Asian Religious

Art and Architecture

Buddhism and Hinduism

Where have we been?

Where are we now?

The Indus Valley • At about the same time that the GreatPyramids were rising in Egypt andcomparable developments were takingplace in Mesopotamia, a third greatcivilization was taking shape on whattoday we call the Indian subcontinent.

• The Indus Valley Civilization developedalong the Indus river and its tributaries inpresent-day Pakistan, beyond the northwestborder of India.

• In this map the Indus river system has beenhighlighted in red. This area came to beknown as the Punjab, meaning literally thearea of the "five rivers," the five principlerivers seen here, the Indus itself being thewesternmost.

• The impressive architectural, sculptural,and pottery remains of early Indus Valleycivilizations were but a prelude to thedevelopment of a rich and varied culture inthis land.

Yaksha and Yakshi

• Indian figures symbolic of fertility

and procreation.

• Yaksha figures are males

• Yakshi figures are female

Yakshi

• A Yakshi relates female beauty and abundance to thegenerosity of the gods and workings of dharma inthe world.

• Yakshi from the Maurya Period

– c. 250BCE

• Comparison with Woman from Willendorf

– c. 22,000 BCE

The Development of Buddhism

5th and 4th Century BCE, India

• The fifth and fourthcenturies BCE. were atime of worldwideintellectual ferment.

• It was an age of greatthinkers, such as Socratesand Plato, Confucius andLaozi.

• In India, it was the age ofthe Buddha, after whosedeath a religion developedthat eventually spread farbeyond his homeland.

Lunette with Buddha surrounded by adorants,

5th–6th century

Hadda, Afghanistan

Stucco; H. 16 1/2 in.

Buddhism• Siddhartha, the prince who was to become the

Buddha, was born into the royal family of asmall kingdom in the Himalayan foothills.

• His was a divine conception and miraculousbirth.

• Wise men predicted that he would become auniversal conqueror, either of the physicalworld or of men's minds.

• It was the latter conquest that came to pass.

• Giving up the pleasures of the palace to seek thetrue purpose of life, Siddhartha first tried thepath of severe asceticism, only to abandon itafter six years as a futile exercise.

• He then sat down in yogic meditation beneath abodhi tree until he achieved enlightenment.

• He was known henceforth as the Buddha, or"Enlightened One.”

• His is the Middle Path, rejecting both luxuryand asceticism.

Buddhist Philosophy

• Buddhism proposes a life of good thoughts,

good intentions, and straight living, all with the

ultimate aim of achieving nirvana, release from

earthly existence.

• For most beings, nirvana lies in the distant

future, because Buddhism, like other faiths of

India, believes in a cycle of rebirth.

• Humans are born many times on earth, each

time with the opportunity to perfect themselves

further.

• And it is their own karma-the sum total of

deeds, good and bad-that determines the

circumstances of a future birth.

• The Buddha spent the remaining forty years of

his life preaching his faith and making vast

numbers of converts.

• When he died, his body was cremated, as was

customary in India.

Stupas

• After his death, the cremated relics of the

Buddha were divided into several portions and

placed in relic caskets that were interred within

large hemispherical mounds known as stupas.

• Such stupas constitute the central monument of

Buddhist monastic complexes.

• They attract pilgrims from far and wide who

come to experience the unseen presence of the

Buddha.

• Stupas are enclosed by a railing that provides a

path for ritual circumambulation.

• The sacred area is entered through gateways,

toranas, at the four cardinal points

• One of the greatest stupas in the world is at

Sanchi in Central India. (left), was built by the

great Mauyra Emperor Ashoka

Emperor Ashoka

• Ashoka Maurya (273 - 236 BCE) wasthe most famous of the Buddhist rulersof India.

• A dozen years or so after he began hisreign, about 258 BCE, he became aconvert to Buddhism.

• He was a great administrator and agreat builder.

• His empire encompassed the whole ofIndia and Afghanistan.

• His doctrine was less concerned withthe analytic aspects of Buddhism anddwelled exclusively on ethics.

• He dispatched missionaries to otherparts of India as well as Ceylon, Syria,Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia, and Epirus.

• It is due to Ashoka that Buddhismbecame, and long remained, thepredominant religion of India.

Maurya Period

• First great Indian empire.

• Rulers controlled most of modern-day

Pakistan and India.

• Age of Alexander and Emperor

Ashoka.

• Ashoka became a convert to Buddhism

when he witnessed a massive slaughter

on the battlefield, while ruthlessly

invading a neighboring Indian kingdom

in 260 BCE.

• In all, Ashoka built 84,000 stupas

across his empire to house the many

sacred relics of Gautama Buddha.

• The magnificent lion pillar,left, at

Sarnath is a lasting testimonial to the

emperor's miraculous change of heart.

• The foundation of this important center at Sanchi was laid by the Emperor

Ashoka when he built a stupa and erected a monolithic pillar here. Ashoka

built a total of eight stupas on the hilltop of Sanchi including the Great Stupa,

above. A great number of stupas and other religious structures were added

over the succeeding centuries.

• The stupa is the most characteristic

monument of Buddhist India. Originally

stupas were mounds covering the relics

of the Buddha or his followers.

• In its earliest stages Buddhist art didn't

represent the Buddha directly. Instead, his

presence was alluded to through symbols

such as the bo tree, the wheel of law or his

footprint.

• The stupa also became a symbol of the

Buddha.

• More exactly, it became a symbol of his

final release from the cycle of birth and

rebirth -- the Parinirvana or the "Final

Dying."

Mandala

• Mandala is Sanskrit for circle, polygon,community, connection.

• Stupa floor plans were often based ona mandala.

• The mandala is often illustrated as apalace with four gates, facing the fourcorners of the Earth.

• The Mandala centre is often a lotusblossom with eight petals, resting on abed of jewels.

• In the next ring are the walls of thepalace with gates towards the fourcorners of the earth.

• The gates are guarded by four angrydoorkeepers.

• Before the meditating person arrives atthe gates, she must, however, pass thefour outer circles.

• Painted Mandala on the ceiling of a stupa in Katmandu, Tibet

Evolution of Buddhist Architecture

• In the first century CE, India's

artists, who had worked in the

perishable media of brick, wood,

thatch, and bamboo, adopted

stone on a very wide scale.

• Stone railings and gateways,

covered with relief sculptures,

were added to stupas.

• Favorite themes were events

from the historic life of the

Buddha, as well as from his

previous lives, which were

believed to number 550.

• The latter tales are called

jatakas and often include

popular legends adapted to

Buddhist teachings.

One face of a fence-rail from Bharhut: Worship at a Stupa

Madhya Pradesh, India

Shunga dynasty, early 2nd century CE

Sandstone

18 11/16 x 20 7/16 x 3 1/8 in.

Purchase, Freer Gallery of Art

Scenes from the Life of the Buddha

Gandhara, Pakistan 2nd century CE

This frieze is one of the earliest pictorial narratives of the Buddha’s life.

At the left, Queen Maya gives birth to Price Siddhartha, the future Buddha,

who emerges from her hip.

Here the Buddha, seated in the Deer Park at Sarnath with his right hand raised in a

gesture of blessing, preaches his first sermon, in which he reveals the eight fold path.

In the next scene, the Buddha sits beneath the Bodhi tree while soldiers and

demons of the evil Mara attempt to distract him from his quest for knowledge,

but they are unsuccessful.

In the final scene, the Buddha lies dying among the devotees, who wail in grief, except

for the meditating monk, who realizes that Buddha has achieved nirvana and release

from suffering.

• Remember this the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus

• Marble ca. 359

• Note the similarities

Christian versus Buddhist Imagery

Both influenced by the Greco-Roman Style.

Symbols of the Buddha

• In the earliest Buddhist art of India,

the Buddha was not represented in

human form.

• His presence was indicated instead by

a sign, such as a pair of footprints, an

empty seat, or an empty space

beneath a parasol.

Iconography of the Buddha

• Many cultures have guidelines or

conventions regarding iconography.

• By looking at the iconography of a

non-western culture we gain a more

complete view of the concept.

• All the fingers and toes are of the

same extended length

• Long aquiline nose

• Elongated ears (from wearing jewelry

as a prince)

• Protuberance in the top of the head

(symbolizing great mental power and

the soul’s loose attachment to the

body)

• Broad shoulders

Three Representations of Buddha

Gandhara, Mathara and Gupta Styles

The Gandhara Style

or Hellenistic Buddha

• In the first century CE, the human image

of one Buddha came to dominate the

artistic scene, and one of the first sites at

which this occurred was along India's

northwestern frontier.

• In the area known as Gandhara, artistic

elements from the Hellenistic world

combined with the symbolism needed to

express Indian Buddhism to create a

unique style.

• Youthful Buddhas with hair arranged in

wavy curls resemble Roman statues of

Apollo; the monastic robe covering both

shoulders if arranged in heavy classical

folds, reminiscent of a Roman toga.

Bodhisattva

• There are also many representations of

Siddhartha as a princely bejeweled figure

prior to his renunciation of palace life.

• Buddhism evolved the concept of a Buddha

of the Future, depicted in art both as a

Buddha clad in a monastic robe and as a

princely Bodhisattva before enlightenment.

• Gandharan artists made use of both stone

and stucco to produce such images, which

were placed in niche like shrines around the

stupa of a monastery.

Mathura Style

• Contemporaneously, the Kushan-

period artists in Mathura, India,

produced a different image of the

Buddha.

• His body was expanded by sacred

breath (prana), and his clinging

monastic robe was draped to leave

the right shoulder bare.

The Gupta Period

The Idealized Buddha

• The succeeding Gupta period, from the fourthto the sixth century CE, in northern India,sometimes referred to as a Golden Age,witnessed the creation of an "ideal image" ofthe Buddha.

• This was achieved by combining selectedtraits from the Gandharan region with thesensuous form created by Mathura artists.

• Gupta Buddhas have their hair arranged intiny individual curls, and the robes have anetwork of strings to suggest drapery folds (asat Mathura), or are transparent.

• With their downward glance and spiritualaura, Gupta Buddhas became the canonicalmodel for future generations of artists.

• Gupta metal images of the Buddha were alsotake by pilgrims along the Silk Road to China.

Gandhara Mathura Gupta

• 1. Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara c.100 CE.

• 2. Buddha in the super hero style of the Mathura period c.300 CE.

• 3. Buddha in the highly stylized Gupta style c. 300 CE.

Mudras

• Dispelling Fear: Hand raised with palm facingoutwards and fingers extended in a universal gestureof protection, benevolence, and peace.

• Teaching: Hand raised with palm facing outwardsand index finger forming a circle with the thumb.

• Teaching the First Sermon: Both hands together atthe chest with fingers on one hand forming a circlerepresenting the “wheel of law” while the other handtouches the wheel to set it in motion (representing thebeginning of Buddhist teaching) Meditation: Handsresting together on the lap. The gesture symbolizesperfect balance of thought and tranquility.

• Calling the Earth to Witness: With palm inwards,the right hand touches the ground and calls the earthto witness the Buddha’s enlightenment. The gesturesymbolizes unshakable faith and resolution and is themost common posture for Southeast Asian templeimages.

• Passage to Nirvana: The reclining Buddha representing the Buddha’s death. The

posture symbolizes complete peace and detachment from the world.

Some Buddhist Terms to Remember

• Buddha

• the “Eight-fold Path”

• Buddhism

• Bodhisattva

• Stupa

• Ttorana (stupa gate)

• Sutra (an account of a sermon or a dialogue involving the Buddha)

• Mudra (hand gestures with particular significance)

• Samsara (the cycle of birth, death and rebirth)

• Nirvana (release from samsara)

• Yaksha and Yakshi (male and female nature spirits)

• Urna (tuft of hair on brow of the Buddha, symbol of divine wisdom)

• Ushnisha (protuberance on the head of Buddha signifying his enlightenment)

• Karma (the totality of one’s actions, good or bad)

• Mandala (a cosmic diagram)

• Circumambulation (walking around of a sacred site, usually a stupa)

Hinduism and Hindu Art

4 Goals of Hinduism

• According to the Hindu view, there are four goals of life on earth, and each human

being should aspire to all four.

– Everyone should aim for dharma, or righteous living;

– artha, or wealth acquired through the pursuit of a profession;

– kama, or human and sexual love;

– and, finally, moksha, or spiritual salvation.

• This holistic view is reflected as well as in the artistic production of India.

• Although a Hindu temple is dedicated to the glory of a deity and is aimed at helping

the devotee toward moksha, its walls might justifiably contain sculptures that reflect

the other three goals of life.

• It is in such a context that we may best understand the many sensuous and

apparently secular themes that decorate the walls of Indian temples.

• The pluralism evident in Hinduism,

as well as its acceptance of the

existence of several deities, is often

puzzling to non-Hindus.

• Hindus suggest that one may view the

Infinite as a diamond of innumerable

facets.

• One or another facet, be it Rama,

Krishna, or Ganesha, may beckon an

individual believer with irresistible

magnetism.

• By acknowledging the power of an

individual facet and worshipping it,

the believer does not thereby deny the

existence of many aspects of the

Infinite and of varied paths toward the

ultimate goal.

Krishna battling the horse demon

Keshi, Gupta period

(ca. 321–500), 5th century

Uttar Pradesh, India

Terracotta; H. 21 x W. 16 in.

Metropolitan Museum, New York

Why so many arms? • Deities are frequentlyportrayed with multiplearms, especially when theyare engaged in combativeacts of cosmic consequencethat involve destroyingpowerful forces of evil.

• The multiplicity of armsemphasizes the immensepower of the deity and his orher ability to perform severalfeats at the same time.

• The Indian artist found this asimple and an effectivemeans of expressing theomnipresence andomnipotence of a deity.

Multiple

Heads

• Demons are frequently portrayed with multiple heads to indicate their superhuman power.

• The occasional depiction of a deity with more than one head is generally motivated by the

desire to portray varying aspects of the character of that deity.

• Thus, when the god Shiva is portrayed with a triple head, the central face indicates his

essential character and the flanking faces depict his fierce and blissful aspects.

The Hindu Temple• Architecture and sculpture are inextricably

linked in India.

• If one speaks of Indian architecture without

taking note of the lavish sculptured

decoration with which monuments are

covered, a partial and distorted picture is

presented.

• In the Hindu temple, large niches in the

three exterior walls of the sanctum house

sculpted images that portray various

aspects of the deity enshrined within.

• The sanctum image expresses the essence of

the deity.

• For instance, the niches of a temple

dedicated to a Vishnu may portray his

incarnations; those of a temple to Shiva, his

various combative feats; and those of a

temple to the Great Goddess, her battles

with various demons

Vishnu Temple, India, early 6th century

One of the first masonry Hindu temples. It is a simple square

building with a tower.

• Vishvanatha Temple, India, c.1000

• It has four towers, each one taller than the preceding one, symbolizing Shiva’s mountain home.

Mithuna releifs, detail of north side of the Vishvanatha Temple, India

Ca. 1000

• The exterior of the halls and porch are

also covered with figural sculpture.

• A series of niches highlight events from

the mythology of the enshrined deity,

and frequently a place is set aside for a

variety of other gods.

• In addition, temple walls feature

repeated banks of scroll-like foliage,

images of women, and loving couples

known as mithunas.

• Signifying growth, abundance, and

prosperity, they were considered

auspicious motifs.

Loving couple (mithuna)

Eastern Ganga dynasty, 13th century

Orissa, India

Ferruginous stone; H. 72 in.

Metropolitan Museum

CompareWhat do you think?

• Sarcophagus and lid with portraits of husband and wife Italic, Etruscan, Late Classical orearly Hellenistic Period, Late 4th early 3rd century B.C. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Loving couple (mithuna)Eastern Ganga dynasty, 13th century, Orissa, IndiaFerruginous stone; H. 72 in.Metropolitan Museum, New York

Vishnu

• Benevolent god

• Works for order and well

being of the world.

• Often represented lying in a

trance or asleep on cosmic

waters.

• Symbols: wheel and conch

shell.

• Often has four arms.

• Wears a crown and lavish

jewelry.

• Rides a man/bird, Garuda.

Shiva

• Unpredictable, has both creative

and destructive side, male and

female, light and dark

• Often in meditation

• Known as a great lover

• Lord of Existence

• Lord of the Dance

• Embodies entire universe

• Associated with the bull

• Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon Manisha

• Rock cut relief, granite,v7th century CE, India

• Hindu warrior goddess who defends civilization against the evil forces in the world.

• The combat symbolizes for Hindus the struggle between order and disorder

• Durga: “She who is difficult to oppose.”

• Durga is a form taken by the supreme Hindu goddess, Devi.

• Durga is often depicted riding a lion; wielding weapons in her eight arms.

• She leads an army of dwarves in attacking the buffalo demon, Manisha.

• Durga is empowered with weapons given to her by the male Hindu gods, who

urged her to battle Manisha

• Slender and graceful Durga defeats the larger more powerful Manisha, symbolizing

the power of good over evil.

Devi

• Devi is the Divine Mother of the Hinduculture.

• Her name means "goddess."

• She has many names and forms such asthe warrior Durghaand the bloodthirstyKali or she can be gentle as Parvatimother of the elephant god Ganesh.

• Devi is the consort (wife) of Shiva

• Devi is the "Mother Goddess,"meaning she is the mother of all.

• In her hands she holds joy and pain,right hand; and life and death is held onher left hand.

• Devi is the god of nature and lifebecause she brings rain and protectsagainst disease.

Brahma• Brahma is the first god in the Hindu

triumvirate with Shiva and Vishnu.

• He is regarded as the senior god and hisjob was creation.

• He should not be mistaken with Brahman,who is the supreme God of all.

• Brahma is the least outwardly worshippedgod in Hinduism today, and there are onlytwo temples in the whole of India devotedto him, compared with the manythousands devoted to the other two.

• Brahma has four heads and it is believedthat from these four heads came the fourVedas (the most ancient religious textswhich define truth for Hindus).

• Some also believe that the caste system,or four varnas, came from different part ofBrahma's body.

• BBC/Religion & Ethics:http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/deities

• Janson, History of Art, Abrams 2001

• Marilyn Stockstad’s Art History: Second Edition (Volumes one and two)

• Metropolitan Museum of Art’s “Timeline of Art History.” Available online athttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/splash.htm

• Strickland, Carol. The Annotated Mona Lisa. 1992

• “The Web Gallery of Art.” Available online at http://www.wga.hu

• http://www.artchive.com/artchive/E/el_greco.html