Overview of Electromagnetic Processingof Materials

Shigeo Asai

Department of Materials, Physics and Energy Engineering, Graduate School ofEngineering, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8603, Japan(c42538a@cc.nagoya-u.ac.jp)

Summary. History of electromagnetic processing of materials (EPM) is describedand several functions utilized in EPM are reviewed. Main activities of EPM aresummarized with the view on mass production and applications of high magneticfields related to nanotechnology. Future trends and prospects of EPM are discussed.

1 Introduction

In a metal industry, electric energy has been used as heat energy for anextended period of time because of cleanliness, high controllability, and highenergy density. Technologies using electric energy have been developed ratherearly and went ahead without sufficient background of scientific understand-ing. Good examples are electromagnetic levitation and electromagnetic mix-ing, which were invented very early, in 1923 and 1932, respectively. To bridgethe gap between the technology and the scientific understanding, Magnetohy-drodynamics (MHD) which had been established by Alfvén in 1942, was firstintroduced at the IUTAM conference entitled “The Application of Magnetohy-drodynamics to Metallurgy”, held in Cambridge, England in 1982 [1]. Beforethe conference, a research laboratory, MADYLAM aiming at the applicationsof MHD, has been established in CNRS in Grenoble, France. Encouragedby the Cambridge symposium, the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan (ISIJ)inaugurated the Committee of Electromagnetic Metallurgy in 1985. The newresearch activity, which began in the iron and steel industry, has grown to holdin 1994 the first International Symposium on Electromagnetic Processing ofMaterials (EPM) in Nagoya, Japan. The term EPM, which has been estab-lished by combining the two channels, metallurgy and MHD, has formallybeen used for the first time at this symposium. Since the first internationalsymposium, it has been held every 3 years in France and Japan alternatively.

Hitherto, the activities of EPM have been devoted to the economicalaspect relating to mass production and nanotechnology aspect of high-quality

S. Molokov et al. (eds.), Magnetohydrodynamics – Historical Evolution and Trends,315–327. c© 2007 Springer.

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materials. Furthermore, EPM activity is spreading into a new area, solvingenvironment problems.

2 Functions of electromagnetism applied to materialsprocessing

Several functions making use of the Lorentz force are applicable to the mate-rials processing as follows. The function of shape controlling is based on themagnetic pressure given as Pm = B2/2µ. The function of fluid driving isinduced by imposing a direct electric current and a magnetic field, F = J×B,or by imposing a traveling magnetic field. The function of flow suppressingappears when applying a direct magnetic field to moving molten metal, basedon the principle of F = σ(v×B)×B. The function of levitating appears whengravity force balances the electromagnetic one, J×B = g. When the electro-magnetic force is much larger than both gravity and the adhesion force due tosurface tension, |J × B| > max{|ρg|, 6σ/a2}, the function of splashing takesplace. The Joule heat, q = |J|2/σ, provides the function of heat generating.

Regarding magnetization force given as (χ/µ) (B · ∇)B and M×B, thereare two kinds of forces available in materials processing. One is the forcepulling ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials to a magnet and repulsingdiamagnetic ones. The other is the force rotating materials to a magnetic fielddirection as a compass rotates to the north direction on Earth.

Figure 1 reveals an overview of the electromagnetic processing of mater-ials as a tree. The roots indicate the academic background supporting thisengineering field as follows:

Electromagnetic

Thermodynamics

ElectromagnetismFluid Mechanics

Magnetohydrodynamics

Materials Processing

Magnetic Science

Transport PhenomenaElectromagneticProcessing ofMaterials

That is, EPM is based on magnetic science, materials processing, andMHD, where the functions of electromagnetism are utilized for processingof materials, including the electrically conductive and non-conductive sub-stances. The branches predict functions of electromagnetism and the leavesin each branch show processes and technologies related to the correspondingfunction as described in the above. Furthermore, the development of super-conducting magnetic technologies has made helium-free superconducting mag-nets available, and this promises to open new fields for practical industrialapplications.

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Fig. 1. A tree of electromagnetic processing of materials

3 EPM in mass productions

The practical application of EPM has begun in the field of economic mass pro-ductions in steel and aluminium industries and a substantially large part ofEPM activities are concentrated in this field at present. Typical examples areelectromagnetic stirring and electromagnetic braking in a mold of a continu-ous casting process of steel. Traveling alternating and static magnetic fieldsare used there, respectively. Stirring has contributed to the improvement inthe surface quality of slabs, while braking has lead to the improvement in theinner quality. Electromagnetic casting (EMC) process invented by Getselev [2]in 1966 is the most significant and successful example in aluminium industry,where a fixed alternating magnetic field with kilohertz frequency is applied tomake use of the function of the shape controlling. Surface defects of cast met-als usually appearing near the surface have been eliminated by non-contactbetween the mold and metal. In 1986, Vives et al. [3] proposed a CREMprocess, in which an alternating magnetic field with commercial frequencywas imposed from the outside of a mold. The experimental result reported bythem was appreciated due to nice surface quality, similar to that in productsof EMC. Being stimulated by this experimental result, several fundamentalresearch works, aiming to apply Vives’s result to a continuous casting processfor steels, started at the Committee of EPM organized by ISIJ. They weretaken over to the International Project involving Japan, France, and Swedenduring the period of 1995−2000. Within this Project, an intermittent alter-nating magnetic field has been developed for casting, and applied from theoutside of a mold. The researchers faced two crucial problems, namely themagnetic decay in a copper mold, and the mold deformation due to thermalstress in the mold. The experimental results have proved that the smooth sur-face is achievable even in steel casts by the new casting. Another success story

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is a casting process of bimetallic slabs [4], where the function of flow suppress-ing in a static magnetic field is used. For melting titanium scraps, a large-scalecold crucible with about 500 kg melting capacity has been developed utilizingthe functions of levitation and heat generation. The process combining a coldcrucible with a precise casting technology has been developed for titanium-alloy products, such as turbochargers and golf clubs [5]. The direct inductionskull melting [6] is another promising technology for melting materials withrather low electrical conductivity, such as silicon and ceramics.

4 Applications of high magnetic fields in EPM

4.1 Classification of functions associated with high magnetic fields

Owing to the development of superconductive technologies, which made highmagnetic fields available within a rather large space even in conventional-scale laboratories, the technologies relating to crystal orientation, structurealignment, and spin chemistry have been introduced in the field of EPM.Table 1 shows the classification of functions accompanied by a high magneticfield in EPM. The high magnetic field enables not only to enhance variousfunctions based on the Lorentz force, but also to induce several functionsbased on the magnetization force. The crystal orientation and the structurealignment in non-magnetic materials are typical examples of the use of themagnetization force.

The possibility of mass transport and mass rotation due to the mag-netization force has been studied for several processes, such as solidifica-tion [7–10], electro-deposition [11], vapour-deposition [12–14], and solid-phasereaction [15]. It is now recognized that the application of a high magnetic fieldis surely useful and promising method in EPM.

Table 1. Utilization of a High Static Magnetic Field in EPM

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4.2 Qualitative evaluation of phase transformation

4.2.1 Principle

Magnetic susceptibility of a mixture with two components is given by theequation

χm = f1χ1 + f2χ2, (1)

where f1 and f2 are fractions of the two components, respectively. In addition,equation

f1 + f2 = 1 (2)

obviously holds.Once the magnetic susceptibility χm is measured, the fractions of compo-

nents in the mixture can be derived from Eqs. (1) and (2) to give:

f1 =χm − χ2

χ1 − χ2, f2 =

χm − χ1

χ2 − χ1. (3)

Here, the magnetic susceptibility can be obtained by the use of Gouymethod [16,17] which is based on the measurement of the magnetization forceFz , namely:

χm =2Lµ0

ms(B2L −B2

0)Fz , (4)

where L and ms are the length and the mass of the specimen, respectively,µ0 is the magnetic permeability, and BL and B0 are magnetic flux densitiesat the top and the bottom of the specimen, respectively. The magnetizationforce Fz can be obtained from the difference between the weights of a specimenmeasured with and without magnetic field.

When we apply the principle to evaluate a phase fraction change duringa phase transformation, we have to measure temperature of the specimen,together with the magnetization force. Then, we need to evaluate the valuesof χ1 and χ2 appearing in Eq. (3) beforehand, since the magnetic susceptibilityis a function of temperature.

4.2.2 Measuring solid fraction during solidification

We can obtain the relationship between the magnetic susceptibility and tem-perature measured during the solidification of an alloy as shown in Fig. 2. Itis found that the magnetic susceptibilities of both solid and liquid phases canbe expressed as a linear function of the temperature around the melting pointwith good approximation. That is, the magnetic susceptibilities in the singlesolid and liquid phases are given by equations

χml = Cl1T + Cl2, (5)

χms = Cs1T + Cs2. (6)

By substituting χml and χms evaluated from Eqs. (5) and (6) intoEq. (3), the relation between the solid fraction and temperature during the

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Fig. 2. Calculation of the solid fraction

Fig. 3. The relation between temperature and solid fraction for zinc (cooling)

solidification of zinc is obtained as shown in Fig. 3. It can be noticed thatthe solid phase of about 50 mass% has precipitated at the point where therecalescence finishes and the temperature starts rising up to the melting point.

The method developed here can be applied to in situ measurement ofvarious phase transformations in solid, liquid, and gas phases, and will promisebetter and deeper understanding of phase transformations and reactions in thenear future.

4.3 Crystal orientation in high magnetic field

4.3.1 Theory of crystal texture control

Recently, it has been found that crystal orientation in materials can be con-trolled by the imposition of high magnetic fields. This principle can be applied

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not only to magnetic materials, but also to non-magnetic materials withasymmetric unit cells [16–26].

When a non-magnetic substance is magnetized in a magnetic field, theenergy for magnetization of the substance is given by the equation

U = −∫ B/µ0

0

MdBin, (7)

where M is the magnetization, B and Bin are the imposed magnetic fluxdensity and the magnetic flux density in the substance, respectively, and µ0

is the permeability in vacuum (4π × 10−7 H/m). The principle of control ofthe crystal orientation using magnetic field is that magnetic torque rotatescrystals to take stable crystal orientation so as to decrease the magnetizationenergy.

Let us consider the crystal structure with magnetic anisotropy, that is, themagnetic susceptibility is different in each crystal direction. The value of themagnetization energy is given by the equation

U = − χ

2µ0 (1 +Nχ)2B2, (8)

which has been derived from Eq. (7). This determines the preferred crystaldirection depending on the magnetic susceptibility of each crystal axis andthe crystal shape. In the above N is the demagnetization factor. Let χc andχa,b represent the c-axis and the a- or b-axis of the magnetic susceptibility,respectively. When χc > χa,b, i.e. Uc < Ua,b, the c-axes of crystals is thepreferred one in parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. In contrast,when χc < χa,b, i.e., Uc > Ua,b, the a- or b-axis of crystals is the preferred onein parallel to the magnetic field. That is, the c-axis of crystals aligns to all ofthe directions in the plane perpendicular to the imposed magnetic field.

Four necessary conditions have to be satisfied for the crystal orientationunder the imposition of a magnetic field. Firstly a unit crystal cell of materialsto be oriented should have magnetic anisotropy. The second is that the mag-netization energy provided by the magnetic field should be higher than thethermal energy to cause thermal perturbation. The third condition is that thematerials should be in the weak constraint medium, in which a particle com-posed by the materials can rotate by such a feeble magnetization force. Thefourth is that each particle composed by a single crystal should be dispersedin the medium.

4.3.2 Vapour-deposition process [13]

A crucible filled with target material of bismuth with 5 nine purity was put intoa vacuum chamber set in the bore of a superconducting magnet generatinga magnetic field of 12 T at the maximum intensity, and a glass plate as asubstrate was set perpendicular to the magnetic field direction at the positionwith the maximum magnetic flux density in the bore. After the degree of

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Fig. 4. The relation between magnetic intensity and facial angle from the c-planein bismuth films

vacuum in the chamber reached a value of 5×10−3 Pa, bismuth in the cruciblewas heated up to 1,073 K by an electric heater.

Figure 4 shows the relation between the magnetic field intensity and thefacial angle θF , the definition of which is given in the reference [27]. Therotation to the a, b-plane increases with the increase in the magnetic fieldintensity. This result agrees with the theoretical prediction based on Eq. (8).

4.3.3 Electro-deposition process

A copper substrate as cathode and a zinc plate as anode were set in a vesselas an electrolytic cell. The magnetic field of 12 T was imposed perpendicularto the cathode substrate plane. The detail of the experimental condition isgiven in [11]. Figure 5 shows the relations between the orientation index andthe imposed magnetic flux density in the electrodeposits obtained at J =700 A/m2. The higher the magnetic field, the more the c-plane orientationis elicited. This result agrees with the theoretical derivation based on themagnetization energy given in Eq. (8).

4.3.4 Applications of magnetic fields in slip casting process

A novel process where a high magnetic field is imposed during slip casting wasproposed to fabricate crystal-orientated ceramics [28, 29]. Here another novelprocess is proposed, in which a specimen is rotated during the slip castingunder a high magnetic field. Figure 6 shows schematically the functions ofthe magnetic field and rotation of crucible. Regarding the substance whosemagnetic susceptibility in the a- or b-axis is higher than that in the c-axis,χc < χa,b, one-directional crystal orientation can not be obtained in a slip

Overview of Electromagnetic Processing of Materials 323

Fig. 5. Relations between magnetic flux density and orientation index of zinc elec-trodeposits obtained at J = 700

Fig. 6. Schematic view of the functions of magnetic field and rotation of a crucibleunder a magnetic field

casting under a high magnetic field, because the free choice of crystal orien-tation exists both in the a- and b-axes. When the magnetic field is imposedon the suspension, the c-axis of particles can align in various directions in theplane perpendicular to the magnetic field direction. When a rotating magneticfield is imposed on a fixed specimen, the c-axis of particles will be perpendic-ular to the plane in which the magnetic field is rotating. From the viewpointof relative motion, the condition whereby the specimen is fixed and the mag-netic field rotates is equivalent to the case where the specimen rotates ina fixed magnetic field. It is suggested that in this configuration the c-axis ofparticles will align to the direction of gravity. The usefulness of the newly pro-posed process has been confirmed in fabrication of Si3N4 ceramics. In order

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Fig. 7. SEM micrographs of specimens made of α-Si3N4 powder with β-Si3N4 seeds:(a), (b) without magnetic field; (c), (d) with magnetic field of 10 T under rotationof crucible

to examine the effect of rotation, green samples have been prepared by rotat-ing under the magnetic field of 10 T. Moreover, for the sake of comparison,another sample has also been made without the magnetic field. After drying,the green samples were embedded in powder bed of 60 wt % Si3N4 + 40 wt %BN set in a graphite crucible and maintained at 1800oC for 1.5 h in N2 with-out a magnetic field. Figure 7 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM)micrograph of the polished surfaces of specimen. It can be seen in Figs. 7a, bthat β-Si3N4 rod grains appear randomly distributed in the specimen, whichhas been prepared without the exposure to the magnetic field. In the case ofthe specimen prepared with the rotation under the magnetic field, a highlytextured material has been obtained as shown in Figs. 7c, d.

4.3.5 Crystal orientation in metal solidification

A zinc film (10 × 28 mm2) prepared by dipping a steel plate into a moltenzinc bath was set into a stainless steel pipe, which was inserted from theupper part of a magnet bore. The sample plane was set up at the positionwith the maximum magnetic flux density in the direction either parallel orperpendicular to the magnetic field. A thermocouple was inserted throughthe midair part of the stainless steel pipe and the temperature of the samplewas measured by the thermocouple connected with the plane. The cruciblewas filled with argon gas to prevent the oxidation of the sample and the

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Fig. 8. X-ray diffraction patterns of zinc

temperature was kept in liquid and solid zone of zinc for 3 min. Then thefurnace was cooled down.

The diffraction pattern of x-rays on the samples, which were exposed tothe magnetic field in perpendicular and parallel directions is shown in Fig. 8aand b, respectively. In Fig. 8a, the peak (101) plane was detected stronger inthe sample obtained with no magnetic field imposed. On the other hand, whenthe magnetic field of 12 T was imposed, the peak (101) decreased, and thepeak (002) corresponding to the c-plane appeared stronger. The diffractionpattern of x-rays on the sample to which the magnetic field was imposed inparallel is shown in Fig. 8b. The peak (101) detected stronger in the sampleobtained with no magnetic field, the same as the previous result shown inFig. 8a. However, when the magnetic field of 12 T was imposed, the peak(101) decreased, and the peak (100) corresponding to the a, b-plane appearedstronger. That is, regardless of the direction of the imposed magnetic field, thezinc crystals aligned in the direction predicted by the magnetization energymentioned before.

5 Future prospects for EPM

Concerning the future prospects for EPM, both the research trends andindustrial applications should be mentioned. One of the most crucial aspectsfor the former is to find new functions, which are implied by the imposi-tion of electric and magnetic fields. Stirring of molten metals, suppressingliquid metal motion, heating metals, levitating metals, and separating non-conductive materials in a conducting medium, etc., are well-known functionsbased on the Lorentz force. Aligning crystal orientation and transportingmaterials are the other well-known functions based on the magnetization force.Recently, the introduction of high magnetic fields into EPM has provided

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several new functions, such as generating micro-eddy motion, the so-calledmicro-MHD effect [30], and patterning of non-conductive particles [31], whichwere found in the interaction between the electro-deposition reactions andthe Lorentz force. On the other hand, enhancing crystal orientation in sin-tering process [32, 33], shifting solid–solid phase transformation [34], crystalorientation during its transformation [35], and self-assembling and pattern-ing of particles [36] are new functions, which have been explained using themagnetization energy or the polarization effect.

Hitherto, industrial applications have concentrated on applications of func-tions related to the Lorentz force. The functions of the magnetization forceinduced by high magnetic fields, have scarcely been seen in practical appli-cations. The functions based on the Lorentz force, such as stirring of moltenmetals induced by traveling or alternating magnetic fields, suppressing moltenmetal motion by static magnetic fields, and heating metals by high frequencymagnetic fields, have been used in metal industries for a long time. In 1990s,cold crucible technology based on the functions of levitating and heating,which was invented in 1920, was redeveloped for a great demand of chemi-cally reactive metals, and for metals with high meting point, such as titaniumand silicon. In this technology, scaling up and the development of ejectingmethod of a molten metal are main topics for the 2000s. The cold cruciblewith the capacity of up to 500 kg has been developed in Japan [37], but thefull success story of the ejecting method has not been seen yet. The tech-nology of soft-contacting solidification, whereby an alternating magnetic fieldis imposed from outside of continuous casting mold to reduce the pressurebetween the mold and a molten metal, and to provide the reduction of cool-ing rate, was developed in a steel industry in the middle of 1990s. It is goingto be applied to continuous casting of metals with low latent heat per vol-ume, such as aluminium and magnesium. The unstable solidification will bereasonably prevented by the surface heating effect induced by high-frequencymagnetic field.

The activities in EPM are also spreading into a new area of solving envi-ronmental problems.

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