &Hudson, 2002. pp. 491-520.



WEEK FOUR: JULY 29, 30, 31

WE THE PEOPLE: TELLING STORIES OF NATION, SELF & OTHER

Modes of Inquiry: Historiography, Narratology and Comparative Ethnic Studies

Weekly Critique #4: Geronimo & The Apache Resistance (1988) V/C #1531 (58 in.)Summary: Chiricahua Apaches tell their own story, a different story from the myths we have learned aboutthe Apaches and about Geronimo. Presents the issues of the clash of cultures and the rights to land.

29 July, Tues.—Approaches to American Historiography—Or, Who were our Romulusand Remus

LECTURE THEMES:• The Invention of Ethnicity— American Ethno-genesis & other Creation Myths• American History=American Immigration History: Turner, Bolton, Higham,

Handlin, Bodnar & Portes• Pilgrim’s Progress—Errand into the Wilderness• Asylum to the World—Yearning to be Free• Revolutionary Origins & the Crucible of Race—Red, White, Black, Brown, & Yellow• (re)Peopling the New World—Colonialism, Migration, Conquest, Genocide & Guile

READINGS:fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 1-27fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 44-66fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 82-94fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 152-167fi Ewa Morawska, "The Sociology and Historiography of Immigration,"

Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology and Politics. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin,ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1990. pp. 187-238.



30 July, Wed.—Giants In The Earth, Strangers In The Land & Other Huddled Masses

LECTURE THEMES:• Narrative Metaphorics: the Uprooted, the Transplanted, the Oppressed, the

Alienated, the Invented and the Diasporic• Nationalism: Home of the Brave, Land of the Free?• The Wages of Whiteness: Racism, Labor & the “White Man’s Burden”• Gendered Tales: The maintenance of Separate Spheres and Consumption-qua-Freedom• American Typologists: Emma Lazarus, Teddy Roosevelt & Randolph Bourne• Americanization and Its Discontents

READINGS:fi Orm Overland, “Homemaking in America” & “Contexts and Contests:

Where is Home and Whose Home Is It! “ Immigrant Minds, American Identities:Making the United States Home, 1870-1930. (Urbana & Chicago: University ofIllinois P, 2000. pp. 1-53.

fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 219-235.fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 252-270fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 291-304fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 360-378

31 July, Thurs.—Gendered transitions: He said, she said, we said

LECTURE THEMES:• The American Empire Strikes/Writes Back: Antipodal & Oppositional Identities• Beyond X: Cultural Pluralism, Multiculturalism & Post-Ethnic America• The Other Responds—In a Different Voice• Creating the Homeland: Immigrant & Ethnic Life in 20th Century America• Reconstructing Gender through Immigration and Settlement• Immigration and Gender• Ethnography and Autobiographical Documentation— The Cultural Poetics of

Auto-ethnography

READINGS:fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 343-359fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 381-447fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 465-484fi Betty Bergland, "Postmodernism and the Autobiographical Subject:

Reconstructing the 'Other'," Kathleen Ashley, Leigh Gilmore, and GeraldPeters, eds. Autobiography and Postmodernism. Amherst, MA: U ofMassachusetts P, 1994. pp. 130-166.



WEEK FIVE: AUGUST 5, 6, 7

AMERICANS: A COLLISION OF HISTORIES

Modes of Inquiry: American History and Comparative Ethno-History

Weekly Critique #5:1) Chulas Fronteras (1976) V/C #1304 (58 min.)Summary: Features the music and culture of Mexican-Americans living in southern Texas, showing foodpreparation, family life, dances, fieldwork, and other social activities.

2) Del mero corazon = Straight from the heart ((1976) V/C #1303 (28 min.)Summary: A lyrical journey through the musings of the heart in he Mexican-American Nortena musictradition. Various performers are shown in dancehalls and cantinas, presenting songs of passion and death,hurt and humor, and the pleasures and torn dreams of love.

22 July, Tues.—The New ‘Heroic Triad’: Re-inscribing the Nation in Red, White &Black

LECTURE THEMES:• Our Countryman’s Project: NOVUS ORDO SECULORUM• The War of Independence, the Constitution, & the establishment of a national

economy and the opening up of• The Napoleonic Wars and commercial and industrial developments• Tariffs, Technology and the American System of Manufactures• Civil War and American Industrialization• Big Business and the Trusts• Egalitarian Fictions: Citizen, Soldier, Worker

READINGS:fi Countryman, “Part One,” Americans, pp. 3- 88fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 31-43fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 70-81fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 134-151fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 171-184



23 July, Wed.-- E Pluribus Unum—One Out Of Many Or Many Out Of One

LECTURE THEMES:• Quo Vadis, Countryman?• The Republican Mosaic: Citizen, Subjects, & Slaves as Factors of Production• From A Different Shore?• The Radicalization of The Other

READINGS:fi Countryman, “Part Two,” Americans, pp. 89-172.fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 383-393.fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 416-429.

24 July, Thurs.—Crisis of Triumphant Democracy—or, the Paradox of Plenty

LECTURE THEMES:• American Caesars--Vini, vici, vidi: I came, I saw, I conquered!• Accelerating Factor Mobility Transforms America: 1840s, 1880s, 1960s & Now• New Wine in Old Bottles: Ethnic Patterns & Streams• A House Burst Asunder

READINGS:fi Countryman, “Part Three & Coda,” Americans, pp. 173-241.fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 344-359.fi Gjerde, Major Problems, pp. 451-464.



WEEK SIX: AUGUST 12, 13, 14

THE INTERNATIONALIZATION & MILITARIZATION OF THE U.S.-MEXICO BORDERLANDS IN 20TH CENTURY

Modes of Inquiry: Political Science, International Relations & Sociology

Weekly Critique #6: Leaving Home / We Do the Work (1990s) V/C #2626 (60 min.)Summary: Examines the Mexico-U.S. Free Trade Agreement by looking at how workers on both sides ofthe border have been affected by the maquiladora program. Economists, free trade advocates, and Latinocommunity leaders debate our free trade future.

12 August, Thurs.-- Industrializing The Border: From Fordism To Flexible AccumulationUnder Late Capitalism

LECTURE THEMES:• Desert Capitalism: Labor and Monopoly Capital in Agribusiness & Manufacturing• Integrating the Mexican Border Economy• The Border Industrialization Program: The Maquiladora Industry• NAFTA's Effect on the Western Industrial Corridor• Global Economic Restructuring and World Systems Theory

READINGS:fi Kathryn Kopinak, "Thirty Years of Mexican Maquiladoras," Desert Capitalism:

Maquiladoras in North America's Western Industrial Corridor. Tucson, AZ: University ofArizona Press, 1996. pp. 7-27.

fi Kathryn Kopinak, "Implications of Economic Restructuring for RegionalDevelopment," Desert Capitalism. Tucson, AZ: U of Arizona Press, 1996. pp. 28-48.

fi Kathryn Kopinak, "Heterogenous Maquila Development and Corridor Integration inCrisis," Desert Capitalism. Tucson, AZ: U of Arizona Press, 1996. pp. 181-202.



13 August, Tues.--Technologies Of Mass Social Control: Low-Intensity Conflict Doctrine

LECTURE THEMES:• The Iron Cages of the Bureaucratic State: Militarization & Law Enforcement• The Pacification of the Border Region, 1848-1918• Border Enforcement as Labor Control, 1918-1977• The Border Patrol• Low-Intensity Conflict: "A War for All Seasons’• The INS during the Carter & Reagan Administrations, 1978-1988• U.S.-Mexican Collaboration in Immigration Enforcement• Human Rights Issues on the Border

READINGSfi Timothy J. Dunn, "Chapters 1, 2, & 3," The Militarization of the U.S.-Mexico Border,

1978-1992: Low -Intensity Conflict Doctrine Comes Home. Austin, TX: CMAS Books,1996. pp. 1-102.

14 August, Wed.--U.S. Domestic & Foreign Policy In The Reagan-Bush I Era

LECTURE THEMES:• The War on Drugs, 1981-1992: Drug Enforcement in the Border Region• U.S.-Mexican Collaboration on Drug Enforcement• Implications of the Militarization of the U.S. Mexico Border• El Corralon: The Banality of Evil in U.S. Immigration Prisons on the Border• LIC Doctrine Comes Home 1: The Los Angeles Riots of 1992• LIC Doctrine Comes Home After 9/11: Paradigm for Bush fils’ War on Terror?

READINGS:fi Timothy J. Dunn, "Chapter 4, 5 & Appendices," The Militarization of the U.S.-Mexico

Border, 1978- 1992: Low-Intensity Conflict Doctrine Comes Home. Austin, TX: CMASBooks, 1996. pp. 103-197.

15 August, Friday--FINAL EXAM Due 5PM In Instructor Inbox Or MailboxIn Campbell.



MAKING BLACKS FOREIGNERS—OR, THE ONTOLOGY OF THEMETAPHORS WE LIVE BY

Excerpted from: Kunal M. Parker, Making Blacks Foreigners: The Legal Constructionof Former Slaves in Post Revolutionary Massachusetts, 2001 Utah Law Review 75-124,75-84 (2001)(116 Footnotes & Diacritics Omitted).

How might one conceive of African-American history as U.S. immigration history, and withwhat implications for our understanding of immigration itself? The historiography of U.S.immigration has been heavily invested in producing an idea of immigrants as individuals whomove from "there" to "here," with both "there" and "here" taken to be actually existingterritorial entities. Even a cursory inspection of the titles of vastly different immigrationhistories--Oscar Handlin's The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations that Madethe American People, Ronald Takaki's Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of AsianAmericans, and Roger Daniels' Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicityin American Life--testifies to the centrality of spatial movement in historians' understandingof immigration. Over the years, African-Americans have been represented differentlydepending upon the kinds of spatial movement that immigration historians have elected tovalorize.

To avoid any confusion, I should make it clear that I am not suggesting that historians havewritten immigration histories that are organized thematically around spatial movement.Rather, I am drawing attention to the fact that spatial movement has featured prominently inhistorians' understanding of how an immigrant comes to be an immigrant.

Until recently, African-Americans tended to fare poorly within the historiography of U.S.immigration because of the weight immigration historians placed on voluntarism in spatialmovement. As it emerged in the 1920s, the "Whiggish" historiography of U.S. immigrationcelebrated the figure of the immigrant as an individual who "chose" to move from "there"(the Old World) to "here" (the New World) in search of freedom, opportunity, and so on.Not surprisingly, this construction of the figure of the immigrant completely erased theAfrican-American experience from immigration histories. Although subsequent immigrationhistories dropped the awkward "Whiggish" focus on the immigrant's quest for freedom andopportunity, the emphasis on voluntarism in movement persisted. Most immigrationhistories displayed a certain discomfort with representing the African-American experienceas an immigrant experience.

Under the pressures of liberal multicultural inclusiveness, there has been in recent years aconcerted scholarly attempt to link African-American history to U.S. immigration history byunderplaying the requirement that an individual move voluntarily from "there" to "here" inorder to qualify as an immigrant, and by emphasizing the simple fact that African-Americansmoved from "there" (Africa) to "here" (the New World). This fact--the brute fact of spatialmovement--is taken to be the key to representing African-Americans as bona fideimmigrants. Thus, in his general overview of the history of immigration to the United States,Roger Daniels represents African-Americans as immigrants by asserting that "the slave tradewas one of the major means of bringing immigrants to the New World in general and theUnited States in particular." In other words, while contemporary immigration historians have



abandoned the focus on voluntarism in movement, which is an entirely salutary advance inour understanding of immigration, they have retained a view of immigration as a spatialmovement from "there" to "here."

It is relatively easy to trace this specific linking of African- American history to U.S.immigration history to the pressures of liberal multicultural inclusiveness. Ideologues ofliberal multiculturalism have placed immigration--understood as a spatial movement from"there" to "here"--at the heart of what they view as a robust American multiculturalism. Forexample, in a tract entitled What it Means to Be an American, Michael Walzer asserts:

This is not Europe; we are a society of immigrants, and the experience of leaving ahomeland and coming to this new place is an almost universal "American" experience. Itshould be celebrated. But the celebration will be inauthentic and hypocritical if we are busybuilding walls around our country. Whatever regulation is necessary--we can argue aboutthat--the flow of people, the material base of multiculturalism, should not be cut off. In thisrendering, immigration--described in resolutely voluntaristic terms as "the experience ofleaving a homeland and coming to this new place"--is viewed as the "material base" of athriving American multiculturalism. Immigrants bring distinctive cultural identities withthem when they move from "there" to "here." Not surprisingly, if African-Americans are toparticipate on equal terms alongside others in a multicultural order founded uponimmigration, they must also claim--or have claimed for them--"the experience of leaving ahomeland and coming to this new place." This is something that a focus on the brute fact ofAfrican- Americans' movement from Africa to the New World--their lack of voluntarism inthis movement notwithstanding--can readily accomplish.

The problem with this particular linking of African-American history to U.S. immigrationhistory is that it simply reproduces the dominant historiographical view of immigration as aspatial movement of individuals from "there" to "here." In so doing, it completely misses thehighly significant ways in which African-American history can compel a radical rethinking ofimmigration itself. Through an examination of a fragment of African-American history--thedebates surrounding the proper legal construction of emancipated slaves in the context ofpoor relief administration in late eighteenth century Massachusetts--this Article attempts justsuch a rethinking.

At this juncture, one might well ask why it is at all necessary to rethink the dominanthistoriographical view of immigration as the spatial movement of individuals from "there" to"here." After all, this view of immigration has a venerable lineage, sits comfortably withcelebrations of liberal multiculturalism, and corresponds to our sense of what immigration is"really" all about. I would argue that such a rethinking is imperative because this view ofimmigration fetishizes territory in ways that feed into, and ultimately enable, perniciouscontemporary renderings of the problem of immigration, the solution to the problem ofimmigration, and, perhaps most important, influential legal-theoretical justifications of thesolution to the problem of immigration.

The contemporary American state's construction of both the problem of immigration and itssolution reveals the extent of this fetishization of territory. Within official discourses andpractices, the problem of immigration is that unwanted immigrants come "here;" thesolution to the problem lies in keeping unwanted immigrants "there." Accordingly, the state



devotes a significant portion of its energies to erecting fences to keep potential immigrantsout, to patrolling its territory to weed out immigrants who have entered without itspermission, to restricting resident immigrants' access to welfare on the theory that others willbe discouraged from coming, and so on.

But the fetishization of territory also underpins influential legal- theoretical approaches toimmigration that justify the contemporary American construction of the problem ofimmigration and its solution. Within these approaches, precisely because the immigrant isimagined as moving spatially from "there" to "here," the immigrant's claims upon thecommunity--whether these consist of claims to enter and remain within the territory of thecommunity or claims upon the resources of the community once within the territory of thecommunity--might safely be deemed inferior, less deserving of recognition, or moresusceptible to rejection.

It is worth exploring how the sense of the immigrant as one who moves spatially from"there" to "here" translates into the conviction that the immigrant's claims upon thecommunity are susceptible to rejection. For the most part, we are not dealing here withexplicit, crude, or vulgar nationalist arguments that might be dismissed out of hand. Rather,essential to this act of translation is the sense that the immigrant comes "here" as one who isalready a member of an actually existing, legally recognized, territorial community. Unlikemembers of the community "here" who have no other community in which to turn,immigrants can always go "there" if refused admission "here;" always draw upon resources"there" if denied claims upon resources "here;" and always participate "there" if barred fromparticipating "here." The possibilities assumed to be available to the immigrant "there"--typically, the country from which the immigrant comes--permit, sanction, and otherwiseenable us to mark the immigrant's claims "here" as inferior to the claims of citizens.

Of course, given the vast resource differences that exist among the various countries in thecontemporary world, any sense of comfort that we derive from knowing that immigrants canalways levy claims upon their countries of origin is suspect. Nevertheless, this sense ofcomfort continues quite persistently to animate both the constitutional law of immigrationand influential theoretical approaches to immigration. It rests upon some sense of theformal, legal equivalence of territorial states. In a world carved up into actually existing,mutually exclusive, and legally equivalent territorial states--a world in which membershipsand places are represented by passports, all of which look alike, even if the memberships andplaces they represent do not--it remains possible to refuse the immigrant's claims uponthecommunity on the ground that every immigrant carries some passport that represents somecountry, a real place where the immigrant can levy his claims, even if everyone knows thatthose claims are likely to be frustrated there.

The idea that immigrants' claims upon the community might be refused at will on theground that immigrants are citizens of another country has always informed theconstitutional law of immigration. Within the register of the "plenary power doctrine" thatunderpins the constitutional law of immigration, the refusal of immigrants' claims has oftenadhered to the following logic. Precisely because immigrants are citizens of other countries,in all matters involving immigration, courts may safely transpose the redress of immigrants'claims from the realm of constitutional law to the realm of foreign relations. In this latterrealm, the countries to which immigrants belong may be expected to take up immigrants'



grievances with the United States. Accordingly, in Chae Chan Ping v. United States, a latenineteenth century case widely viewed as having inaugurated the "plenary power doctrine,"the United States Supreme Court rejected the plaintiff's constitutional challenge to the firstChinese exclusion laws inter alia on the ground that China--the country to which the plaintiffbelonged--could argue on the plaintiff's behalf in the arena of government-to-governmentrelations. Other examples of judicial invocations of the protections that immigrants allegedlyderive from their countries of origin as a basis for denying their claims in American courts oflaw could be cited, but are unnecessary for present purposes.

This constitutional abdication of responsibility for safeguarding immigrants' claims upon thecommunity finds its analogue in influential theoretical approaches to immigration that derivecomfort from the fact that immigrants come from some other country in order to justifytheir representation of immigrants' claims upon the community as inferior. First, proceedingfrom the view that "[t]he primary good that we distribute to one another is membership insome human community," Michael Walzer has famously argued that territorially constitutedcommunities--by which he means countries--are not morally bound to admit strangers intotheir territory because their own associational activities take precedence over strangers'claims to admittance. However, the fact that Walzer assumes everyone to possessmembership in "some human community" betrays his conviction that strangers refusedadmittance have some country to which they can return. This conviction is then furtherrevealed in Walzer's recognition that the claims of refugees might be entitled to specialconsideration precisely because they have no country to which they can return: "Might notadmission, then, be morally imperative, at least for these strangers, who have no other placeto go?" Second, at the opening of her work on American citizenship, Judith Skhlar assertsthat immigrants' claims for recognition of their historic suffering are less deserving of herattention than the claims of natives precisely because immigrants come from other countries:"The history of immigration and naturalization policies is not, however, my subject. It has itsown ups and downs, but it is not the same as that of the exclusion of native- bornAmericans from citizenship." The idea here is that because immigrants--unlike natives--comefrom somewhere else, a real place where they can levy their claims, the claims of natives tocitizenship take precedence over the claims of immigrants to citizenship. Finally, PeterSchuck argues that immigrants who fail to naturalize reveal a lack of commitment toAmerican civic life that ultimately robs their welfare claims of legitimacy. In his view,immigrants' welfare claims are marked as inferior precisely because immigrants cling to thecountries from which they come. As suggested by these legal-theoretical approaches toimmigration, the understanding of the immigrant as one moving in space from "there" to"here"--with both "there" and "here" imagined as actually existing territorial entities--becomes critical to justifying a denial of the immigrant's claims "here." The fragment ofAfrican- American history explored in this Article seeks to challenge this understanding ofthe immigrant.

In late eighteenth century Massachusetts, the system of poor relief administration cameclosest to regulating what we recognize today as immigration; it sought to secure territorialcommunities against the claims of outsiders. Within this system, just as under contemporaryimmigration regimes, individuals were seen as moving in space from "there" to "here. ""There" and "here" were taken to be actually existing territorial entities, typically towns. Thefact that an individual came from some town community ("there") became critical to howthe town community he had entered ("here") would deal with his claims. Legal responsibility



for the recognition of the individual's claims lay with the town community from which hecame; accordingly, an individual's claims could be refused "here" because they could bemade--indeed properly belonged--"there."

As they emerged from slavery in the late eighteenth century, African- Americans threw thisentire system into a crisis. While they had been slaves, African-Americans had been the legalresponsibility of their masters. As subjects of claims, enslaved African-Americans were thusinvisible to the town communities in which they lived and worked. When they emerged fromslavery, however, African-Americans suddenly surfaced as subjects of claims who came fromno place in particular; there was simply no actually existing territorial entity upon which topin the legal responsibility for their support. African- Americans were "here" without havingcome from "there."

How were the claims of these new subjects to be handled? While racial ideology hadeverything to do with how the claims of African-Americans were handled, this racialideology acquired significant form through a strategy, the logic of which was determinedwithin the framework of a system of poor relief administration that rested upon a view ofindividuals moving in space from "there" to "here." In entirely brazen attempts to refuselegal responsibility for the claims of former slaves, town communities sought to representformer slaves as "foreigners;" they assigned "foreign" geographic origins to former slaves.Former slaves thus came to be represented as coming from territorial entities outsideMassachusetts, typically from a place called "Africa," so that town communities would notbe burdened with the legal responsibility of recognizing their claims.

The problem that African-Americans emerging from slavery posed for the system of poorrelief administration--and the geographic origins that town communities assigned to formerslaves in order to deal with the problem--exposes the fetishization of territory underlying thedominant understanding of immigration as a process of spatial movement from "there" to"here." From it, we can draw two important conclusions. First, the fact that immigrantsmove in space from "there" to "here"--such that the problem of immigration and its solutioncome to be imagined in territorial terms--might not be the critical fact about immigrants. Ifthe African-American experience in late eighteenth century Massachusetts is taken as a guide,the problem with immigrants is revealed to be not so much the fact that they simply showup "here," but the fact that they emerge at given moments as legally visible subjects of claimson what we might think of as a "landscape of claims." This landscape of claims does notnecessarily correspond to the territory of the community. It corresponds rather to the publicregister within which individuals are legally recognized (and thus become legally visible) assubjects of claims upon the community. As long as they were slaves--and thus the legalresponsibility of their masters-- African-Americans did not pose a problem to the towncommunities in which they lived and worked. This was precisely because they were legallyinvisible on the landscape of claims. African-Americans became a problem for towncommunities-- communities they had physically neither left nor entered--only once they wereno longer slaves, no longer the legal responsibility of their masters, and thus legally visible onthe landscape of claims.

Understanding the problem of immigration as one of managing immigrants' legal visibilityon the landscape of claims--rather than as one of managing territorial boundaries--drawsattention to the role of the state in constantly making immigrants legally invisible on the



landscape of claims. Understood this way, keeping immigrants outside the territorialboundaries of the community appears to be only one--albeit an extremely important one--among various strategies of rendering immigrants legally invisible as subjects of claims.Other viable strategies include resolutely maintaining millions of immigrants in a state of"illegality" so that they do not dare articulate claims upon the community, simply refusing torecognize "legal" immigrants' claims for welfare, and so on.

Second, and more important, the state's invocation of the immigrant's coming from anactually existing territorial entity outside the territorial boundaries of the community as abasis for refusing the immigrant's claims upon the community is revealed with breathtakingclarity as the pure effect of a prior desire to refuse the immigrant's claims upon thecommunity. Although African- Americans had in fact come from slavery, town communitiesassigned them geographic origins outside Massachusetts--in a place called "Africa"--with aview to representing them as "foreigners" who were the legal responsibility of "somewhereelse." The object was purely to deny legal responsibility for former slaves. This assignmentof geographic origins to African-Americans should be read not as underscoring a basicmismatch between former slaves and the immigrant who "really" comes from "somewhereelse," but rather as underscoring the politics routinely underlying the construction of the"somewhere else" from which the immigrant supposedly comes. The point is that the stateinvokes immigrants' origins in some place outside the community when--and insofar as-- thisinvocation serves to justify refusing the immigrant's claims upon the community. If there isan acceptance that the state invokes the "there" from which immigrants come to justify itsrefusal of immigrants' claims--which is not to deny that immigrants do "in fact" come fromoutside the territorial boundaries of the community--there might at least be a revision ofinfluential theoretical approaches to immigration that uncritically invoke immigrants' placesof origin as a basis for justifying a refusal of their claims upon the community.

There have, of course, been some attempts to link African-American history to immigrationhistory through a focus on the legal construction of free blacks, most notably in theextremely valuable work of Gerald Neuman. In his excellent survey of immigrationrestriction in the early Republic, Neuman describes (1) the ways in which several antebellumstates, both free and slave, barred the entry of free blacks and (2) the ways in which the slavestates sought to compel free blacks to leave slave territory on pain of incurring more or lesshorrific penalties, including re-enslavement. However, Neuman operates with precisely theterritorially-driven understanding of immigration as a spatial movement from "there" to"here" that this Article eschews. For his purposes, "a statute regulates immigration if it seeksto prevent or discourage the movement of aliens across an international border, even if thestatute also regulates the movement of citizens, or movement across interstate borders, andeven if the alien's movement is involuntary." Not surprisingly, Neuman does not seek toadvance our understanding of immigration through an exploration of African-Americanhistory in the way that is attempted here. By contrast, historians who have written about thefree black experience in the antebellum United States have for the most part focused onthemes such as race, the preservation of slavery, and so on without seeing the free blackexperience as a particular species of immigrant experience that might afford a critique of thepernicious fetishization of territory that underlies the contemporary construction ofimmigration.



It should be pointed out at this juncture that this Article cannot pretend to capture the fullcomplexity of the African-American experience of emancipation in late eighteenth centuryMassachusetts. Fortunately, it is possible to refer the reader to Joanne Melish's brilliantintellectual, social, and cultural history of the "problem of emancipation"--and thecorresponding development of racial ideology--in late eighteenth century New England.Among other things, Melish argues convincingly that, decades before the full-scaleemergence of the colonization movement, the successfully realized desire to rid NewEngland of slavery was accompanied by the less successfully realized desire to rid NewEngland of those who had formerly been slaves. White New Englanders were never able toremove black New Englanders from their midst. However, they were able to enact theirrejection of black New Englanders in all sorts of ways; the attempt to assimilate emancipatedslaves to the legal status of "foreigners" was one such way. . .

Kunal Parker--Associate-Professor of Law, Cleveland-Marshall College of Law, Cleveland StateUniversity. This Article was written while I was a Visiting Research Fellow at the American BarFoundation (1999-2000). Earlier versions of this Article were presented at the Speaker Series at theAmerican Bar Foundation (Spring 2000) and the Annual Conference of the Law and Society Association(May 2000). I would like to thank (1) the audiences at the American Bar Foundation and the Law andSociety Association Annual Conference for their reactions to the Article and (2) Nicholas Blomley, IndraniChatterjee, Ruth Herndon, Bonnie Honig, Ritty Lukose, Patricia McCoy, Mae Ngai, Joanne Melish,Annelise Riles, James Sidbury, Christopher Tomlins, and Leti Volpp for their comments on earlier drafts ofthis Article. I would also like to acknowledge both the financial support of the American Bar Foundationand the Cleveland- Marshall Fund and the research assistance of William Knox. Special thanks go to thepersonnel of the Massachusetts Archives (especially Stephanie Dyson) and to Elizabeth Bouvier of theMassachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Archives.



A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY & ESSAY ON AMERICAN STUDIESADAPTED FROM PROF. T.V.REED’S WEBSITE

URL: <http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~amerstu/tm/bib.html>

I. ON THE GENEALOGY OF AMERICAN STUDIES

This historical overview section lists books and articles that trace the rise of American Studies (henceforthAS) as a discipline or interdiscipline, in terms of its theoretical concerns and/or its institutional contexts.Recent theory has reminded us that origin stories are powerful determining forces, and thus these (and my)tales of the growth and development of the discipline should be read both for what they say and for whatthey may leave out, read both for their truths and their partialities.

Wise, Gene, ed. "Some Voices in and Around American Studies." American Quarterly 31 (1979): 338-406. Aspart of a special section of the 1979 bibliographic issue of American Quarterly entitled "The AmericanStudies Movement: A Thirty Year Retrospective," fourteen scholars reflect on the history, and future ofAmerican Studies, including reflections on theory and method from a variety of disciplinary perspectives.

---. "'Paradigm Dramas' in American Studies: A Cultural and Institutional History." American Quarterly 31(1979): 293-337. Wise traces the rise of American Studies from its mythic origins with Vernon Parringtonin mid-west exile and Perry Miller in "darkest Africa," up to the late 1970s. He identifies a series of major"paradigm moments" in the development of the field, shaped by an interplay of social change and changesin theory. The essay is stronger on institutional history than on analyzing theoretical tendencies, but issuggestive regarding the latter area as well. His footnotes, especially the first two, provide a guide tofurther reading on the history of AS.

Susman, Warren. Culture as History. NY: Pantheon, 1984. A number of Susman's pieces on Americanintellectual and cultural history illuminate the development of AS, but his essay on "The Culture of theThirties" is particularly important. While only tangentially treating AS, Susman's observation that theanthropological notion of "culture" became an obsessive concern of Americans during the depressioncrisis is very suggestive vis-a-vis the rise of the AS movement. But for a critique of Susman's exaggerationof the conservatism of the thirties, see below Michael Denning, "American Culture and Socialist Theory."

Bercovitch, Sacvan, and Myra Jehlen, eds., Ideology and Classic American Literature. NY: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1988. Contains reassessments of their work by important pioneers of AS theory and methodincluding Henry Nash Smith, Leo Marx, Richard Slotkin, and Alan Trachtenberg, as well as essays by ayounger generation of scholars, including Houston Baker, Carolyn Porter, Donald Pease, Michael Gilmore,Jane Tompkins, Jonathan Arac, and Myra Jehlen, that exemplify work in the 1980s that blended feminist,neo-marxist and post-structuralist theories and methods.

Reising, Russell. The Unusable Past: Theory and the Study of American Literature. NY: Methuen, 1986. Offers ahistory and critique of major theories of an American literary and cultural tradition, from Perry Miller toSacvan Bercovitch, including such figures of importance to AS as Leo Marx, F.O. Matthiessen, D.H.Lawrence, and R.W.B. Lewis.Denning, Michael. "'The Special American Conditions': Marxism and American Studies," AmericanQuarterly38 (1986): 356-380. In the course of arguing against American "exceptionalism" (our alleged lackof class struggle etc.), Denning introduces main currents in neo-marxism and surveys marxian studies ofAmerican culture. He argues that AS theory and practice has often been a weak alternative to marxianthought and has suffered from lack of a full encounter with it. Footnotes constitute an importantbibliography on marxism and AS.

Cowan, Michael. "Boundary as Center: Inventing an American Studies Culture." Prospects12 (1987): 1-20.Cowan's "state of the discipline" address as outgoing ASA president is a seriously playful account of majorturning points in AS, treating AS scholars as a culture, and pointing out some of the contradictions ofbeing an established anti-disciplinary, anti-establishmentarian discipline.



Kerber, Linda. "Diversity and the Transformation of American Studies." American Quarterly 41 (1989): 415-431. Also delivered as a president's address to the ASA (Miami 1988), this piece is a lively, nuanced defenseof diversity in America and in AS. Told via a narrative about the changes in AS scholarship Kerber hasnoted during her lifetime, this speech is aimed at countering conservative calls during the Reagan era forwhat she sees as a narrowly monocultural and largely uncritical vision of our past and future. It is alsoaimed at putting questions of power, which Kerber sees as deflected by more abstract discussions ofcultural "difference," at the center of AS scholarship and debate.

Davis, Allen F. "The Politics of America Studies." American Quarterly 42 (1990): 353-374. Another"presidential address" to the ASA (Toronto, 1989), this piece uses a story about a struggle for powerwithin the ASA during the late 1960s and early 70s (between radicals and more traditionalist forces) tocharacterize the complex relations between the ASA as organization, the interdiscipline as a whole, and thewider forces of change and constancy in the society.

Gunn, Giles. "American Studies as Cultural Criticism, " in The Culture of Criticism and the Criticism of Culture.Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987. A thoughtful, brief history of AS that attempts to showthepolemical nature of the myth and symbol school, and how recent work by Clifford Geertz, AlanTrachtenberg and others has extended and clarified without really superseding the work of the myth andsymbol school.

Berkhofer, Robert F. "A New Context for a New American Studies?" American Quarterly 41 (1989) 588-613. A sophisticated survey of how recent developments in social and intellectual history, and literary andcultural theory, are reshaping AS, with special reference to how relations between "texts" and "contexts"are constructed by various theoretical postures.

Lipsitz, George. "Listening to Learn, Learning to Listen: Popular Culture, Cultural Theory, and AmericanStudies." American Quarterly 42 (1990): 615-636. A brilliantly lucid introduction to the key tools recentEuropean cultural theory has to offer AS; sorts the useful from the merely pretentious among post-structuralists, neo-marxists, semioticians, etc. and relates their work to developments in scholarship aboutpopular culture in the US.Lauter, Paul. "'Versions of Nashville, Visions of American Studies': Presidential Address to the ASA.October 27, 1994." American Quarterly 47.2 (June 1995): 185-203. President Lauter uses Nashville, with itsrange of resonances moving from the conservative Southern agrarian literary critics to Civil Rights workersof the Nashville movement, as the backdrop for a plea for a more publicly engaged version of AmericanStudies, one deeply involved in political struggle at all levels.

Porter, Carolyn. "'What We Know that We Don't Know': Remapping American Literary Studies." AmericanLiterary History 6.3 (1994):467-526. While focused on the construction of the "field imaginary" of"American literature," this essay is directly relevant to those seeking an American Studies that displacesexceptionalism and re-places the U.S. in larger transnational flow of cultural exchanges.

Kaplan, Amy. "'Left Alone with America': The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture," inCultures of United States Imperialism. Edited by Kaplan and Donald Pease. Durham, NC: Duke UniversityPress, 1993. Beginning with a re-reading of Perry Miller's errand into the heart of darkness, Kaplansuccinctly and brilliantly lays out the ways in which American culture studies have avoided the fact of theUnited States empire. She demonstrates how that evasion has impoverished our understanding of not onlyU.S. imperialism but also of the interacting force of empire on our domestic cultural productions.

Desmond, Jane, and Virginia Domínquez. "Resituating American Studies in a Critical Internationalism."American Quarterly 48 (September 1996):475-90. Strong, lucid argument for a rethinking of AmericanStudies institutionally and intellectually in relation to other "area studies" in order to better locate the fieldin the larger terrain of a self-critical trans- and inter-nationalism that undercuts American exceptionalism.

Janice Radway, "What's in a Name?" Presidential Address to the American Studies Association, 20November, 1998 Radway raises key questions about the history and future of the interdiscipline byfocusing on the name 'American Studies' itself, and by exploring alternative names that highlight current



crises/opportunites to expand and redirect AS-type work in ways that more fully acknowledge theproblems of American exceptionalism and imperialism.

Denning, Michael. "American Culture and Socialist Theory," in Denning, The Cultural Front. London:Verso, 1996: 423-62. Locates part of the origins of American studies in the cultural struggle of the PopularFront social movement of the 30s and 40s, and rethinks American cultural studies in light of a radicalrevision of this "age of the CIO."

Maddox, Lucy, ed. Locating American Studies: The Evolution of a Discipline. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1999.Collects many of the key essays cited above, with updating commentaries by AS scholars. Also includessome important pieces not referenced here.

II. MYTH AND SYMBOL SCHOOL

The first clearly identifiable school of AS theory and method is generally referred to as the "myth andsymbol" approach. These critics worked on the assumption that something like the essence of Americanculture could be culled by reading representative great individual works of the American imagination(though some moved out of the canon into popular texts). Myth and symbol scholars claimed to findcertain recurring myths, symbols, and motifs in many of these works (i.e., the American Adam, the virginland, the machine in the garden). Important figures working in or around this approach include HenryNash Smith, Leo Marx, John William Ward, and, in a revisionist mode, Annette Kolodny, Richard Slotkin,and Alan Tracthenberg. While rather reluctant to theorize their work, each of these authors has made atleast one programmatic statement and others have tried more formally to codify, explain, and/or critiquetheir methods and theoretical assumptions.

Smith, H.N. "Can American Studies Develop a Method?" American Quarterly 9 (1957): 197-208, and, slightlyrevised in J. Kwiat & M. Turpie, eds., Studies in American Culture Minneapolis: Univ. Minnesota, 1960.Generally regarded as the first important programmatic statement of the myth and symbol school, thisessay argues for this approach as a meeting ground for history, literature and sociology but is based inhumanist assumptions that tend to favor the first two terms in this triptych over the third. See also thepreface to the second edition of Smith's classic work, Virgin Land, and his reassessment piece in theBercovitch and Jehlen collection cited in Section I.Marks, Barry. "The Concept of Myth in Virgin Land," American Quarterly15 (1963): 71-76.

Trachtenberg, Alan. "Myth, History, and Literature in Virgin Land," Prospects3 (1977): 127-129. BothTrachtenberg and Marks (above) attempt to elicit the systematic method and theory behind what Smithclaimed to have done more or less intuitively in Virgin Land.

Attebery, Brian. "American Studies: A Not So Unscientific Method," American Quarterly 48 (June 1996):316-43. Drawing on the correspondence between Henry Nash Smith and Leo Marx, Attebery argues that aDilthey-like hermeneutics underlay the putatively methodless method of Marx and some other myth andsymbol scholars. Calls for American studies scholars to recognize and embrace "a different kind of science,one in which interpretation and cross-disciplinary validation replace prediction and experimentalverification."

Kuklick, Bruce. "Myth and Symbol in American Studies," American Quarterly 24 (1972): 435-450. Aninfluential critique of the myth and symbol school for its alleged "philosophical idealism," "elitism," andlack of sociological grounding.

Finseth, Ian. "PREFACE to the HyperText Version of Henry Nash Smith's Virgin Land: The AmericanWest as Symbol and Myth." Finseth offers an interesting seven stage typology of the uses of "myth" inSmith's book.

Lenz, Guenther. "American Studies--Beyond the Crisis?: Recent Redefinitions and the Meaning of Theory,History, and Practical Criticism," Prospects 7 (1982): 53-113. Lenz shows that critics of the myth and symbolschool have failed to acknowledge the historicity, diversity, and complex practice of the school, instead



giving reductive and reifying readings of the admittedly inadequate theoretical writings of the myth critics.He generalizes this notion to argue for a reading of AS theory that attends to the diverse practices ofscholars rather than their programmatic statements in an effort to uncover the logics and epistemologiesthat have governed the field in various historical eras.

Sklar, Robert. "The Problem of an American Studies 'Philosophy': A Bibilography of New Directions,"American Quarterly 27 (1975): 245-262. Important critique of the myth and symbol school, and a survey ofthen emerging work influenced by neo-marxism and centered around the concept of "ideology" as a morepolitically specific alternative to "myth."

Slotkin, Richard. "Myth and the Production of History," in Bercovitch and Jehlen, eds. Ideology and ClassicAmerican Literature pp. 70-90. Summarizes Slotkin's particular inflection of the myth approach asexemplified in his three-volume study of the frontier myth as imperialist rationale, Regeneration ThroughViolence (1973), The Fatal Environment (1985), and Gunfighter Nation (1996). The introduction to the formergives an earlier, more Jungian conception of his approach, and the introduction to the latter is a slightlydifferent version of the essay cited here which moves towards a neo-marxist conception of "ideology" toreplace "myth."

Kolodny, Annette. The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience in American Life and Letters.Chapel Hill, NC:University of North Carolina Press, 1975. An important feminist, psychological rethinking of theAmerican pastoral tradition and the virgin land myth that demonstrates the centrality of gender in shapingUS myth/ideology.

III. INTERPRETIVE SOCIAL SCIENCE, SEMIOTICS, AND MATERIALCULTURE

Beginning in the early seventies, there is in general a rise in the influence of anthropology and sociology inAS. Central here is a move away from a concept of "culture" as the high arts (drawn from the literaryorigins of AS) to a more anthropological notion of "culture" as patterns in a whole way of life. While themore positivist social sciences have had some impact on AS (primarily through their use by socialhistorians), a more general influence has come from the hermeneutic human sciences, those stressing theunavoidably interpretive nature of all social analysis. Included among these would be phenomenology andits American cousins, enthnomethodology and symbolic interactionism, and various other socialconstructionist and reflexive ethnographic approaches, all of which aim at a less reductive description ofsocial practices than is typical of some empiricist works. These approaches tend also to stress the inter-subjective and self-reflective rather than the wholly objective, structurally determined nature of socialaction.

Structuralism and semiotics, derived primarily from the Swiss linguistic theorist Ferdinand de Saussure andAmerican philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, also played a very important role in these developments.Most versions of these approaches build on the notion that culture is structured like a language withcertain rules of combination analogous to grammar and syntax. Semiotics has been applied to the study ofvirtually every kind of cultural object from fashion, to architecture, to food, to television, as well as tovarious linguistic, visual and aural art forms. It has been applied in and across a number of fields includinganthropology (Claude Levi-Strauss), folklore (Vladimir Propp), literature (Roland Barthes, Julia Kristeva),psychoanalysis (Jacques Lacan), film (Christian Metz, Teresa de Lauretis) and general cultural studies(Umberto Eco).

In the context of AS, structuralism emerges in the mid- to late-70s, partly as a desire to put the myth andsymbol school on a more "scientific" ground, and partly through a more general influx of Europeantheory; while structuralism as a term was largely overshadowed by its "post-"ing, semiotics remains one ofthe most pervasive and lively approaches to cultural studies. One key, related development has been afocus on "material culture," on artifacts (furniture, buildings, etc.) that can be "read" as social history viamethods that frequently include the semiotic but draw also from archeology and other traditionalanthropological and history-based tools, as well as from the fields of folklore studies and art history,among others. More recently, the influence of anthropology has returned in new form via the hermeneutic



ethnography of Clifford Geertz, the textual ethnography of James Clifford, and socio-anthropology ofPierre Bourdieu-- three varied approaches all of which call into question the privileged position of theanthropological observer (typically a "Westerner" observing "non-Western" "primitive" cultures) byturning the ethnographic lens on the culture and the interpretive practices of the observers themselves.

Overviews:Hawkes, Terence. Structuralism and Semiotics . Berkeley: UC Press, 1977. A good general introduction tomajor figures and schools, from Peirce and Saussure to Barthes and Eco.

Blonsky, Marshall, ed. On Signs. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1985. A wide-ranging anthology of theoreticalpieces and applications of semiotics, including contributions from most of the major contemporarysemioticians.

Bernstein, Richard J. The Restructuring of Social and Political Theory. Philadelphia: University of PennsylvaniaPress, 1978. A lucid work of synthesis that examines the empiricist tradition, linguistic critiques ofempiricism, phenomenology, and Habermas's "critical theory," concluding that social inquiry needsultimately to be empirical (grounded in particular social facts and events), interpretive (seeing those factsand events as partly created by analytical frames), and critical (responsible for the political motives andimplications of one's work).

Giddens, Anthony, and Jonathan Turner, eds. Social Theory Today. Palo Alto: Stanford Univ. Press, 1987. Acollection of insightful essays surveying a range of interpretive theory with particular emphasis onsociological aspects and applications but with interdisciplinary implications. Includes essays onbehaviorism, symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology, world-systems theory, and post-structuralism,among others.

Rabinow, Paul and William M. Sullivan, eds. Interpretive Social Science: A Reader. Berkeley: Univ. of CaliforniaPress, 2nd Edition, 1989. Fine sampling of significant recent contributions to the theory and method ofthe social sciences, stressing phenomenology, structuralism and post-structuralism.

Agger, Ben. Critical Social Theories: An Introduction. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998. Comparespostmodern, poststructuralist, neo-marxist, feminist, and cultural studies approaches in light of an inrelation to interpretive and empirical social science.

Lemert, Charles. (ed.). Social Theory: The Multicultural and Classic Readings. Boulder, CO: Westview Press,1993. Unusually comprehensive collection, from Marx, Durkheim and Weber, to Foucault, Anzaldua, andLorde. Includes a lucid introduction on what social theory is and how it is an everyday, not just a specialist,activity.

Representative Texts:Berger, Peter and Thomas Luckmann. The Social Construction of Reality. NY: Doubleday, 1966. Influenced bythe phenomenology of Alfred Schutz, this text attempts to recreate sociology by placing a theory ofknowledge production at its center; the book was immensely influential in AS circles in the late 60s andearly 70s and remains one of the most lucid presentations of a phenomenological social constructionistapproach emphasizing the interaction of subjective and objective moments in the creation of reality.

Kelly, Gordon. "The Social Construction of Reality: Implications for Future Directions in AmericanStudies," Prospects 8 (1983). Good general description of ways in which Berger and Luckmann's stance (seeabove) can be used in AS work.

---. "Literature and the Historian," American Quarterly 26 (1974): 141-59. Influential piece challenging therepresentativeness of elite literary works, and arguing for a more sociological and anthropological approachto a wider range of literary texts, using children's literature as his example.

Sklar, Robert. "American Studies and the Realities of America," American Quarterly 22 (1970): 597-605.Traces the history of "high cultural" criticism in AS and calls for more attention to issues of "socialstructure" as understood by anthropologists and sociologists.



Mechling, Jay et al. "American Culture Studies: The Discipline and the Curriculum," American Quarterly 25(1973): 363-389. An influential attack on the vagueness of the term "culture" as used up till that time by ASscholars, and a call for a more theoretically sophisticated concept drawn from cultural anthropology. Alsoincludes useful information on the history of AS as a discipline, and various approaches to teaching AS.

Tate, Cecil. The Search for a Method in American Studies Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota, 1973. Based on acareful re-reading of the classic myth and symbol works that brings forth their underlying assumptions,Tate's book argues a kind of proto-structuralist position as a refinement of the myth and symbol approach.

Blair, John G. "Structuralism, American Studies, and the Humanities," American Quarterly 30 (1978): 261-281.

Pace, David. "Structuralism in History and the Social Sciences," American Quarterly 30 (1978): 282-97. Thisarticle and the one above by Blair introduce major structuralist works to an AS audience, survey thenrecent structuralist work in AS, and suggest the approach's general value to the field.

Barthes, Roland. Mythologies NY: Hill & Wang,[1957] 1972.

---. Image/Music/Text. NY: Hill & Wang, 1977. These two collections of essays contain much of the best,most accessible work of one of the finest practitioners of semiotics. Mythologies is an eloquent, jargon-free collection of short pieces on topics ranging from "The Face of Garbo" and "The Brain of Einstein" to"The World of Wrestling" and "Romans in Film." It also includes the important lengthy essay, "MythToday," wherein Barthes lays out his structuralist method; it makes for an interesting comparison with themyth and symbol school. In Image/Music/Text, see especially, "Rhetoric of the Image," and "TheIntroduction to the Structural Analysis of Narratives." Two other pieces, "The Death of the Author," and"From Work to Text" are influential moments in the transition from structuralism to post-structuralism, asthey challenge the autonomous author and the autonomous book, respectively, as sites meaning making,pointing instead to complex, negotiated inter-textual networks of language.

Wright, Will. Sixguns and Society: A Structural Study of the Western. Berkeley: UC Press, 1975. Application of aLevi-Strauss-influenced version of structuralism to the Western genre of film. Includes a theoreticalintroduction and a methodological epilogue that explain his approach.

Cawelti, John. Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture Chicago: Univ. ofChicago Press, 1976. Something of a proto-structuralist text, this makes interesting reading alongsideWright (above), since Cawelti too includes a section on the Western genre. His introduction adds theconcept of "formula" to the earlier terms myth and symbol. He argues that popular literature with itsenduring but changing narrative formulas may provide a more valid indicator of wide-spread culturalvalues than the study of a few, elite works. He further suggests that because many narrative formulas arecross-cultural, one can through close scrutiny identify specifically American variants that suggest theunique characteristics of this culture.

Place, Linna Funk. et al. "The Object as Subject: The Role of Museums and Material Culture in AmericanStudies," American Quarterly 26 (1974): 281-91.

Glassie, Henry. "Meaningful Things and Appropriate Myths: The Artifact's Place in American Studies,"Prospects 3 (1977): 1-49. This piece and the Place piece above represent early reflections on what hasbecome an important interdisciplinary site in AS -- material culture.

Schlerath, T.J. Material Culture Studies in America. Nashville: American Association of State and LocalHistory, 1982. Lucid survey of varieties of material culture study of American things and things American.

Martinez, Katharine and Kenneth L. Ames, eds. The Material Culture of Gender, The Gender of Material CultureWinterthur, Del.: Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum ; Hanover : Distributed by University Pressof New England, 1997. Includes a useful introduction on gender in material culture and in material culture



studies, and a wide of array of essays on topics from Wilder's "Little House" books, to male friendship toquilts as the colonization of American women.

Kingery, David, ed. Learning From Things: Method and Theory of Material Culture Studies. Washington, DC:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999. Surveys recent developments in theory and method for materialculture studies

Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Culture. NY: Basic Books, 1973. An influential thinker practicing"semiotic," "hermenutic" or "phenomenological" ethnography, this collection includes most of Geertz'smajor essays. See especially his classic pieces, "Thick Description: Towards and Interpretive Theory ofCulture" and "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight." Geertz views "culture" as an expressive orperformative system of meaning making not reducible to other systems (i.e., the social, political oreconomic), and tries to defend the specificities of various cultural moments from superficial comparisonor reduction to structural sameness he associates with both functionalism and version marxism.

* Isaac, Rhys. The Transformation of Colonial Virginia: 1740-1790. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press,1982. Brilliantly combines Geertzian ethnography with social and cultural history.

Clifford, James. The Predicament of Culture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1988. A richlyimaginative, lucid collection of inter-linked essays on the topic of textuality and politics in ethnography andcultural criticism generally. Chapter 1 contains a sustained analysis of the politics of various ways of writingabout "other" cultures, the middle chapters detail the interactions between aesthetic and ethnographicmodes of apprehending objects, Chapters 9 & 10 provide important insights into the display of materialculture in museums, and the stylistically innovative final chapter on the Mashpee Indians of Maine raisesimportant questions about the invention and reinvention of identities with resonance beyond tribalcultures to all cultural identities.

---., and George Marcus, eds. Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. Berkeley: Univ. ofCalifornia Press, 1986. Clifford's introduction provides a good description of the "textualist" turn in recentanthropological writing, and the collected essays offer brilliant analyses of the language of ethnography asit shapes the possibilities and limits of representing a culture.

Behar, Ruth, and Deborah A. Gordon, eds. Women Writing Culture. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press,1995. A wide-ranging collection of feminist anthropological work that acts as a good antidote to thelimited concern given to gender in the Clifford and Marcus collection.

Radway, Jan. "Identifying Ideological Seams," Communication 9 (1986): 93-123. In this very importantarticle, Radway offers an unusually lucid explanation of interpretive ethnography and how it can be appliedto American culture. She also argues cogently for fieldwork on contemporary American culture as a way ofbridging academia and the wider society.

Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1984. Bourdieu, a French sociologistand anthropologist, argues brilliantly and comprehensively the case that distinctions of cultural "taste" arekey factors in the structuring of society, especially with regard to class.

de Certau, Michel. Heterodoxies. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986. DeCertau draws onanthropological, sociological, and literary techniques to elaborate theories and methods for understandingthe subtle resistances of oppressed groups (including native Americans) embodied in the rhetoricalpractices of everyday life.



IV. LITERARY THEORIES & METHODS

Just as historical theory is of interest beyond the profession of history, literary theory, by raisinggeneral questions of interpretation, has had a broad impact beyond literary study in recent years. A number ofstrands of new literary and "textual" theory (i.e., feminist, neo-marxist, deconstructive) are represented in othersections. Here I want to offer a few overview texts and then draw attention to some American works of twoimportant schools not treated in other sections, "reception/reader-response" criticism and the "newhistoricism," that have had a significant impact on AS. The former shifts emphasis from texts to readers as thesites of meaning making and thus raises general questions about the history of audiences for cultural texts. JayMechling has quipped that the New Historicism looks alot like the Old American Studies, and they do share aninterest in the conjunction of literary, historical, and cultural analysis. Still, the particular inflection given bysome new historicists is indeed new, and has shaped a variety of recent American studies projects. NewHistoricism uses Foucault, Geertz, Bakhtin and others to return to questions about historicizing cultural textsin the wake of and in light of post-structuralism's critique of naive empirical forms of historical representation(perhaps illustrating Roland Barthes' comment that while a little formalism turns one away from history, a lotof formalism turns one back to it).

Overviews:Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction.Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1983. Sections onphenomenology, reader/reception theory, structuralism, post-structuralism, psychoanalysis, and aconcluding call for "political criticism." Eagleton provides a lively, wittily argumentative introduction toliterary theory.

Lentricchia, Frank. After the New Criticism.Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980. Lentricchia is after thenew criticism in more ways than one. He brilliantly analyzes what he characterizes as ahistoricism andphilosophical idealism in American literary criticism from the early New Critics, throughphenomenological critics to American deconstruction. A sophisticated, tendentious survey that raisesgeneral questions about the politics of cultural interpretation.

Leitch, Vincent B. American Literary Criticism from the Thirties to the Eighties.New York: Columbia Univ. Press,1988. Historical survey of major schools of American literary criticism and theory. More comprehensiveand American than Eagleton (if generally less engaged and engaging), Leitch is also more sympathetic torecent schools of theory like deconstruction.

Allen, Robert C. ed. Channels of Discourse: Television and ContemporaryCriticism.Chapel Hill, N.C.: Univ. ofNorth Carolina Press, 1992; 1995). A collection of articles introducing various schools of contemporaryliterary/cultural theory and method (semiotics, narrative theory, reader-response, genre studies,psychoanalytic, feminist, neo-marxist, and British cultural studies) via a focus on television. A good surveythat also demonstrates how recent theory is making for a much more sophisticated study of popularculture.

Murfin, Russ, ed., The Scarlet Letter.Includes five essays introducing some of the major schools of recentliterary theory (deconstruction, new historicism, reader response, feminist, psychoanalytic), along with fiveadditional essays applying each of these approaches to Hawthorne's novel.

* Staton, Shirley F. ed. Literary Theory in Praxis.Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. Usingseveral core texts (including Hawthorne's "The Birthmark," and Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily"), thisanthology allows you to compare how various schools of theory (deconstruction, Lacanian, reader-response, structuralist, new criticism, phenomenology, historicist, feminist) read the same text. The criticalessays are uneven, but the comparative strategy can be very illuminating.

Reader-Response/Reception Criticism:Mailloux, Steven. Interpretive Conventions: The Reader in the Study of American Fiction.Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press,1982. The first two chapters provide a very insightful survey and critique of the various schools or strandsof reader-response criticism, while the remainder applies aspects of these theories in interpreting someAmerican texts, in particular Hawthorne's story, "Rapaccini's Daughter."



Pratt, Mary Louise. "Interpretive Strategies/Strategic Interpretations: On Anglo-American Reader-Response Criticism," in Jonathan Arac ed. Postmodernism and Politics. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press,1986. Pratt provides a provocative analysis of the virtues and especially the limits of the reader-responseschool, charging it with an untenable emphasis on the individual as meaning maker free from socio-linguistic determinations.

Radway, Janice. "American Studies, Reader Theory, and the Literary Text," in D.E. Nye and C.K.Thomsen, eds. American Studies in Transition. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 1985. A lucidintroduction to reader response theory and its applicability to AS.

* --- Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy, and Popular Literature.Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press,[1984] 1991. A pathbreaking book combining formalist methods of analysis with in-depth ethnographicinterviews contextualizing the responses of a suburban group of romance novel readers. This new editioncontains some of Radway's more recent reflections on her methods.

Suleiman, Susan and Inge Crosman eds. The Reader in the Text: Essays on Audience and Interpretation.Princeton:Princeton Univ. Press, 1980.

Tompkins, Jane ed. Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism. Baltimore: Johns HopkinsUniv. Press, 1980. This collection and the Suleiman collection cited above contain most of the landmarkessays by major figures in the reader theory school (Stanley Fish, Wolfgand Iser, Norman Holland, etc.),and is a good place to get a sense of the range of concerns addressed by these approaches.

* Davidson, Cathy. Revolution and the Word.NY: Oxford Univ. Press, 1986. This brilliant work combinesreader-response criticism with social history, while also utilizing insights from post-structuralism, genre-based literary theory, and the French "histoire du livre" school of cultural history (studying the social andmaterial history of books). Davidson applies all these approaches to the first American novels of the late18th, early 19th century.

New Historicism:Greenblatt, Stephen. Renaissance Self-Fashioning. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980. The locus classicus forthe new historicism (though Greenblatt prefers the term "cultural poetics"), this text displays theinfluences of Foucault and Geertz that underlie much work in this mode. Greenblatt explores the way thata variety of texts from high and low culture "circulate," forming and reforming patterns ofknowledge/power.

---. Shakespearean Negotiations. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988. The first chapter outlines somecogent revisions of Greenblatt's earlier method, including a number of self-critical remarks on thetendency of his previous work to homogenize culture through an exaggerated, undifferentiated notion of"power."

Armstrong, Nancy ed.,"Literature as Women's History":. Special issue of Genre, 19/20 (1986-87).Interesting examples of what might be called "feminist new historicism."* Fisher, Philip, ed. The New American Studies.Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1991. Despite Fisher'srather misleadingly conservative introduction, a rich collection of essays originally appearing in theimportant new historicist journal Representations that apply various new historicist reading strategies to keytexts in American history and letters.

Jay, Gregory S. "American Literature and the New Historicism: The Example of Frederick Douglass,"Working Paper #10, Center for Twentieth Century Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (Fall 1988).Excellent critical introduction to and application of new historicist method to Douglass's Narrative;includes a careful analysis of what Jay sees as dangerous tendencies in some kinds of new historicism.

Reed, T.V. Fifteen Jugglers, Five Believers: Literary Politics and the Poetics of American Social Movements. Berkeley:UC Press, 1992. A useful corrective to more conservative versions of new historicism, this work argues foran alliance between literary theory and radical social movements in the United States, while examining a



variety of contemporary American literary and cultural texts (including social movements as "texts" ofresistance).

Simpson, David. "Literary Criticism and the Return to 'History'" Critical Inquiry14 (1988): 721-47. Lucidsurvey of various ways in which the question of history has been reintroduced into literary study in thewake of textualist critiques of naive postivist historicism.

Thomas, Brook. "The Historical Necessity for -- and Difficulties with -- New Historical Analysis inIntroductory Literature Courses," College English49 (1987): 509-22. A clear introduction to the newhistoricism that has the added virtue of raising issues of its pedagogical uses.

Veeser, H.A.,ed., The New Historicism. London and New York: Routledge, 1989. A nicely tendentiouscollection of essays arguing for, against and around something that various authors claim does or does notexist, that may or may or not be new, that should or should not be called the "new historicism" or "NewHistoricism." If it exists, the new historicism is probably a return to history after post-structuralism, butone that "extends the ontology of the 'text' into the realm of historicity itself" (i.e., no contextual nets tocatch the scholarly acrobat).

Bové, Paul. "Notes Toward a Politics of 'American' Criticism," in In the Wake of TheoryMiddletown, CT:Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1992. An important critique of Sacvan Bercovitch's new Americanist version ofNew Historicism arguing that in certain respects it may be caught within the forces of hegemony it claimsto resist.

Pease, Donald, ed. National Identities and Post-Americanist Narratives.Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press,1994. Powerful set of essays representing the "new Americanists" who have articulated a more politicallyrich kind of new (anti)historicism.

V. THEORIZING DIFFERENCE & COMMONALITY: GENDER, SEXUALITY,RACE/ETHNICITY, AND THEIR INTERSECTIONS

The breakdown of notions of American exceptionalism and class consensus analyzed in section IV, was drivenin large part by social movements of the 1960s. Those movements also set in motion a profound rethinkingand rewriting of ethnicity, race, gender, sexuality and other modalities of "difference" that further challengedmonolithic conceptions of Americanness. This process was fueled by the rise of ethnic and women's studieswithin and outside AS. And the new scholarly attention payed to previously marginalized subjects of historydeeply reshaped theories and methods of study.

This category in particular points up the inadequacies of categorization, especially in interdisciplinary work.Separating race from gender from sexuality from my other categories threatens to re-marginalize them just asthey are claiming their centrality to any cultural analysis. Hence I have also placed works reexamining thesetopics in other sections, cross-referencing some of them here. In addition, while separating racial studies fromgender studies from sexuality studies serves to highlight their respective evolutions and achievements, it doesso at the cost of obscuring multiple identities and complex interactions. Thus each subsection is structured tomove towards points of intersection with the other categories.

And I employ this collective category not to ghettoize or collapse distinctions but to highlight interconnections,to point to important work that cuts across several sub-groupings, and to suggest that many of the writers citedhere share a set of theoretical concerns emerging from a reconceptualization of relations between putativecultural "centers" and "margins." To this end, I've concentrated on work that refuses to simply "add in" race,ethnicity or gender or sexuality but that claims that attention to any one in isolation, let alone in combination,entails totally reconceptualzing what has been called the "mainstream."

Feminist, gay/lesbian/queer, racial and ethnic theory have had a profound impact on all levels and kinds ofhumanities and social science scholarship. Thus these works should be read as at once substantivecontributions to their fields, and as critiques of the inadequate theorization of gender, race, sexuality and otherconstructions of cultural difference in traditional AS work (as well as in humanities and social science



scholarship generally). For the stake of ease of operation I have divided the sections below into Gender,Sexuality, and Race/Ethnicty, but I want to stress that the best current work, including much scholarship citedbelow, is being done at the intersections of these and related modalities of difference (especially class, which iscentral in Section IV, among other places).

All citations in this bibliography are arranged chrono-topically, not alphabetically, to give a sense of theoreticaldevelopments emerging over time.

FEMINIST AND GENDER THEORIESChmaj, Betty ed., American Women and American Studies. Pittsburgh: Know Press, 1971

---. Image, Myth and Beyond: American Women and American Studies, Vol. 2. Pittsburg: Know Press, 1972. Thesetwo collections exemplify early efforts to link American Studies to the then emerging field of Women'sStudies.

Baxter, Annette. "Women's Studies and American Studies: The Uses of the Interdisciplinary." AmericanQuarterly26 (1974): 433-439. Review essay of early feminist AS work.

Abel, Elizabeth and Emily Abel eds., The 'Signs' Reader: Women, Gender, and Scholarship. Chicago: Univ. ofChicago Press, 1983.

Keohane, Nannerl et al. eds. Feminist Theory: A Critique of Ideology. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1982.This volume and the Abel volume above are collections of essays culled from Signs, one of the preeminentAmerican journals of feminist theory. Both volumes contain brilliant essays on topics ranging across awide variety of social science and humanities disciplines and interdisciplines, representing the state of theart in feminist scholarship in the early 1980s. In the Keohane collection see especially pieces byMacKinnon, Jehlen, and Marcus.

Baym, Nina. "Melodramas of Beset Manhood: How Theories of American Literature Exclude Women," inShowalter, ed., The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, Theory. New York: Pantheon, 1985. Avery influential article which demonstrates some of the ways in which a bias towards masculinistdefinitions of heroism have effectively devalued the literature produced by women and theorized the"major tradition" of American letters as male.

Tompkins, Jane. "Sentimental Power: Uncle Tom's Cabin and the Politics of Literary History," inShowalter, The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, Theory. New York: Pantheon, 1985.Coming at the same problematic as Baym from the other side, Tompkins argues that one important,largely female tradition of writing, the sentimental novel, has been devalued and systematicallymisrepresented through the universalization of a particular, restrictive set of criteria for literary value.

Anzaldua, Gloria, and Cherríe Moraga, eds., This Bridge Called My Back. New York: Kitchen Table/Womenof Color Press, 1983. While women of color played key roles in feminist movements from the beginning,racism preventing them from being recognized as central figures. This landmark collection of "critical andcreative" writings by women of color changed all that, leading to a profound rethinking of race and gender,while also challenging narrow definitions of "theory" by arguing for fiction, poetry, and other forms ofwriting as theory.

de Lauretis, Teresa, ed., Feminist Studies/Critical Studies. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1986. A richcollection of essays surveying the state of feminist cultural theory across a range of disciplines. DeLauretis's introduction is an important contribution to theory itself, and virtually all of the articles makesignificant contributions to the current state of cultural theory.

Eagleton, Mary. Feminist Literary Theory: A Reader. London and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1988. A verywide-ranging sampling of brief excerpts from classic and contemporary examples of feminist criticism thatcan be useful for gaining a general historical overview.



Fraser, Nancy. Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1989. A series of essays analyzing various recent theorists (Foucault,Derrida, Rorty, Habermas) in terms of their usefulness and limits for feminist theory and practice.Concludes with an exemplary analysis of women and the welfare system that applies aspects of the varioustheorists surveyed.

"Feminism and Deconstruction." Special issue of FS: Feminist Studies 14 (1988). See especially the article byPoovey and the dissenting arguments of Christian.

Newton, Judith and Deborah Rosenfelt eds., Feminist Criticism and Social Change: Sex, Class and Race inLiterature and Culture. New York and London Methuen, 1985. The introduction, the essays by Jones andSmith, and Lauter's piece on the American canon, are of particular interest.

Showalter, Elaine ed., The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, Theory. New York: Pantheon,1985. An accessible collection with a number of essays of special relevance to Americanists. In addition tothe Tompkins, Smith and Baym articles cited elsewhere in this section, see especially the pieces byKolodny, Showalter and Zimmerman.

Smith, Barbara. "Towards a Black Feminist Criticism," in Showalter, The New Feminist Criticism: Essays onWomen, Literature, Theory. New York: Pantheon, 1985. A landmark statement of the inadequacy of whitefeminist theory to treat the different realities of black women in the US, this essay also outlined an agendaof black feminist research much of which remains to be accomplished.

hooks, bell. Feminist Theory: From the Margins to the Center.Boston: South End Press, 1984. Key text in theinsurgency of women of color from "the margins to the center" of feminist thought and action.

Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment.Boston:Unwin Hyman, 1990. Landmark book in the development of African American feminist theory, balancestheory and practice, experience and reflection in surveying "black feminist thought" in a variety of spacesand places, "high" and "low."

Lim, Shirley Geok-Lin, Mayumi Tsutakawa, and Donnellym Margarita, eds., The Forbidden Stitch : An AsianAmerican Women's Anthology.New York: Calyx Books, 1991.

Wong, Diane Yen-Mei, and Emilya Cachapero. eds., Making Waves: An Anthology of Writings by and AboutAsian American Women.Boston: Beacon Press, 1989.

Kim, Elaine and Lilia Villaneuva, eds., Making More Waves: New Writing by Asian American Women.Boston:Beacon Press, 1997. These three anthologies above provide a good sense of the evolution of AsianAmerican feminist thought from the 1980s to the present.

Harjo, Joy and Gloria Bird, eds. Reinventing the Enemy's Language: Contemporary Native American Women'sWritings of North America.New York: W.W. Norton, 1998. Excellent collection demonstrating a range ofapproaches to rethinking race and gender from the perspectives of indigenous women.

Frankenberg, Ruth. White Women, Race Matters Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. Key workin the process of showing the necessity of "racializing whiteness" in order to deal with problems of racismwithin feminist theory and practice.

Sandoval, Chela. "US Third World Feminism: The Theory and Method of Oppositional Consciousness inthe Postmodern World," Genders10 (1991): 1-24. A brilliant article rethinking feminist and postmoderntheory through the multiply positioned subjectivity of women of color. Argues that a "women of colorfeminism" offers strategic methods for transcends dilemmas created by positing various schools offeminist theory (radical, cultural, socialist, liberal, postmodern, etc.) as mutually exclusive. Reprinted andexpanded upon in her book, Methodology of the Oppressed. (see below)



Hansen, Karen V. and Ilene J. Philipson, eds. Women, Class and the Feminist Imagination.Philadelphia: TempleUniv. Press, 1990. This "socialist-feminist reader" collects many of the most significant essays from the60s, 70s, and 80s in which feminist scholars use, critique and debate the relevance of various marxistconcepts and positions.

Weed, Elizabeth ed., Coming to Terms: Feminism, Theory, Politics. London and New York: Routledge, 1989. Abrilliant collection of essays on feminist cultural/political interpretation influenced by post-structuralism.See especially the pieces by Miller and Haraway.

Haraway, Donna. Simians, Cyborgs and Women.London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Ten brilliant andinfluential essays on a range of topics, from the famous "Cyborg Manifesto" and "Situated Knowledges,"to essays on feminist theory for science studies.

King, Katie. Feminist Theory in Its Travels.Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1994. Offers a brilliantargument about the social and intellectual struggles that have shaped what counts as feminist theory, andwhat the dominant trends in feminist thinking have been over time as driven by the evolution of women'smovements.

Wendy Kolmar. and France Bartkowski, eds. Feminist Theory: A Reader.Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999.Offers a wide-ranging survey of feminist thought for the 18th to the late 20th century. The breadth meanssacrificing depth, with many pieces severely condensed, but it is a very useful survey to get a sense ofmajor developments over time.

Hesse-Biber, Sharlene, Robin Lydenberg, and Chris Gilmartin. eds., Feminist Approaches to Theory andMethodology: An Interdisciplinary Reader.Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999. Especially useful inits interdiscipilinary, comparative approach.

LESBIAN, GAY, QUEER THEORIESCruikshank, Margaret, ed., Lesbian Studies. Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1982. Pioneeringcollection on approaches to lesbian literature, culture, and history.

"The Lesbian Issue." Special issue of the feminist journalSigns9 (1984). A more systematic attempt totheorize "lesbianism" as a cultural location. See especially the essays by Vicinus, Newton, Zimmerman, andKennard.

"Displacing Homophobia." Special issue of South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (1989). Rich collection of gay maletheory for literary and cultural study.

Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990. Very influentialstudy in the rise of "queer theory." Shows the centrality of homo/heterosexual identity formations to theconstruction of knowledge in virtually every arena of scholarship, but with particular attention paid toliterary texts.

de Lauretis, Teresa, ed., "Queer Theory: Lesbian and Gay Sexualities." special issue of differences: A Journal ofFeminist Cultural Studies2 (1991). Influential essays establishing the concept of "queer theory."

Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble.New York and London: Routledge, 1990. Influential as one of the sources ofqueer theory in that it denormativizes all genders. Uses Lacan and Foucault to argue that "gender" is a kindof unstable, constantly reiterated performance.

Fuss, Diana, ed., Inside/Out: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Acollection of very sophisticated multidisciplinary essays theorizing gay and lesbian studies as a key matrixof cultural analysis. As the subtitle suggests, the book insists on showing ways in which lesbianism andmale homosexuality produce differing theoretical issues and paradigms, but like Kosofsky's book above,the anthology's larger claim is that the terms "gay" and "lesbian" are not of interest in marking the marginsof culture, but rather ones essential for understanding the construction of cultural forms and identities bythe so-called mainstream as well.



Abelove, Henry, et. Al, eds., Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader.London and New York: Routledge, 1993. A verycomprehensive resource, with historical, literary and cultural articles, and an extensive bibliography.

Weed, Elizabeth and Naomi Shor, eds., Feminism Meets Queer Theory.Bloomington: Indiana Univ Press.Excellent pieces collected from a special issue of the journal differences.

Warner, Michael. ed., Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory. Minneapolis: Univ. of MinnesotaPress, 1993. Excellent collection theorizing "queer" politics and cultural representations of homosexuality.

Somerville, Siobhan B Queering the Color Line : Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American CultureDurham: Duke University Press, 2000. Brings queer theories and race theories together in an argument forthe recognition of the color line as a key force in the construction of homosexuality in U.S. history.

Berry, Ellen, Carol Siegel and Thomas Foster, eds. The Gay Nineties: Disciplinary and InterdisciplinaryFormations in Queer Studies New York: New York University Press, 1997. Excellent set of essays theorizingthe location and nature of various queer studies paradigms.

Howard, John. Men Like That: A Southern Queer History U. Chicago Press, 2000. Winner of the ASdissertation prize, this book brilliantly and in detail explores communities of gay males in rural Mississippi,from the 1950s to 1985. Innovative in its conceptual complexity and imaginatively rich in its use ofdocumentary and interview sources.

Floyd, Kevin. "Making History: Marxism, Queer Theory, and Contradiction in the Future of AmericanStudies." Cultural Critique 40 (1998): 167-201. Important, sympathetic critique of limits of queer theorywhen viewed in relation to political economy and questions of class. Includes important reflections on ASas a site for the cultural study of class and sex.

Jagose, Annamarie. Queer Theory: An Introduction.New York: New York Univ. Press, 1997. Gives a history ofgay/lesbian movement and a pre-history of queer studies, and thus situates queer theory in a larger contextof social change. Lucid and succinct, but limited in its range of discussion of queer theories and theorists.

Turner, William B. A Genealogy of Queer Theory Temple Univ. Press, 2001. A more advanced andtheoretically rich introduction than the Jagose book above. Especially strong on the Foucaultian strain ofqueer theory. In contrast to Jagose, it is thinner on long-range historical context, but stronger oncomplexities of various queer theories.

RACE & ETHNICITYHull, Gloria T. et al. eds., But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women's Studies. Old Westbury, NY: FeministPress, 1982. Pathbreaking collection of essays and bibliographies tracing the intersections of women'sstudies, black studies, and American studies.

Wall, Cheryl. ed., Changing Our Own Words. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989. Acollection including some of the leading black feminist critics employing Bakhtin, post-structuralism andother critical theories to analyze writing by and about black women.

Gates, H.L., Jr., ed., Reading Black, Reading Feminist. New York: Meriden Press, 1990. Along with the Wallcollection above, these two anthologies gather together important examples of black feminist literaryscholarship from the 1980s, including historical surveys, theoretical readings, and studies of individualtexts.

Carby, Hazel. Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Novelist. NY: Oxford,1987. A theoretically innovative re-writing of the genealogy of African-American intellectuals and writers,beginning with slave narratives and ending with the 1920s, that places women in a more central role andcomplicates the dialectic of rural and urban black experience.



Omi, Michael, and Howard Winant. Racial Formation in the United States. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press,Second edition, 1994. Critiques ethnicity-, class-, and nation-based models of race, then offers a brilliantsocial constructionist argument for the semi-autonomous power of "racial formations" through an analysisof trends in racial politics in the US since World War II. Extremely influential in the rise of "critical race"theories.

Baker, Jr., Houston. Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature: A Vernacular Theory. Chicago: Univ. ofChicago Press, 1984. Uses neo-marxism, post-structuralism, tropology and other recent critical theory toaid in rewriting the African-American literary tradition as working dialectically through and out of thevernacular (especially the blues) and the economic matrix of slavery.

Gates, Jr., Henry Louis. Figures in Black: Words, Signs, and the 'Racial' Self. NY: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987.

---. The Signifying Monkey. Oxfors and New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1989. Gates is one of the mostconsistently interesting American critics, and these two books include much of his finest work, usingcontemporary literary theory to argue the specificity of African-American literary and theoretical traditions.

Stepto, Robert. From Behind the Veil. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, [1979] 1991. A landmark study tracingthe key themes of "literacy" and "freedom" as they shape an African-American tradition in fictional andnon-fictional prose from slave narratives to Invisible Man. This revised version of Stepto's classic includesa new preface and an afterward on the trope of reader distrust in African-American narratives.

Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, ed., Black Literature and Literary Theory. London and New York: Methuen, 1984.Collection of essays employing and critiquing structuralism and post-structuralism as tools for interpretingAfrican and African-American texts. See especially Gates's introduction, and the essays by Benston,Stepto, and Johnson.

Asante, Molefi K. The Afrocentric Idea.Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1987. The most influential African(american) figure arguing for the ongoing importance of Africanisms on the black diaspora.

Smith, Barbara. "Towards a Black Feminist Criticism," in Showalter, The New Feminist Criticism: Essays onWomen, Literature, Theory. New York: Pantheon, 1985. A landmark statement of the inadequacy of whitefeminist theory to treat the different realities of black women in the US, this essay also outlined an agendaof black feminist research much of which remains to be accomplished.

hooks, bell. Feminist Theory: From the Margins to the Center.Boston: South End Press, 1984. Key text in theinsurgency of women of color from "the margins to the center" of feminist thought and action.

Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment.Boston:Unwin Hyman, 1990. Landmark book in the development of African American feminist theory, balancestheory and practice, experience and reflection in surveying "black feminist thought" in a variety of spacesand places, "high" and "low."

duCille, Ann. Skin Trade Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 1996. Brilliant collection of essaysexamining and rethinking the rhetorical conventions used to theorize race. as well as the populardiscourses that produce profound confusion in the culture around the category.

Anzaldua, Gloria, and Cherríe Moraga, eds., This Bridge Called My Back. New York: Kitchen Table/Womenof Color Press, 1983. While women of color played key roles in feminist movements from the beginning,racism preventing them from being recognized as central figures. This landmark collection of "critical andcreative" writings by women of color changed all that, leading to a profound rethinking of race and gender,while also challenging narrow definitions of "theory" by arguing for fiction, poetry, and other forms ofwriting as theory.

---, ed., Making Face, Making Soul: Hacienda Caras. San Francisco: Aunt Lutte Foundation Press, 1990.Important follow-up collection to This Bridge that contributes immensely to the rethinking of race, class,



sexuality, and gender, while continuing to challenge narrow definitions of "theory" by arguing for fiction,poetry, and other forms of writing as theory.

Calderón, Hectór, and José David Saldívar, eds., Criticism in the Borderlands. Durham: Duke University Press,1991). Collects many of the most influential essays in theory and criticism of Chicano/a literature andculture from neo-Marxist, feminist, and new historicist vantage points. Includes a useful select, annotatedbibliography.

Chabram, Angie and Rosalinda Fregoso, eds., "Chicana/o Cultural Representations," special issue ofCultural Studies4.3 (1990). Includes nine essays surveying the past, present and future of Chicano/a culturalstudies (including film, literature, theatre, and ethnography), in terms of critical theories as well asinstitutional forms and practices. Key moment in the linkage of Chicana/o studies and cultural studies.

Saldívar, Ramon. Chicano Narrative: The Dialectics of Difference. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1990.Employs neo-marxist and deconstructionist approaches to a survey of narratives from Americo Paredes toSandra Cisneros.

Rosaldo, Renato. Culture and Truth: The Remaking of Social Analysis. Boston: Beacon, 1989. An unusuallylucid, jargon-free and politically pragmatic introduction to key questions in "postmodern ethnography"with special reference to Chicano culture(s).

Sandoval, Chela. "US Third World Feminism: The Theory and Method of Oppositional Consciousness inthe Postmodern World," Genders10 (1991): 1-24. A brilliant article rethinking feminist and postmoderntheory through the multiply positioned subjectivity of women of color. Argues that a "women of colorfeminism" offers strategic methods for transcends dilemmas created by positing various schools offeminist theory (radical, cultural, socialist, liberal, postmodern, etc.) as mutually exclusive.

Nomura, Gail, et al. eds., Frontiers of Asian American Studies. Pullman: Washington State Univ. Press, 1989.Part Four raises theoretical questions, particularly with regard to the discipline of ethnic studies. The otherthree sections include state-of-the-art essays on a range of topics from history, literary studies, and thesocial sciences, treating both specific traditions and relations among Americans of various Asian ancestries.Includes excellent annotated bibliography divided by specific Asian American sub-groups.

Lim, Shirley Geok-Lin, Mayumi Tsutakawa, and Donnellym Margarita, eds., The Forbidden Stitch : An AsianAmerican Women's Anthology.New York: Calyx Books, 1991.

Wong, Diane Yen-Mei, and Emilya Cachapero. eds., Making Waves: An Anthology of Writings by and AboutAsian American Women.Boston: Beacon Press, 1989.

Kim, Elaine and Lilia Villaneuva, eds., Making More Waves: New Writing by Asian American Women.Boston:Beacon Press, 1997. These three anthologies above provide a good sense of the evolution of AsianAmerican feminist thought from the 1980s to the present.

Hume, Shirley, et al. eds., Asian Americans: Comparative and Global Perspectives. Pullman: Washington StateUniv. Press, 1991. Part One in particular raises key theoretical issues. Among the more theoreticallyinteresting topical essays, see those by Marilyn Alquizola and David Leiwei Li.

Lowe, Lisa. Immgrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics.Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996.Brilliant use of postcolonial, marxist, critical race and feminist theory to analyze the complicatedinterrelations of Asian diasporic, Asian American and dominant communities in the U.S. Using theexample of Asian immigration in its various waves, Lowe exposes the historical construction of dominantnotions of U.S. nationhood and citizenship in dialectical relation to those it would exclude or only partiallyinclude within those categories.

Cheung, King-Kok, ed., An Interethnic Companion to Asian American Literature.Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1997. Outstanding collection of essays on the various literatures by Americans of Asian



descent. Includes introductions to Chinese-, Japanese-, Korean-, Vietnamese-, Filipino-, and South Asian-American traditions, as well as essays on particular theoretical issues.

Krupat, Arnold. The Voice in the Margin. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989. A series of interlinkedessays relating special theoretical issues in the study of native American Indian literatures and cultures (i.e.,the prominence of the oral) to problems of canonization and representativeness.

Martin, Calvin ed., The American Indian and the Problem of History. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ.Press, 1987. Using Native American history as its focus, this collection of short essays covers a very widerange of historical theory and method, from the most positivistic to the almost deconstructive. It alsoprovides one point of entry into the important field of ethnohistory.

Vizenor, Gerald ed., Narrative Chance: Postmodern Discourse on Native American Literatures. Albuquerque: Univ.of New Mexico Press, 1988. Places contemporary literary and cultural theory (especially Bakhtin) intension with Native modes of thought while interpreting works by contemporary NativeAmerican/AmericanIndian writers.

Warrior, Robert Allen. Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions. Minneapolis: Univ. ofMinnesota Press, 1995. Uses the work of John Joseph Matthews and Vine Deloria, Jr. to initiate brilliantrethinking of American Indian intellectual traditions that skillfully unites indigenous resources, sovereigntyissues and contemporary cultural theory.

Harjo, Joy and Gloria Bird, eds. Reinventing the Enemy's Language: Contemporary Native American Women'sWritings of North America.New York: W.W. Norton, 1998. Excellent collection demonstrating a range ofapproaches to rethinking race and gender from the perspectives of indigenous women.

JanMohamed, Abdul, and David Lloyd eds., The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse. Oxford and NewYork: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990. A theoretically informed collection of articles from a two-volume specialissue of Cultural Critique examining representational strategies in and strategic contexts for literatures of USdomestic and international "Third World" writers. See especially pieces by Kaplan, Mani, Radhakrishnan,Rabasa and Rosaldo. Comparative US and other national racial formations remains underdeveloped.

Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, ed., "Race," Writing, and Difference. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1985;1986.This collection of essays from Critical Inquiry includes a number of important pieces on race in America aswell as key contributions to post-colonial theory. See particularly the essays by Gates, Said, Johnson, Carbyand Gilman.

Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon, 1978. A very influential study of the racial "othering" ofthe Middle East by "the West." and one of the founding texts of postcolonial theory.

---. The World, the Text, and the Critic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983. Extremely important andprovocative collection of essays on the relation of literary theory to the wider social world. See especially"Introduction: Secular Criticism," "Reflections on American 'Left' Literary Criticism," and "TravelingTheory."

Trinh, Minh Ha. Woman, Native, Other. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1989. A formally innovative textthat is at once feminist post-colonial theory and an autobiography of this Vietnamese-American film-maker/scholar.

Spivak, Gayatri. In Other Worlds. London and New York: Methuen, 1987. Collects many of the key essaysby one of the foremost "post-colonial" cultural critics who combines elements from deconstruction,feminist theory, and marxism.

---. "Can the Subaltern Speak?" " in Nelson and Grossberg, Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Urbana:Univ. of Illinois Press, 1988. Immensely influential piece critiquing and using post-structuralism in thecontext of a meditation on the voice of the subaltern subject.



Delgado, Richard and Jean Stefancic, eds. Critical White Studies : Looking Behind the Mirror Philadelphia:Temple University Press, 1997.

Frankenberg, Ruth, Displacing Whiteness : Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism Durham: Duke UnivesityPress, 1997. The racialization of "whiteness" (i.e., the recognition that whiteness has been the "unmarked,"largely invisible category in racialized states) was theorizied with ever greater sophistication in the 1990sand early 21st century. These excellent collections by Delgado/Stefancic and Frankenberg bring togethermany of the most important works in this endeavor, and offer useful bibliographies for further study.

Sturgeon, No ël. Ecofeminist Natures: Gender, Race, Feminist Theory and Political Action New York: Routledge,1997. Best book yet written on the interrelations among gender, race and nature. Critical of essentialismswithin environmental and feminist movements, Sturgeon offers an alternative "direct theory" of socialmovements that goes beyond the comcept of strategic essentialism to ground a radically democratictheoretical and political practice.

Sandoval, Chela. Methodology of the Oppressed Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000. Thisbrilliantly wide-ranging text attempts to bring an end to the "apartheid in cultural studies" that hasseparated feminist, queer, racial, class, and postcolonial theories from each other.

VI. NEO-MARXISMS AND CULTURAL MATERIALISMS

This broad category is meant to encompass a variety of Marxist theories which have in common their rejectionof economic or class determinism, and a concomitant belief in at least the semi-autonomy of the culturalsphere. They also have in common the claim that most empirical social science, history, and literary analysisworks from within capitalist categories, and thus neo-marxists offer an interdisciplinary critique based onanalysis of the total political-economic-cultural system. In the US and in AS, neo-marxism first becomes asignificant force in the late 1960s and early 70s, primarily through the work of the Frankfurt school (HerbertMarcuse! Theodor Adorno, Leo Lowenthal, Max Horkheimer, and, more tangentially, Walter Benjamin, andlater, Jurgen Habermas). This school of emigre intellectuals forced to leave Nazi Germany in the 1930s had animpact on American mass media studies even before the 60s but was brought into prominence by a generationof New Left intellectuals influenced especially by the social theory of Marcuse. A bit later, other importantworks of "Western marxism," especially those of Antonio Gramsci with his concept of cultural "hegemony,"and Georg Lukacs, with his concept of "reification" are rediscovered in the US. Other important schools ofneo-marxism acknowledged below include the structural marxism of Louis Althusser, the cultural materialismof Raymond Williams, the eclectic semiotic marxism of Mikhail Bakhtin, Fredric Jameson's literary theoreticalapproaches, marxist- or materialist-feminisms, Third World marxisms (Mao, Castro/Guevara, etc.), and thesurrealist-anarcho-marxism of the Situationists.

Overviews:Denning, Michael. "'The Special American Conditions': Marxism and American Studies," AmericanQuarterly38 (1986): 356-380. In the course of arguing against American "exceptionalism" (our alleged lackof class struggle etc.), Denning introduces main currents in neo-marxism and surveys marxian studies ofAmerican culture. He argues that AS theory and practice has often been a weak alternative to marxianthought and has suffered from lack of a full encounter with it. Footnotes constitute an importantbibliography on marxism and AS.

Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism.Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1976. Good, brief surveyof major 20th century marxist literary theorists, including several I've had to neglect here.

Jameson, Fredric. Marxism and Form.Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1971. A brilliant collection of essayson various neo-marxist theorists (Adorno, Benjamin, Bloch, Lukacs, and Sartre) that did much to bringthese critics to the attention of American scholars.

McLellan, David. Marxism After Marx.London: Macmillan, 3rd edition, 1998. An encyclopedic, very lucidintroduction to the major schools of 20th century marxism, including many I not fully represented here,including Trotskyism, council communism, and various Third World marxisms.



Anderson, Perry. Considerations on Western Marxism.London : New Left Books, 1976

---. In the Tracks of Historical Materialism.London: Verso, 1983. These two crucially important books byAnderson (co-founder of the key neo-marxist journal New Left Review) argue the need to return politicaleconomy to the center of Marxist cultural thought in the wake of its displacement by the important workof "Western" Marxists.

Representative Texts:Jay, Martin. The Dialectical Imagination. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1973. Both an important work ofAmerican intellectual history (as a narrative account of the rise of the Frankfurt school in thirties Germanyand their migration to the US in late 30s), and a good point of entry into this school of theory.

Held, David. Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1980.Less historical but more richly theoretical than Jay's book, this is another good way to become introducedto the Frankfurt school, including its contemporary disciple, Jurgen Habermas.

Arato, Andrew and Eike Gebhart eds. The Essential Frankfurt School Reader. NY: Urizen, 1978. Goodcollection of essays by various Frankfurt theorists. See especially the essays by Adorno and Benjamin.

Habermas, Jurgen. Jurgen Habermas on Society and Politics: A Reader.Boston: Beacon, 1989. Edited by StevenSeidman. This reader provides a good introduction to Habermas' rather inaccessible thought by focusinghis theories on specific socio-political issues. Habermas is the major figure attempting to unify traditionalsocial science with critical social theory.

Gramsci, Antonio. An Antonio Gramsci Reader. David Forgacs, ed. Boston: Schocken, 1988

---. Selections from Cultural Writings. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1985.

---. Selections from the Prison Notebooks.NY: International Books, 1971. Each of these three collectionsprovides entry into Gramsci's never neatly codified work. Of particular importance is his immenselyinfluential notion of "hegemony" -- a negotiated but uneven relationship between social groups in whichsubordinate classes are brought to consent to their own domination without overt force. The Forgacscollection includes a useful glossary.

Lears, T.J. Jackson. "The Concept of Cultural Hegemony," American Historical Review 90 (1985): 567-593.Makes the case for the usefulness of Gramsci's theory of hegemony for work in American cultural studies.(For a critique of Lears as watering down Gramsci revolutionary position, see the essay by Denning at thetop of this section.)

Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. London: New Left Books, 1977. Both a strong argument forviewing literature as a material form of "cultural production," and an excellent reference text for examiningthe meaning of some keywords in cultural studies (i.e. "culture" "literature" "hegemony").

---. The Sociology of Culture. NY: Schocken, 1982. A useful overview of Williams' attempt to synthesize thebest elements of the sociological and humanist/culturalist traditions.

Prendergast, Christopher, ed. Cultural Materialism: On Raymond Williams. Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1995. A fine, wide-ranging collection of essays evaluating Williams' career and theconcept of "cultural materialism."

Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. NY: Monthly Review Press, 1971. Althusser's workwas highly influential in Britain and on such American figures as Jameson, as well as on feminist filmtheory. See especially the essay, "Ideology and the Ideological State Apparatuses," which reconceptualizesideology as a suturing of subjects into an illusory sense of individuality that enables the maintenance ofexisting inequalities of power



Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as as Socially Symbolic Act. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press,1981. Jameson is America's most influential marxist literary theorist; in this important work he attempts tosynthesize a diverse body of critical literature from Northrop Frye and Kenneth Burke to Levi-Strauss,Lukacs and Althusser, into a view of ideology as a set of cultural narratives with a political unconsciousthat at once represses and symbolically acts out social conflict.

Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogical Imagination. Austin & London: Univ. of Texas Press, 1981. Bakhtin was aSoviet literary theorist and semiotician who conceived of culture as a multi-faceted "dialogical" struggleover the meaning of "signs," offering a more socio-historical alternative to the Saussurean view oflanguage as synchronic system. This collection of essays is still the best place to enter Bakhtin's carnival ofthought; it will introduce you to his unique universe of concepts, including, "dialogism," "polyphony,""chronotope,"and "carnivalization."

Todorov, Tzvetan. The Dialogic Principle.Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1984. This is the best shortintroduction to Bakhtin's wide-ranging body of work.

Lukacs, Georg. History and Class Consciousness. London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1971. This collection ofessays became immensely influential on the whole of "Western Marxism" through its elaboration of"reification" -- the mistaken apprehension of relations between human beings as the relation betweenthings, produced through capitalist commodity production/consumption.

Hansen, Karen V. and Ilene J. Philipson, eds. Women, Class and the Feminist Imagination. Philadelphia: TempleUniv. Press, 1990. This "socialist-feminist reader" collects many of the most significant essays from the60s, 70s, and 80s in which feminist scholars use, critique and debate the relevance of various marxistconcepts and positions.

Nelson, Cary and Lawrence Grossberg, eds. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture.Urbana, Ill.: Univ. ofIllinois Press, 1988. A wide-ranging collection of sophisticated essays on crucial issues in cultural theorypreviously neglected by marxists, especially race, gender and the role of culture in imperialism andcolonialism. See especially the essays by Hall, Spivak, West, and Pfeil, and Grossberg's overview of marxistcultural theories.

Bauer, Dale. Feminist Dialogics. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1988. Applies a feminist version of Bakhtin to avariety of American authors including James, Hawthorne, Chopin, and Wharton.

Smith-Rosenberg Carroll. "Writing History: Language, Class and Gender" in Teresa deLauretis, ed. FeministStudies/Critical Studies.Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana Univ., 1986. Rethinks the emergence of a new middleclass in 19th century America with help from Bakhtin's notion of cultural dialogism and polyphony.

Porter, Carolyn. Seeing and Being. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1981. Uses Lukacs' conception of"reification" to illuminate four major American authors (Emerson, James, Adams, and Faulkner). The firsttwo chapters of theoretical introduction, and the theoretical postscript offer a general critique of and assertan alternative to the allegedly "ahistorical" quality of most American literary criticism.

Gibson-Graham, J.K. The End of Capitalism (As We Knew It): A Feminist Critique of Political Economy. Brilliantlyimaginative critique of the ways in which Marxists have sometimes exaggerated the totalizing power ofcapital, and ignored feminized economic sectors that complicate monolithic structures of domination.

Lowe, Lisa and David Lloyd, eds. The Politics of Culture in the Shadow of Capital.Durham, NC: Duke Univ.Press, 1997. Rich collection of essays offering a variety of political economic critiques of colonialismsensitive to the dynamic between the specificity of local struggles and the determinations of global systems.Important synthesis of marxist, poststructuralist and postcolonial theorizing.



A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MEXICAN AMERICAN &CHICANO HISTORY & CULTURE

LITERATUREBibliography

• Eger, Ernestina N. A Bibliography of Criticism of Contemporary Chicano Literature. Chicano Studies Librarypublications series; no. 5. Berkeley: Chicano Studies Library Publications, University of California,1982, 1980.

Anthologies• Chavez, Albert C., comp. Yearnings; Mexican-American Literature. Now age books. West Haven, Conn.:

Pendulum Press [1972].

• Harth, Dorothy E. comp. Voices of Aztlan; Chicano Literature of Today. Mentor book, 451 MJ1296. NewYork: New American Library [1974].

• Infinite Divisions: An Anthology of Chicana Literature. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993.

• Literatura Chicana, 1965-1995: An Anthology in Spanish, English, and Calo. Garland reference library of thehumanities; vol. 1912. New York: Garland Pub., 1997.

• Ludwig, Ed, comp. The Chicanos: Mexican American Voices. Baltimore: Penguin Books [1971].

• Moraga, Cherrie. The Last Generation: Prose and Poetry. Boston: South End Press, 1993.

• Ortego y Gasca, Philip D. comp. We are Chicanos: An Anthology of Mexican-American Literature. NewYork: Washington Square Press [1973].

• Paredes, Americo. comp. Mexican-American Authors. Multi-ethnic Literature. Boston: Houghton MifflinCo. [1972].

• Romano-V., Octavio Ignacio, comp. El Espejo-The Mirror; Selected Chicano Literature. [5th printing rev.Berkeley, Calif.: Quinto Sol] 1972.

• Salinas, Luis Omar. comp. From the Barrio; A Chicano Anthology. San Francisco: Canfield Press [1973].

• Valdez, Luis, comp. Aztlan: An Anthology of Mexican American Literature. Marc Corporation book. NewYork: Knopf, 1973 [1972].

• Voices: An Anthology of Nuevo Mexicano Writers. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, [1988],1987.

Biographical Guides• Chicano Writers, First Series. Dictionary of literary biography; v. 82. Detroit: Gale Research, 1989.

• Chicano Writers, Second Series. Dictionary of literary biography; v. 122. Detroit: Gale Research, 1992.

Criticism• Arteaga, Alfred. Chicano Poetics: Heterotexts and Hybridites. Cambridge studies in American literature and

culture. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

• Bruce-Novoa. RetroSpace: Collected Essays on Chicano Literature, Theory, and History. Houston, Tex.: ArtePublico Press, 1990.

• Candelaria, Cordelia. Chicano Poetry: A Critical Introduction. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986.



• Chicana Critical Issues. Series in Chicana/Latina studies. Berkeley: Third Woman Press, 1993.

• Christie, John S. Latino Fiction and the Modernist Imagination: Literature of the Borderlands. Latinocommunities. New York: Garland Pub., 1998.

• Contemporary Chicano Fiction: A Critical Survey. Studies in the language and literature of United StatesHispanos. Binghamton, N.Y.: Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingue, 1986.

• Criticism in the Borderlands: Studies in Chicano Literature, Culture, and Ideology. Post-contemporaryinterventions. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991.

• Eysturoy, Annie O. Daughters of Self-creation: The Contemporary Chicana Novel. 1st ed. Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1996.

• Gish, Robert. Beyond Bounds: Cross-cultural Essays on Anglo, American Indian, & Chicano Literature. 1st ed.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.

• Gonzalez, Maria. Contemporary Mexican-American Women Novelists: Toward a Feminist Identity. Wor(l)ds ofchange; vol. 3. New York: P. Lang, 1996.

• Gutiérrez-Jones, Carl Scott. Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse. Latinosin American society and culture; 4. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.

• Hernandez, Guillermo. Chicano Satire: A Study in Literary Culture. Mexican American monographs; no.14. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.

• Lee, Joyce Glover. Rolando Hinojosa and the American Dream. Texas writers series; no. 5. Denton:University of North Texas Press, 1997.

• Limon, José Eduardo. Mexican Ballads, Chicano Poems: History and Influence in Mexican-American SocialPoetry. The new historicism; 17. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

• McKenna, Teresa. Migrant Song: Politics and Process in Contemporary Chicano Literature. 1st ed. Austin:University of Texas Press, 1997.

• Modern Chicano Writers: A Collection of Critical Essays. Twentieth-century Views. Spectrum book.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979.

• Neate, Wilson. Tolerating Ambiguity: Ethnicity and Community in Chicano/a Writing. Many voices, vol. 3.New York: Peter Lang, 1998.

• Perez-Torres, Rafael. Movements in Chicano Poetry: Against Myths, Against Margins. Cambridge studies inAmerican literature and culture; 88. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

• Pettit, Arthur G. Images of the Mexican American in Fiction and Film. 1st ed. College Station: Texas A&MUniversity Press, 1980.

• Quintana, Alvina E. Home Girls: Chicana Literary Voices. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996.

• Rebolledo, Tey Diana. Women Singing in the Snow: A Cultural Analysis of Chicana Literature. Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1995.

• Rocard, Marcienne. The Children of the Sun: Mexican-Americans in the Literature of the United States. Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1989.

• The Rolando Hinojosa Reader: Essays Historical and Critical. Houston, Tex.: Arte Publico Press, 1985.



• Rudin, Ernst. Tender Accents of Sound: Spanish in the Chicano Novel in English. Tempe, Ariz.: BilingualPress/Editorial Bilingule, 1996.

• Saldivar, Ramon. Chicano Narrative: The Dialectics of Difference. The Wisconsin project on Americanwriters. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.

• Shirley, Carl R. Understanding Chicano Literature. Understanding contemporary American literature.Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.

• Tatum, Charles M. Chicano Literature. Twayne's United States authors series; TUSAS 433. Boston:Twayne Publishers, 1982.

Reference Guides• Chicano Literature: A Reference Guide. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985.

MEXICAN AMERICAN POLICE RELATIONS• Geilhufe, Nancy L. Chicanos and the Police: A Study of the Politics of Ethnicity in San Jose, California.

Monograph - Society for Applied Anthropology; no. 13. Washington: Society for AppliedAnthropology, 1979.

• Mirande, Alfredo. Gringo Justice. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1987.

• Morales, Armando. Ando sangrando (I am bleeding); A Study of Mexican American-Police Conflict. Fair Lawn,N.J.: R. E. Burdick [1972].

• Rodriguez, R. (Roberto). Justice: A Question of Race. Tempe, Ariz.: Bilingual Press, 1997.

MEXICAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS• The California-Mexico Connection. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993.

• Chicano-Mexicano Relations. Mexican American studies monograph; no. 4. 1st ed. Houston, Tex.:Mexican American Studies Program, University of Houston, 1986.

MUSIC• Dickey, Dan William. The Kennedy Corridos: A Study of the Ballads of a Mexican American Hero. Austin:

Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas at Austin, 1978.

• Herrera-Sobek, Maria. Northward Bound: The Mexican Immigrant Experience in Ballad and Song.Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.

• Loza, Steven Joseph. Barrio Rhythm: Mexican American Music in Los Angeles. Music in American life.Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993.

• Pena, Manuel H. The Mexican American Orquesta: Music, Culture, and the Dialectic of Conflict. 1st ed. Austin:University of Texas Press, 1999.

• ______. Musica Tejana: The Cultural Economy of Artistic Transformation. University of Houston series inMexican American studies; no.1. College Station:Texas A&M University Press, 1999.

• ______. The Texas-Mexican Conjunto: History of a Working-class Music. Mexican American monographs;no. 9. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985.

• Roeder, Beatrice A. Chicano Folk Medicine from Los Angeles, California. University of Californiapublications. Folklore and mythology studies; 34. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.



ORAL HISTORY• Davis, Marilyn P. Mexican Voices/American Dreams: An Oral History of Mexican Immigration to the United

States. 1st ed. New York: H. Holt, 1990.

• Martin, Patricia Preciado. Images and Conversations: Mexican Americans Recall a Southwestern Past. Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1983.

ORGANIZATIONS• Allsup, Vernon Carl. The American G.I. Forum: Origins and Evolution. Monograph/ Center for Mexican

American Studies, The University of Texas at Austin; no. 6. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982.

• Garcia, Ignacio M. Mexican American Youth Organization: Precursors of Change in Texas. Working paperseries, no. 8. Tucson: Mexican American Studies and Research Center, University of Arizona, [1987].

• Hernandez, José Amaro. Mutual Aid for Survival: The Case of the Mexican American. Malabar, Fla.:Krieger, 1983.

• Marquez, Benjamin. LULAC: The Evolution of a Mexican American Political Organization. 1st ed. Austin:University of Texas Press, 1993.

• Ramos, Henry. The American GI Forum: In Pursuit of the Dream, 1948-1983. Houston, Tex.: Arte PublicoPress, 1998.

• Velez-Ibanez, Carlos G. Bonds of Mutual Trust: The Cultural Systems of Rotating Credit Associations amongUrban Mexicans and Chicanos. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983.

POLITICS• Burt, Kenneth. The History of MAPA and Chicano Politics in California. Sacramento, Calif.: Mexican-

American Political Association, 1982.

• Chicanas/Chicanos at the Crossroads: Social, Economic, and Political Change. Tucson: University of ArizonaPress, 1996.

• Chicano Politics and Society in the Late Twentieth Century. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999.

• Garcia, F. Chris, comp. La causa politica; A Chicano Politics Reader. Notre Dame [Ind.]: University ofNotre Dame Press [1974].

• ______, comp. Chicano Politics: Readings. New York: MSS Information Corp. [1973].

• Garcia, Ignacio M. Chicanismo: The Forging of a Militant Ethos among Mexican Americans. Tucson:University of Arizona Press, 1997.

• ______. United We Win: The Rise and Fall of La Raza Unida Party. Tucson: MASRC, the University ofArizona, 1989.

• Garcia, Mario T. The Making of a Mexican American Mayor: Raymond L. Telles of El Paso. Southwesternstudies; no. 105. 1st ed. El Paso, Tex.: Texas Western Press, University of Texas at El Paso, 1998.

• ______. Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology & Identity, 1930-1960. Yale Western Americana series;36. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

• Gomez-Quinones, Juan. Chicano Politics: Reality and Promise, 1940-1990. The Calvin P. Horn lectures inwestern history and culture. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990.

• ______. Roots of Chicano Politics, 1600-1940. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,1994.



• Gutiérrez, David (David Gregory). Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and thePolitics of Ethnicity. Berkeley,: University of California Press, 1995.

• Guzman, Ralph C. The Political Socialization of the Mexican American People. The Chicano heritage. rev.with an introd. New York: Arno Press, 1976.

• Kurtz, Donald V. The Politics of a Poverty Habitat. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Pub. Co. [1973].

• Latino Empowerment: Progress, Problems, and Prospects. Contributions in ethnic studies, no. 23. New York:Greenwood Press, 1988.

• Latino Politics in California. [San Diego, Calif.]: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University ofCalifornia, San Diego, 1996.

• Latinos and Political Coalitions: Political Empowerment for the 1990s. Contributions in ethnic studies, no. 27.New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.

• Politics and Society in the Southwest: Ethnicity and Chicano Pluralism. Westview replica edition. Boulder:Westview Press, 1982.

• Pycior, Julie Leininger. LBJ and Mexican Americans: The Paradox of Power. 1st University of Texas Pressed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997.

• Quezada, J. Gilberto. Border Boss: Manuel B. Bravo and Zapata County. The Canseco-Keck history series;no. 1. 1st ed. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999.

• Rosen, Gerald Paul. Political Ideology and the Chicano Movement: A Study of the Political Ideology of Activists inthe Chicano Movement. San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1975.

• Santillan, Richard. La Raza Unida. [Los Angeles]: Tlaquilo Publications, [1973].

• Skerry, Peter. Mexican Americans: The Ambivalent Minority. New York: Free Press; Toronto: MaxwellMacmillan Canada; New York: Maxwell Macmillan International, 1993.

• Vigil, Maurilio. Chicano Politics. Washington: University Press of America, 1977.

REGIONSMidwest

• Garcia, Juan R. Mexicans in the Midwest, 1900-1932. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996.

Northwest• The Chicano Experience in the Northwest. 2nd ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co., 1998.

Southwest in General• Chavez, John R. The Lost Land: The Chicano Image of the Southwest. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of

New Mexico Press, 1984.

• Deutsch, Sarah. No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the AmericanSouthwest, 1880-1940. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

• Gonzales, Manuel G. The Hispanic Elite of the Southwest. Southwestern studies series; no. 86. 1st ed. ElPaso, Tex.: University of Texas at El Paso, 1989.

• Hansen, Niles M. The Border Economy: Regional Development in the Southwest. 1st ed. Austin: University ofTexas Press, 1981.



• Regions of La Raza: Changing Interpretations of Mexican American Regional History and Culture. Nuestrahistoria series; monograph no. 2. Encino, Calif.: Floricanto Press, 1993.

• Salazar, Ruben. Border Correspondent: Selected Writings, 1955-1970. Latinos in American society andculture; 6. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.

• Velez-Ibanez, Carlos G. Border Visions: Mexican Cultures of the Southwest United States. Tucson: Universityof Arizona Press, 1996.

Arizona• Brophy, Anthony Blake. Foundlings on the Frontier: Racial and Religious Conflict in Arizona Territory, 1904-

1905. Southwest chronicle series. Tucson: University of Arizona Press [1972].

• Martin, Patricia Preciado. El Milagro and Other Stories. Camino del sol. Tucson: University of ArizonaPress, 1996.

• Ronstadt, Federico José Maria. Borderman: Memoirs of Federico José Maria Ronstadt. 1st ed. Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1993.

• Sheridan, Thomas E. Los Tucsonenses: The Mexican Community in Tucson, 1854-1941. Tucson: Universityof Arizona Press, 1986.

California• Acosta, Oscar Zeta. The Revolt of the Cockroach People. San Francisco: Straight Arrow Books, 1973.

• Acuna, Rodolfo. Anything but Mexican: Chicanos in Contemporary Los Angeles. Haymarket series. London;New York: Verso, 1996.

• Acuna, Rodolfo. A Community under Siege: A Chronicle of Chicanos East of the Los Angeles River, 1945-1975.Monograph / Chicano Studies Research Center, University of California; no. 11. Los Angeles:Chicano Studies Research Center, Publications, University of California at Los Angeles, 1984.

• Alvarez, Robert R. Familia: Migration and Adaptation in Baja and Alta California, 1800-1975. Berkley:University of California Press, 1987.

• Ambrecht, Biliana C. S. Politicizing the Poor: The Legacy of the War on Poverty in a Mexican-AmericanCommunity. Praeger special studies in U.S. economic, social, and political issues. New York: Praeger,1976.

• Balderrama, Francisco E. In Defense of La Raza, the Los Angeles Mexican Consulate, and the MexicanCommunity, 1929 to 1936. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982.

• Blanco Sanchez, Antonio. La lengua espanola en la historia de California. Contribucion a su estudio. Madrid:Cultura Hispanica, 1971.

• Camarillo, Albert. Chicanos in California: A History of Mexican Americans in California. Golden State series.San Francisco: Boyd & Fraser Pub. Co., 1984.

• Carpenter, Virginia L. The Ranchos of Don Pacifico Ontiveros. 1st ed. Santa Ana, Calif.: Friis-Pioneer Press,1982.

• Castillo, Pedro G. Mexico en Los Angeles: una historia social y cultural, 1781-1985. Los Noventa; 4. 1. ed. enidioma espanol. Mexico, D.F.: Alianza Editorial Mexicana: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y lasArtes, 1989.

• Chavez, John R. Eastside Landmark: A History of the East Los Angeles Community Union, 1968-1993.Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998.



• Francis, Jessie Davies. An Economic and Social History of Mexican California, 1822-1846: Volume I, ChieflyEconomic. The Chicano heritage. New York: Arno Press, 1976.

• Galarza, Ernesto. The Burning Light: Action and Organizing in the Mexican Community in California:Interviews. Berkeley: Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California,1982.

• Griswold del Castillo, Richard. The Los Angeles Barrio, 1850-1890: A Social History. Berkeley: Universityof California Press, 1979.

• Haas, Lisbeth. Conquests and Historical Identities in California, 1769-1936. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1995.

• Langum, David J. Law and Community on the Mexican California Frontier: Anglo-American Expatriates and theClash of Legal Traditions, 1821-1846. 1st ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.

• Leonard, Karen Isaksen. Making Ethnic Choices: California's Punjabi Mexican Americans. Asian Americanhistory and culture series. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.

• Marin, Marguerite V. Social Protest in an Urban Barrio: A Study of the Chicano Movement, 1966-1974. Class,ethnicity, gender, and the democratic nation; vol. 1. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1991.

• Mazon, Mauricio. The Zoot-suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation. Mexican Americanmonographs; no. 8. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press,1984.

• Mexicans in California after the U.S. Conquest. The Chicano heritage. New York: Arno Press, 1976.

• Miller, Elaine K. Mexican Folk Narrative from the Los Angeles Area. Publications of the AmericanFolklore Society. Memoir series; v. 56. Austin: Published for the American Folklore Society by theUniversity of Texas Press [1973].

• Miller, Robert Ryal. Juan Alvardo, Governor of California, 1836-1842. Norman: University of OklahomaPress, 1998.

• Monroy, Douglas. Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles from the Great Migration to the Great Depression. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1999.

• Monroy, Douglas. Thrown Among Strangers: The Making of Mexican Culture in Frontier California. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1990.

• Moore, Joan W. Homeboys: Gangs, Drugs, and Prison in the Barrios of Los Angeles. Philadelphia: TempleUniversity Press, 1978.

• Peterson, Richard H. Manifest Destiny in the Mines: A Cultural Interpretation of Anti-Mexican Nativism inCalifornia, 1848-1853. San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1975.

• Pitt, Leonard. The Decline of the Californios; A Social History of the Spanish-speaking Californians, 1846-1890.Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970 [1966].

• Reyes, David. Land of a Thousand Dances: Chicano Rock 'n' Roll from Southern California. 1st ed.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998.

• Rios-Bustamante, Antonio Jose. An Illustrated History of Mexican Los Angeles, 1781-1985. Monograph /Chicano Studies Research Center Publications, University of California; no. 12. Los Angeles:University of California, Chicano Studies Research Center Publications, 1986.

• Romo, Ricardo. East Los Angeles: History of a Barrio. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983.



• Sanchez, George J. Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

• Sanchez, Rosaura. Telling Identities: The Californio Testimonios. Minneapolis: University of MinnesotaPress, 1995.

• Southern California's Latino Community: A Series of Articles Reprinted from the Los Angeles Times. [LosAngeles]: Los Angeles Times, 1983.

• Tuck, Ruth D. Not with the Fist, Mexican-Americans in a Southwest City. New York: Harcourt, Brace andCompany [1946].

• Villasenor, Victor. Lluvia de oro. New York: Delta Trade Paperbacks, 1996, 1991.

New Mexico• Blawis, Patricia Bell. Tijerina and the Land Grants: Mexican Americans in Struggle for their Heritage. [1st ed.].

New York: International Publishers, 1971.

• Brown, Lorin W. Hispano Folklife of New Mexico: The Lorin W. Brown Federal Writers' Project Manuscripts.1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978.

• Chacon, Rafael. Legacy of Honor: The Life of Rafael Chacon, A Nineteenth-Century New Mexican. 1st ed.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986.

• Chavez, Angelico. Origins of New Mexico Families: A Genealogy of the Spanish Colonial Period. Rev. ed. SantaFe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1992.

• El oro y el futuro del pueblo: An Oral History and Literature Collection Project. Albuquerque, N.M.: DeColores, 1979.

• Fincher, Ernest Barksdale. Spanish-Americans as a Political Factor in New Mexico, 1912-1950. The MexicanAmerican. New York: Arno Press, 1974.

• Hispanic Folktales from New Mexico: Narratives from the R.D. Jameson Collection. Folklore studies; 30.Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.

• Hispano Culture of New Mexico. The Chicano Heritage. New York: Arno Press, 1976.

• Land, Water, and Culture: New Perspectives on Hispanic Land Grants. New Mexico land grant series. 1st ed.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1987.

• Melendez, A. Gabriel (Anthony Gabriel). So All Is Not Lost: The Poetics of Print in NuevomexicanoCommunities, 1834-1958. Paso por aqui. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997.

• Meyer, Doris. Speaking for Themselves: Neomexicano Cultural Identity and the Spanish-language Press, 1880-1920. Pas por aqui. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.

• Nostrand, Richard L. (Richard Lee). The Hispano Homeland. 1st ed. Norman: University of OklahomaPress, 1992.

• Ortiz, Roxanne Dunbar. Roots of Resistance: Land Tenure in New Mexico, 1680-1980. Monograph -Chicano Studies Research Center Publications, University of California; no. 10. Los Angeles: ChicanoStudies Research Center Publications, University of California, Los Angeles: American Indian StudiesCenter, University of California, Los Angeles, 1980.



• Salaices, Jose. The Journal of José Salaices, 1789-1818. Santa Fe, N.M.: Press of the Palace of theGovernors, 1998.

• Sanchez, George Isidore. Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans. Historians of the frontier andAmerican West. 1st University of New Mexico Press pbk. ed. Albuquerque, NM: University of NewMexico Press, 1996.

• Sunseri, Alvin R. Seeds of Discord: New Mexico in the Aftermath of the American Conquest, 1846-1861.Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1979.

• Zeleny, Carolyn. Relations between the Spanish-Americans and Anglo-Americans in New Mexico. The MexicanAmerican. New York: Arno Press, 1974.

Oklahoma• Smith, Michael M. The Mexicans in Oklahoma. Newcomers to a New Land. 1st ed. Norman: University

of Oklahoma Press, 1980.

Texas• Achor, Shirley. Mexican Americans in a Dallas Barrio. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1978.

• Benson Latin American Collection. Mexican American Archives at the Benson Collection: A Guide for Users.Austin: University of Texas at Austin, General Libraries, 1981.

• Clinchy, Everett Ross. Equality of Opportunity for Latin-Americans in Texas. The Mexican American. NewYork: Arno Press, 1974.

• De Leon, Arnoldo. Ethnicity in the Sunbelt: A History of Mexican Americans in Houston. Mexican Americanstudies monograph series; no. 7. 1st ed. Houston, Tex.: Mexican American Studies Program,University of Houston, 1989.

• ______. Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History. 2nd ed. Wheeling, Ill.: H. Davidson, 1999.

• ______. San Angelenos: Mexican Americans in San Angelo, Texas. San Angelo, Tex.: Fort Concho MuseumPress, 1985.

• ______. The Tejano Community, 1836-1900. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,1982.

• ______. Tejanos and the Numbers Game: A Socio-historical Interpretation from the Federal Censuses, 1850-1900.1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989.

• ______. They Called Them Greasers: Anglo Attitudes Toward Mexicans in Texas, 1821-1900. 1st ed. Austin:University of Texas Press, 1983.

• Foley, Douglas E. From Peones to Politicos: Ethnic Relations in a South Texas Town, 1900 to 1977.Monograph - University of Texas at Austin, Center for Mexican American Studies; no. 3. Austin:Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas at Austin: distributed by University ofTexas Press, 1977.

• ______. Learning Capitalist Culture: Deep in the Heart of Tejas. Contemporary ethnography series.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990.

• ______. The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture. Americancrossroads; 2. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

• Garcia, Mario T. Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920. Yale Western Americana series;32. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981.



• Garcia, Richard A. Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941. The Centennialseries of the Association of Former Students, Texas A&M University; no. 36. 1st ed. College Station:Texas A&M University Press, 1991.

• Guerrero, Salvador. Memorias, a West Texas Life. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 1991.

• Gutiérrez, José Angel. The Making of a Chicano Militant: Lessons from Cristal. Wisconsin studies inAmerican autobiography. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998.

• Hinojosa, Gilberto Miguel. A Borderlands Town in Transition: Laredo, 1755-1870. 1st ed. College Station:Texas A&M University Press, 1983.

• Hirsch, Herbert. Learning to Be Militant: Ethnic Identity and the Development of Political Militance in a ChicanoCommunity. San Francisco: R & E Research Associates, 1977.

• Limon, José Eduardo. Dancing with the Devil: Society and Cultural Poetics in Mexican-American South Texas.New directions in anthropological writing. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994.

• López-Stafford, Gloria. A Place in El Paso: A Mexican-American Childhood. 1st ed. Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, 1996.

• Madsen, William. Mexican-Americans of South Texas. Case studies in cultural anthropology. 2d ed. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston [1973].

• Maril, Robert Lee. Living on the Edge of America: At Home on the Texas-Mexico Border. A Wardlaw book.1st ed. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1992.

• ______. The Poorest of Americans: The Mexican Americans of the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. NotreDame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1989.

• Martínez, Oscar J. The Chicanos of El Paso: An Assessment of Progress. Southwestern studies; monographno. 59. [El Paso]: University of Texas at El Paso, 1980.

• Matovina, Timothy M. Tejano Religion and Ethnicity: San Antonio, 1821-1860. 1st ed. Austin: Universityof Texas Press, 1995.

• Mendoza, Lydia. Lydia Mendoza: A Family Autobiography. Houston, Tex.: Arte Publico Press, 1993.

• The Mexican Experience in Texas. The Chicano Heritage. New York: Arno Press, 1976.

• Montejano, David. Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986. 1st ed. Austin: University ofTexas Press, 1987.

• Navarro, Armando. The Cristal Experiment: A Chicano Struggle for Community Control. Madison: Universityof Wisconsin Press, 1998.

• Rubel, Arthur J. Across the Tracks: Mexican-Americans in a Texas City. The Hogg Foundation researchseries. Austin: Published for the Hogg Foundation for Mental Health by the University of Texas Press[1966].

• Samora, Julian. Gunpowder Justice: A Reassessment of the Texas Rangers. Notre Dame, Ind.: University ofNotre Dame Press, 1979.

• Sanchez, Ramiro. Frontier Odyssey: Early Life in a Texas Spanish Town. Austin, Tex.: Jenkins Pub. Co.,1981.



• Shockley, John S. (John Staples). Chicano Revolt in a Texas Town. Notre Dame [Ind.]: University ofNotre Dame Press [1974].

• Stewart, Kenneth L. Not Room Enough: Mexicans, Anglos, and Socio-economic Change in Texas, 1850-1900.1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993.

• Tejano Journey, 1770-1860. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996.

• Thompson, Jerry D. Mexican Texans in the Union Army. Southwestern studies; no. 78. 1st ed. El Paso:Texas Western Press, 1986.

• Tijerina, Andres. History of Mexican Americans in Lubbock County, Texas. Texas Tech University.Graduate studies; no. 18. Lubbock: Texas Tech Press, 1979.

• ______. Tejano Empire: Life on the South Texas Ranchos. The Clayton Wheat Williams Texas life series;no. 7. 1st ed. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1998.

• Trujillo, Armando L. Chicano Empowerment and Bilingual Education: Movimiento Politics in Crystal City,Texas. Latino Communities. New York: Garland Pub., 1998.

• Zamora, Emilio. The World of the Mexican Worker in Texas. The Centennial series of the Association ofFormer Students, Texas A&M University; no. 44. 1st ed. College Station: Texas A&M UniversityPress, 1993.

RELIGION• Brackenridge, R. Douglas. Iglesia Presbiteriana: A History of Presbyterians and Mexican Americans in the

Southwest. 2nd ed. San Antonio: Trinity University Press, 1987.

• Mexican Americans and the Catholic Church, 1900-1965. The Notre Dame history of Hispanic Catholics inthe U.S.; v. 1. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994.

• Mosqueda, Lawrence J. Chicanos, Catholicism, and Political Ideology. Lanham, Md.: University Press ofAmerica, 1986.

• Thies, Jeffrey S. Mexican Catholicism in Southern California: The Importance of Popular Religiosity andSacramental Practice in Faith Experience. American university studies. Series VII, Theology and religion;vol. 139. New York: P. Lang, 1993.

REPATRIATION• Balderrama, Francisco E. Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. 1st ed. Albuquerque:

University of New Mexico Press, 1995.

• Guerin-Gonzalez, Camille. Mexican Workers and American Dreams, Immigration, Repatriation, and CaliforniaFarm Labor, 1900-1939. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994.

RESISTANCE• Rosenbaum, Robert J. Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest. 1st Southern Methodist University Press ed.

Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1998.

SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES• Blea, Irene I. (Irene Isabel). Toward a Chicano Social Science. New York: Praeger, 1988.

• Chicano Psychology. 2nd ed. Orlando: Academic Press, 1984.

• Chicanos: Social and Psychological Perspectives. 2d. ed. Saint Louis: Mosby, 1976.



• Facio, Elisa. Understanding Older Chicanas. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1996.

• Langley, Lester D. MexAmerica: Two Countries, One Future. 1st ed. New York: Crown Publishers, 1988.

• Markides, Kyriakos S. and Harry W. Martin. Older Mexican Americans: A Study in an Urban Barrio.[Austin]: Center for Mexican American Studies, University ofTexas at Austin, 1983.

• Perales, Alonso S., comp. Are we Good Neighbors- The Mexican American. New York: Arno Press, 1974[1948].

• Wagner, Nathaniel N., comp. Chicanos: Social and Psychological Perspectives. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co.,1971.

THEATER• Arrizon, Alicia. Latina Performance: Traversing the Stage. Unnatural acts. Bloomington: Indiana University

Press, 1999.

• Huerta, Jorge A. Chicano Theater: Themes and Forms. Studies in the Language and Literature of UnitedStates Hispanos. Ypsilanti, Mich.: Bilingual Press, 1982.

• Kanellos, Nicolas. Mexican American Theatre: Legacy and Reality. Pittsburgh: Latin American LiteraryReview Press, 1987.

• Ramirez, Elizabeth C. Footlights Across the Border: A History of Spanish-language Professional Theatre on theTexas Stage. American university studies. Series XXVI, Theatre arts, vol. 1. New York: P. Lang, 1990.

WARTIME EXPERIENCES• Aztlan and Viet Nam: Chicano and Chicana Experiences of the War. American crossroads; 4. Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1999.

• Morin, Raul. Among the Valiant: Mexican-Americans in WW II and Korea. Los Angeles: Borden Pub. Co.,1963.

• Ramirez, Juan. A Patriot after All: The Story of a Chicano Vietnam Vet. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press, 1999.

• Soldados: Chicanos in Viet Nam. San Jose, Calif.: Chusma House Publications, 1990.

WOMENBibliographies

• The Chicana studies index: twenty years of gender research, 1971-1991. Chicano Studies Library publicationsseries; no. 18. Berkeley: Chicano Studies Library Publications Unit, University of California atBerkeley, 1992.

• University of California, Los Angeles. Chicano Studies Center. The Chicana: A ComprehensiveBibliographic Study. Los Angeles: Bibliographic Research and Collection Development Unit, ChicanoStudies Center, University of California, 1975.

General Studies• Between Borders: Essays on Mexicana/Chicana History. La Mujer latina series. Encino, Calif.: Floricanto

Press, 1990.

• Beyond Stereotypes: The Critical Analysis of Chicana Literature. Studies in the language and literature ofUnited States Hispanos. Binghamton, N.Y.: Bilingual Press, 1985.

• Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio, 1929-1939. Texas A &M southwestern studies; no. 2. 1st ed. College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 1984.



• Chicana Creativity and Criticism: New Frontiers in American Literature. Rev. ed. Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press, 1996.

• Chicana Feminist Thought: The Basic Historical Writings. New York: Routledge, 1997.

• Chicana Voices: Intersections of Class, Race, and Gender. CMAS publications. 1st ed. Austin: Center forMexican American Studies, University of Texas, 1986.

• Living Chicana Theory. Series in Chicana/Latina studies. Berkeley, Calif.: Third Woman Press, 1998.

• Mexican American Women: Changing Images. Perspectives in Mexican American studies, v. 5. Tucson:Mexican American Studies & Research Center, University of Arizona, 1995.

• Pardo, Mary S. Mexican American Women Activists: Identity and Resistance in Two Los Angeles Communities.Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.

• Rodriguez, Jeanette. Our Lady of Guadalupe: Faith and Empowerment among Mexican-American Women. 1sted. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.

• Ruiz, Vicki. Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food ProcessingIndustry, 1930-1950. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987.

• ______. From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-century America. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1998.

• Western Women: Their Land, Their Lives. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988.

• Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change. Thematic studies in Latin America. Boston: Allen& Unwin, 1987.

YOUTH• Dietrich, Lisa. Chicana adolescents. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998.

• Heller, Celia Stopnicka. Mexican American Youth: Forgotten Youth at the Crossroads. Studies in sociology;SS20. New York: Random House [1966].

• Horowitz, Ruth. Honor and the American Dream: Culture and Identity in a Chicano Community. Crime, law,and deviance series. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983.

• Moore, Joan W. Going Down to the Barrio: Homeboys and Homegirls in Change. Philadelphia: TempleUniversity Press, 1991.

• Munoz, Carlos. Youth, Identity, Power: The Chicano Generation. Haymarket series on North Americanpolitics and culture. London; New York: Verso, 1989.

• Phillips, Susan A. Wallbangin': Graffiti and Gangs in L.A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.

• Rodriguez, Luis J. Always Running: La Vida Loca, Gang Days in L.A. 1st Touchstone ed. New York:Simon & Schuster, 1994.

• Suarez-Orozco, Carola. Trans-formations: Immigration, Family Life, and Achievement Motivation among LatinoAdolescents. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995.

• Vigil, James Diego. Barrio Gangs: Street Life and Identity in Southern California. Mexican Americanmonographs; no. 12. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988.



A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ONNORTH AMERICAN INDIANS WITH A FOCUS ON

CALIFORNIA & THE NEW WEST

CALIFORNIA TRADITIONAL STORIES

Bierhorst, John ed.; Curtis, Edward S., photog. The Girl Who Married a Ghost. New York, NY: MacmillanChildGroup; 1984. 113 pages. (elementary/secondary).

This collection contains nine of the 350 tales collected by photographer Edward S. Curtis (1868--1952). These tales representsacred origin stories, ghost stories, trickster tales, and non-sacred campfire tales. The book is organized by geographic area---Plains,Northwest Coast, and California---each with a short introduction. The book is illustrated with Curtis' photographs. Curtis hasreceived criticism for "staging" his subjects, creating culturally inaccurate portraits. Bierhorst has edited these tales into simple, easyprose. e/s/legend/Plains/Northwest Coast/California.

Curry, Jane Louise; Watts, James, illus. Back in the Beforetime: Tales of the California Indians. New York: Margaret K.McElderry Books; 1987. 134 pages. (lower and upper elementary).

The author retells legends from twenty-two unidentified California Indian tribes are retold. Tales include explanatory stories (e.g.why there is darkness) and Coyote trickster tales. Sources for the tales are not given.

Monroe, Jean Guard; Williamson, Ray A.; Carlson, Susan Johnston, illus. First Houses: Native American Homes andSacred Structures. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company; 1993. 147 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).

This is a collection of legends associated with American Indian houses and sacred structures from the temperate zone of NorthAmerica. Stories about the Plains tipi, the Iroquois longhouse, the Navajo hogan, and a variety of other house types show how thedesigns for these ancient dwellings set the pattern for homes of today. Most of the stories were collected directly from Indianstorytellers and were originally published in scholarly books and journals "reduced to lifeless prose." The authors have presented thestories here "in a form that we hope conveys more of the liveliness of the original telling."

Monroe, Jean Guard; Williamson, Ray A.; Sturat, Edgar, illus. They Dance in the Sky: Native American Star Myths.Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin; 1987. 118 pages. (upper elementary/secondary) *.

This book is a well-documented presentation of American Indian star stories. The first two chapters comparevarious legends about the Pleiades and the Big Dipper. The rest of the book is arranged by tribe or region---Southwest, Pawnee, Plains, California, Northwest Coast, and Southeast. An introductory paragraph to eachstory provides a brief outline of the tribe's history. Where available, explanations are suggested as to how theevents described in the stories might relate to the seasonal movement of the stars. A bibliography providessources (generally scholarly papers) for each myth presented. The preface notes that legends reinforce behavioralstandards for the people. It also explains that the stories are meant to be read aloud, since a certain quality islost when an oral text is set down in print. Illustrated with black-and-white drawings, the book includes anindex and a glossary with a pronunciation guide.

CALIFORNIA NON-FICTION

Bains, Rae; Guzzi, George, illus. Indians of the West. Mahwah, NJ: Troll Associates; 1985. 30 pages. (lowerelementary) ?.

This is a very brief overview of the pre-Contact lifeways of the American Indians of the Northwest Coast, Southwest, California,and of the inland Paiute, Bannock and Ute peoples. The book focuses on housing, subsistence, the potlatch, and Southwest andCalifornia Indian religions. The effort to cover so much material in such a limited book results in broad generalizations with littleattempt to explain underlying structure. For instance, Northwest Coast Indians are characterized as "wasteful," without providingcontext for understanding the importance of the potlatch as a means of redistributing wealth within the society. The book declares,



"Strangely, all the California Indians lived off the rich land without making any effort to develop it into farms," but does notexplain why the Indians of that area had no need to farm in order to flourish. No information on contemporary Indian culture isgiven.

Baylor, Byrd; Ingram, Jerry (Choctaw), illus. They Put on Masks. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons; 1974.47 pages. (lower elementary).

The forms and functions of masks among the Eskimo, Northwest Coast tribes, Iroquois, Navajo, Apache, Hopi, Zuni andYaqui are thoughtfully described in this book, which successfully evokes the powerful feelings associated with masks while providingmuch descriptive information. It is important to note, however, that many American Indians find depicting masks and using themfor classroom activities offensive.

Brandt, Keith; Guzzi, George, illus. Indian Festivals. Mahwah, NJ: Troll Associates; 1985. 30 pages. (lowerelementary) ?

This book briefly describes the festivals of American Indians in the Eastern Woodlands (Iroquois, Algonquian), Southeast(Muskogee), Plains, Southwest (Pueblo), California, and Northwest Coast regions. Inaccuracies, generalizations, and stereotypesare used throughout the book, as are potentially offensive words such as "braves." "The Indians who lived in California did nothunt or farm," the book declares. "They lived entirely on acorns that were gathered from trees. But while their lives were easyand peaceful, their festivals were almost totally concerned with death."

Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West. New York, NY: Holt & Co.;1991; c1970. 512 pages. * (secondary).

The Western tribes' displacement from their lands, confinement to reservations, and the consequent destruction of traditional cultureare carefully and compassionately recounted in this compelling and highly readable history (1860--1890). Unlike other historiescovering these topics, the book presents the events as experienced by the victims. The main sources for the history are official recordsof U.S.-Indian treaty councils and meetings. The reasonableness and humanity expressed by the American Indian spokesmenduring these encounters, as recounted here, do much to counter the stereotype of "ignorant," "savage" Indians, and the courageousspirit they reveal evokes admiration and respect. Chapters are arranged chronologically, each devoted to a particular tribe orcampaign. The final chapter describes the growth and significance of the Ghost Dance movement and the Battle of Wounded Knee.A map shows the location and dates of the main actions. Sources are cited in the extensive notes. Archival photographs,bibliography and index are included.

Brown, Vinson. Native Americans of the Pacific Coast. Published as Peoples of the Sea by MacMillan (1977) ed. HappyCamp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers; 1985. 272 pages. (secondary).

The book describes lifeways (social organization, economy, religion) of selected tribes from the four culture areas along the PacificCoast (Arctic, Subarctic, Northwest Coast, and California) during the period 1500--1700. Nine of the eighteen descriptions arefollowed by fictional stories intended to illustrate the spirit and essence of the people. The author runs a risk inherent tofictionalizing about past societies---that of attributing thoughts and actions to the characters that may be alien or unlikely for peoplein that society. In one story, a young Kwakuitl girl questions the violence of one of her tribe's rituals. This pairing of fictionalopinion with fact might lead the reader to feel that all aspects of the story are culturally accurate. Unfortunately, this combination oflists of facts with fictional stories fails to coalesce into a comprehensible introduction to the many cultures described. Lengthyappendices list Pacific Coast languages, material culture, and religious and social elements of each group. Includes a usefulbibliography.

Brusa, Betty War; Bonnot, Eugenia. Salinan Indians of California. Heraldsburg, CA: Naturegraph; 1975. 94pages.(upper elementary/secondary).

This brief overview of the pre-Contact culture of the Salinans of California includes information on economic life, architecture, dress,material culture, government, religion, and legends. Shorter sections describe neighboring California Indian groups---the Esselen,Chumash, Costanoans, and Yokuts. The Smithsonian Institution's Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8 states,"Although genetic descendants of the Salinan Indians are still living, Salinan culture can be described as ethnologically extinct."Includes an appendix with a short list of Salinan and Esselen vocabularies, a large map, bibliography, and index.



Carrico, Richard L. Strangers in a Stolen Land: American Indians in San Diego, 1850-1880. Newcastle, Ca: SierraOaks Publishing Company; 1987. 93 pages. (secondary) *.

This extensively researched work covers the little-known history of Indians in San Diego County between 1850--1880, describingthe neglect and exploitation that characterized their treatment by local, state, and federal government authorities. The author seeksto counter the notion that American Indian populations of San Diego..."crept away and died. Indian people fought the advancingtide of white settlement...using a wide variety of methods, revolt, appeasement, cooperation. Their story is one...of intense pride,heroic efforts, and successful adaptation...." The book's excellent introduction states that most written history is based on the Non-Indian perspective, since most American Indians did not have written language. Illustrated with archival photographs and maps.Includes extensive bibliography and index.

Emanuels, George. California Indians: An Illustrated Guide. Walnut Creek, CA: Diablo Books; 1991. 172 pages.(secondary).

A survey of seventeen California Indian groups focusing mainly on pre-Contact lifeways, with only occasional reference is made tocontemporary conditions. The disjointed writing style and an attempt to be comprehensive unfortunately lead to inane generalizationssuch as "Most often men and women were fat and had large faces. They were peaceful and dreamed of the perfect life in heavenabove."

Forbes, Jack D. (Lenape). Native Americans of California and Nevada. Revision of 1969 ed. Happy Camp, CA:Naturegraph Publishers. 240 pages. (secondary).

This handbook, especially written for teachers and school administrators, consists of two basic parts: a condensed history of theAmerican Indians of California and Nevada and some basic concepts relating to American Indian studies, with suggestions for amulticultural, community-responsive approach to Indian education. The history briefly covers pre-Contact life, the deleterious impactof the Spanish missions, and the subsequent takeover of Indian land by Anglo settlers. The role of the Bureau of Indian Affairsand the Dawes Act in these events is discussed. The section titled "The Native Awakening" describes the story of Indian strugglesfor equality of citizenship, land and compensation, improved education, and efforts to redress poverty and discrimination. Theauthor analyzes the questions: "Who is an Indian?" and "What are Indian cultures?" Includes a guide to resources and furtherreading, a California/Nevada Native American history chart, and a linguistic classification of California and Nevada Indians.Illustrated with archival photographs. s/California/Basin/history.

Keyworth, C. L. California Indians. New York, NY: Facts On File; 1991. 95 pages. (The First Americans).(secondary).

This examination of the history and culture of the diverse Indian peoples of California focuses on lifeways, religion and beliefs, andthe changes wrought by contact with Europeans. The book includes Indian contributions to American culture. The text isillustrated with several full-color photo essays.

Red Hawk, Richard (Wyandot) Brook, Anne C., illus. A Trip to a Pow Wow. Newcastle, CA: Sierra OaksPublishing Company. 45 pages. (lower elementary) *.

Tess shares with her non-Indian classmates the origin and meaning of the Powwow, and teaches them the Round Dance. She thentakes her classmates to a local Powwow, where they enjoy taking part in the dancing. Includes black-and-white illustrations.

Trafzer, Clifford E. (Wyandot). California's Indians and the Gold Rush. Sacramento, CA: Sierra Oaks PublishingCompany; 1989. 61 pages. (elementary) *.

This is a study of the important role played by American Indians in the early stages of the California Gold Rush. Among thetopics covered are: the sharp divisions within American Indian communities regarding involvement in gold mining; the laborcontributions of American Indian children; the cultural changes introduced with Euroamerican contact; the cheating by whitetraders; the violence of non-Indian miners towards the Indians, and the eventual ouster of American Indians in favor of non-Indianworkers. Illustrated with beautiful archival photographs and reproductions of prints. A map shows the major towns and riversinvolved in Gold Rush activity.



WESTERN NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURAL, HISTORICAL & LITERARYTRADITIONS

Bean, Lowell Jordan; Bourgealt, Lisa J. The Cahuilla. New York, NY: Chelsea House; 1989. 103 pages. (FrankW. Porter III, Gen. Ed. Indians of North America). (upper elementary/secondary) *.

Written by two anthropologists, this informative book describes Cahuilla traditional lifeways, kinship, subsistence, religion,European contact, and the people today. Includes a bibliography, glossary, index and "Cahuilla-At-A-Glance." Illustrated witharchival photographs.

Brumgardt, John R.; Bowles, Larry L.; Bowles, Dorothy M., illus. People of the Magic Waters: The Cahuilla Indians ofPalm Springs. Palm Springs, CA: ETC Publications; 1981. 122 pages. (secondary) *.

A clearly written and comprehensive account of the Palm Springs Cahuilla covers geographic environment, origin stories, socialstructure, subsistence, religion, and culture. The final two chapters describe the changes brought by Europeans and contemporaryprosperity and problems. Illustrated with line drawings and map. Includes a bibliography and an index.

CHUMASH NON-FICTION

Gibson, Robert O. The Chumash. New York, NY: Chelsea House Publishers; 1991. 103 pages. (Frank W. PorterIII, Gen. Ed. Indians of North America). (upper elementary/secondary).

This overview of the Chumash who inhabited the coastal area of what is now southern California, focuses on traditional Chumashculture, with its complex social and political systems. The devastating effects upon Chumash culture from disease and the missionsystem introduced by the Spanish in the mid-18th century are described. This is followed by a description of the destruction incurredunder Mexican, and then American, rule in the mid-19th century. Includes a color photographic insert on Chumash artistictraditions, a glossary, bibliography, index, and "Chumash At A Glance."

Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Education Center. California's Chumash Indians. San Luis Obispo, CA:EZ Nature Books; 1988. 71 pages. (upper elementary).

This book describes the Chumash Indians who inhabited the south and central coast of California. The historical overview of theChumash includes: early contacts between the Chumash and the Spanish; the mission period, during which Chumash religious andsocial systems deteriorated and the population was devastated by European-introduced diseases; the post-mission period followingMexico's independence from Spain; the effects of the establishment of large ranches by non-Indians; the discovery of gold in thenorth; and the establishment of the State of California. The remainder of the book is composed of short chapters on various aspectsof traditional Chumash life including houses, games, social organization, and legends. The book includes the names and addressesof organizations with information on the Chumash, a Chumash word list, a bibliography, and a list of books for children about theChumash. Illustrated with black-and-white drawings.

CHUMASH FICTION

Spinka, Penina Keen. White Hare's Horses. New York, NY: Atheneum; 1991. 154 pages. (secondary).

In this improbable tale set in Chumash Country in the 1500s, a group of Aztec refugees fleeing Cortes take up residence in aChumash village and decide to convert the Chumash to their Aztec religion by sacrificing some of Chumash people. Aided by hermemory of her grandfather's dying words and a subsequent vision in which he instructs her, the fifteen-year-old heroine, WhiteHare, prevents the sacrifices from taking place. fic/s/Chumash/California.

GABRIELINO FICTION

O'Dell, Scott; Lewin, Ted, illus. Island of the Blue Dolphins. Reprint of 1960 ed. Boston, MA: Houghton MifflinCompany. 181 pages. (upper elementary).



Based on actual events, this is an adventure story of an Indian girl living on the island of San Nicolas off the California coast.With her adaptability and resilience, she survived alone on the island for eighteen years. Some cultural information on islandlifeways is included. Illustrated with twelve full-page watercolors.

Preble, Donna. Yamino-Kwiti: A Story of Indian Life in the Los Angeles Area. Reprint of 1940 ed. Berkeley, CA:Heyday Books; 1983. 226 pages. (secondary).

This adventure story set in late prehistoric California focuses on a Gabrielino boy named Yamino-Kwiti. The author relies heavilyon the notes made by her sister (whose husband was an anthropologist and the director of the Southwest Museum in Los Angeles)to describe traditional Gabrielino culture, and assiduously footnotes her many references to Gabrielino customs. The writing ismarred by generalizations such as, "The Indians were always merry and ready to laugh loudly at anything, like happy children,"and "When Indians hate they hate long and hard...." The book includes an appendix and extensive notes on language, settlements,and ceremonies. Includes a pronunciation guide to "Indian" words used, and a bibliography.

KAROK TRADITIONAL STORIES

London, Jonathan; Pinola, Lanny (Pomo-Miwok); Long, Sylvia, illus. Fire Race: A Karuk Coyote Tale About HowFire Came to the People. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books; 1993. 33 pages. (elementary)*.

This retelling of a traditional Karok legend describes how Coyote and the other animals first captured fire. This lavishly illustratedstory was written with the assistance of Lanny Pinola, a Pomo-Miwok storyteller. An afterword by Julian Lang, a Karok tribalscholar, explains the importance and significance of storytelling to the Karok. An author's note gives the origin of the story. Full-color illustrations. Includes a bibliography.

KAROK NON-FICTION

Bell, Maureen. Karuk: The Upriver People. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers, Inc.; 1991. 143 pages.(secondary).

This account of the Karok of northwestern California, circa 1850, that includes chapters on geography, everyday life, the arts,cultural organization, and ceremonies. The history section documents the devastating effects of contact on California Indians, withdetailed descriptions of the atrocities perpetrated by settlers during the gold rush. A final chapter discusses contemporary Karok,their legal battles for fishing rights, and the revival of aspects of their traditional culture. An appendix includes several Karokmyths. Illustrated with archival and contemporary black-and-white photographs. Includes a bibliography.

MAIDU NON-FICTION

Burrill, Richard; Castro, Dalbert S. (Maidu), illus; Fonseau, Henry (Nisenan), photog. Rivers of Sorrows: LifeHistory of the Maidu-Nisenan Indians. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers; 1988. 215 pages. (secondary).

This historical novel of the Nisenan people along the American River is told through the eyes of Tokiwa, a Nisenan medicinedoctor. The reader follows Tokiwa from age ten to his death at ninety-four. The first part of the book describes pre-Contact lifewaysand beliefs. The author notes that since the Nisenan were unwilling to divulge certain aspects of their medicine and religion, thatpart of the story remains untold. The second part, presented in the form of day-to-day drama as lived by the Nisenan, describes thearrival of European missionaries and traders, and the effects of the gold rush. Extensive notes for each chapter indicate exhaustiveresearch by the author. His sources are archaeology, ethnographies, Native people, and local historians. Includes black-and-whiteillustrations by Maidu and Nisenan artists, maps of the ancestral home of the Nisenan and the California Indian language groups,as well as a guide to Nisenan grammar and a calendar.

Potts, Marie (Maidu). The Northern Maidu. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph; 1977. 46 pages. (secondary).

The history and traditional culture of the Northern Maidu are presented in twenty short, simply written chapters. The author, aMaidu elder, reminisces about her childhood at Big Meadow, and her recollections are woven into the text, which covers such topicsas food, homes, weapons, baskets, religion, and healing. Written in the past tense, the book contains no information oncontemporary Maidu life.

Simpson, Richard. Ooti: A Maidu Legacy. Millbrae, CA: Celestial Arts; 1977. 119 pages. (secondary).



This story of the importance of the acorn in Maidu life is mainly told through the words of Lizzie Enos, a Maidu Indian who livedin northern California until her death in 1968. The book's preface states that the book is "a legacy that Lizzie owns absolutely,yet holds in common with all her people who have long ago passed from this earth, and those perhaps unknown survivors hidden atthe ends of seldom traveled paths," implying that she may be the last of her people to carry on this tradition. Sepia photographsshow Ms. Enos preparing acorns for food.

Smith-Trafzer, Lee Ann; Trafzer, Clifford E.; Coates, Ross illus. Creation of a California Tribe: Grandfather's MaiduIndian Tales. Sacramento, CA: Sierra Oaks Publishing Company; 1988. 45 pages. (lower elementary)*.

Original sources are cited for the Maidu stories retold in this book. The authors effectively place the storytelling in a contemporarysetting. Illustrated with drawings.

MIWOK FICTION

Carkeet, David. Quiver River. New York, NY: A Laura Geringer Book; 1991. 236 pages.(intermediate/secondary).

A group of Stanford students and their anthropology professor spend the summer in the Sierras studying the lifeways of the area'sformer residents, the Miwok. In this humorous, contemporary novel, the students' studies are used as a framework for parallelsbetween coming-of-age in Miwok and American society. There is much information presented on traditional Miwok initiation rites.A mysterious, forever-young Miwok man is freed from his perpetual youth when one of the students drains the lake to uncover thesacred rock the Indian youth needs to complete his puberty ritual. The information on the Miwok (and a mystical subplot) aresecondary to the book's message about becoming an adult in today's society.

NISENAN NON-FICTION

Burrill, Richard; Castro, Dalbert S. (Maidu), illus; Fonseau, Henry (Nisenan), photog. Rivers of Sorrows: LifeHistory of the Maidu-Nisenan Indians. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers; 1988. 215 pages. (secondary).

PALM SPRINGS TRADITIONAL STORIES

Patencio, Chief Francisco; Boynton, Margaret, recorder. Stories and Legends of the Palm Springs Indians. LosAngeles, CA: Times-Mirror; 1943. 132 pages. (secondary).

This collection is divided into traditional stories of the Palm Spring Indians and Chief Patencio's personal boyhood memories. Someof the stories focus on aspects of traditional life, for example the Council Fire tradition. Other stories concern the impact ofinnovations such as the railroad.

POMO TRADITIONAL STORIES

Fikes, Jay Courtney, Nix, Nelleke, illus. Step Inside the Sacred Circle: Aboriginal American Animal Allegories. Bristol,IN: Wyndham Hall Press; 1989. 54 pages. (secondary).

This collection of seven American Indian animal myths demonstrates values that humans can learn from the animals, such asbravery, compassion, and cooperation. Sources are cited, and each story is accompanied by extensive explanatory notes. Theintroduction states that the collection is intended to strengthen our ties to the natural world and increase our spiritual insight.Includes black-and-white illustrations.

QUECHAN NON-FICTION

Bee, Robert L. The Yuma. New York, NY: Chelsea House; 1989. 111 pages. (Frank W. Porter III, Gen. Ed.Indians of North America). (upper elementary/secondary).

The author, an anthropologist, introduces the Yuma, who refer to themselves as Quechan, with a description of pre-Contactlifeways---subsistence, kinship, puberty rites, religious beliefs, and warfare. Subsequent chapters deal with resistance to incursions by



Spanish missionaries, the fur trade, the gold rush, the creation of the reservations, 20th-century land claims, and current economicventures, such as hydroponic farming. Illustrated with black-and-white drawings, archival photographs, and color photographs ofQuechan crafts. Includes a bibliography, "Yuma-At-A-Glance," glossary, and index.

QUECHAN FICTION

Red Hawk, Richard (Wyandot); Coastes, Ross, illus. Grandmother's Christmas Story: A True Quechan Indian Story.Sacramento, CA: Sierra Oaks Publishing Company; 1987. 32 pages. (lower elementary).

Based on an historical event that occurred on Christmas Day 1851, grandmother recounts how she was saved by two white soldierswhen she was lost in the desert at age five. Several years later, she is able to return the favor when she recognizes one of the soldiersin a group about to be attacked by the Quechan. Includes black-and-white illustrations.

SHASTA TRADITIONAL STORIES

Holsinger, Rosemary, compiler; Piemme, P. I., illus. Shasta Indian Tales. Happy Camp, CA: NaturegraphPublishers, Inc.; 1982. 48 pages. (upper elementary/secondary).

This retelling of Shasta stories, including trickster, origin, and coyote tales, provides a brief introduction with a very general overviewof Shastan culture. Includes a short bibliography.

SHASTA NON-FICTION

Renfro, Elizabeth; Sheppard, R. J., illus. The Shasta Indians of California and their Neighbors. Happy Camp, CA:Naturegraph Publishers, CA; 1992. 126 pages. (secondary) *.

This well-written, informative guide on the Shasta of California offers information on their origin story, pre-Contact lifeways, andtraditional stories. Shasta history from the 1820s to the present includes the first contacts with whites, effects of the gold rush, the1870s Ghost Dance movement, and government relations. Also included is information on neighboring tribes such as the Takelma,Klamath, Modoc, Achomawi, Wintu, Chimariko, Hupa, and Karuk. An extensive glossary of words and phrases, a selectedbibliography, black- and-white illustrations, maps, and historical photographs.

WINTU TRADITIONAL STORIES

Masson, Marcelle ed.; Townedolly Grant (informant); Masson, Charles E., Jr., illus. A Bag of Bones: The WintuMyths of a Trinity River Indian. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph; 1966. 130 pages. (secondary).

A collection of fifteen Wintu legends from the son of a Wintu headman, Grant Towendolly. Introductory chapters includeinformation on the Towendolly family, Wintu lifeways, and Shasta Valley topography. This conscientious work, which seeks topreserve Wintu traditions, uses simple, straightforward language in retelling the tales, but the long storylines and references toShasta Valley topography may make this book more interesting for the specialist than for the general reader.

WINTU NON-FICTION

Knudtson, Peter M. The Wintu Indians of California and their Neighbors. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers,Inc.; 1977. 90 pages. (American Indian Map-Book Series; vol. 3). (secondary).

To introduce pre-Contact Wintu culture, this book describes a year within an imaginary northern Wintu village in California.Based on ethnographic studies by Cora DuBois made in the 1930s, these accounts are supplemented with personal conversations theauthor has had with Wintu living in California today. The writing style is romantic. For example, a description of a Wintuwoman making a basket: "Her dark fingers move deftly to an ancient rhythm as she sits in dusty silence beneath the mid-daysun....Her steady hands seem to write in fine strokes of grass and fern, giving exquisite expression to primal and unutterablethoughts." Includes a fold-out map of the Wintu, a glossary, bibliography, and index.



YANA BIOGRAPHIES

Kroeber, Theodora. Ishi, Last of His Tribe. New York, NY: Bantam; 1973. 208 pages. (secondary).

This fictional story is based on the life of Ishi, a Yana of Northern California. Born in the early 1860s, Ishi was found as the lastsurvivor of his people in 1911; he died in 1916 at the Museum of Anthropology, University of California, where he had lived sincethe time he was found. The book "tries to look back on Ishi's life, on the old Yahi world, and the world of the white man as seenthrough Ishi's eyes." Includes a short glossary of Yana words.

Petersen, David. Ishi: The Last of His People. Chicago, IL: Children's Press; 1991. 31 pages. (elementary).

Written for young readers, this short book recounts the life of Ishi, last survivor of a small band of Yana in California. Basedentirely on Theodora Kroeber's biography Ishi In Two Worlds, this book is illustrated with black-and-white archival photographs.Index.

YUKI NON-FICTION

Miller, Virginia. UKOMNO'M: The Yuki Indians of Northern California. Socorro, NM: Baloney Press; 1979. 108pages. (Lowell, John Bean and Thomas C. Blackburn, eds. Baloney Press Anthropological Papers #14).(secondary).

An account of Yuki ethnohistory deals with prehistory and the early post-Contact period, revealing a "campaign of intense genocidewaged against a tribe by a handful of whites who wanted the Indians' mountainous homeland for stockraising." The authordocuments the decimation of the tribe while interpreting the relationship between the Yuki and the settlers as "two entirely opposingways of life and value systems...vying for the same territory which each would exploit in a different way." Illustrated with black-and-white archival photographs.

Patterson, Victoria; Barney, DeAnna; Lincoln, Les; Willits, Skip, eds. The Singing Feather: Tribal Remembrances fromRound Valley. Ukiah, CA: Mendocino Co. Library; 1990. 103 pages. (upper elementary/secondary) *.

A delightful collection of interviews with members of the Covelo Indian Community as part of the Round Valley Oral HistoryProject. When the Round Valley Library Project was funded to create a library in Round Valley, Mendocino County, California,the community expressed interest in including oral history records in the new library: "...they wanted their children and the largercommunity to know something true about Indian life on the reservation." These interviews, along with a history of Round Valleyand the Round Valley Reservation, are interspersed with historical and contemporary black-and-white photographs of thecommunity and the people. Includes an introduction and brief biographies on the Native Round Valley interviewers.



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as110-americancultures

Documents

american people

chief business

american newspapers

american cultures requirement

upper division course

course content structure

course work requirements

brief as110ac course