asian urban forum brochure green cities

8/11/2019 Asian Urban Forum Brochure Green Cities

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Livable and Sustainable Cities in Asia

Green Cities


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Green Cities

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Asia is urbanizing at an unprecedented pace.

In 1950, Asia was predominantly rural, with

only 17% of its 1.4 billion people living in

towns or cities. By mid-2022, the urban population

will surpass that of rural areas, and the United Nations

(2004) estimates that by 2030, 55% of Asians, or

2.7 billion people, will live in urban areas (Figure 1).

From 2015 onward, effectively all of the regionspopulation increase will occur in urban areas.

Cities occupy only 2% of the worlds land but

consume 75% of the planets resources and generate

a similar percentage of waste, including air pollution,

solid waste, and toxic effluents (Girardet 1996).

Activities within cities and to service cities produce

Green CitiesLivable and Sustainable Cities for Asia

Figure 1 Asias Urban and Rural Population

(19502030)

Source: Computations based on figures from World UrbanizationProspects: The 2003 Revision. United Nations. 2004.

0

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

1950 1975 2000 2015 2030

Rural Urban

Year

Po p

ulation

(billion

)


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in Jakarta, Indonesia, exceeds perhaps

$1 billion per year, whereas the cost in

Bangkok, Thailand, is more than $2 billion.

Air pollution alone can have an estimated

2%4% negative impact on gross domestic

product (GDP). For example, the province of

Ontario, Canada, estimates that air pollution

costs its 12 million residents at least $1 billion

annually in hospital admissions, emergency

room visits, and worker absenteeism (Ontario

Medical Association 2000). In the Peoples

Republic of Chinahome to some of the

most polluted air in the worlddeaths

and illnesses of urban residents due to air

pollution cost an estimated 5% of GDP

(Sheram and Soubbotina 2000). Likewise, a

World Health Organization study of Austria,

France, and Switzerland found that health

costs from traffic pollution amounted to

approximately 1.7% of GDP, dramatically

more than the cost of treating injuries from

traffic accidents (CNN 2000).

Pollution Cost:Air pollution alone canhave an estimated 2%4%negative impact on grossdomestic product

nearly 80% of greenhouse gases, such as

carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxide,

which contribute to global climate change

and rising sea levels. Urban expansion and

the associated destruction of forests and

vegetation also have a strong effect on

climate. If urban areas in the developing

world grow unchecked, their environmental

impact will be catastrophic (Pearce 2006).

The economic, health, and other costs of

environmental degradation are already

high. According to Brandon and Ramankutty

(1994), the cost of air and water pollution

ThePoorare

MostVulnerable


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Rising sea levels are a particularly pressing

outcome of global warming and, according

to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, worldwide sea level is expected to

increase by 888 centimeters during the 21st

century (Watson 2001). Many of Asias largest

cities are located on or close to the shore, and

vulnerable cities include Bangkok; Chennai,

India; Dhaka, Bangladesh; Jakarta; and Tianjin,

Peoples Republic of China. Global warming

also means more violent weather, which

heavily affects those living in poor quality

housing and informal settlements.

Asias rapid urban growth has thus wrought

massive environmental problems, and the

poor, who are most vulnerable to declining

environmental quality and climate change,

face aggravated poverty and deepening

environmental squalor. But urban economic

growth has also improved living standards

and brought millions out of poverty. A key

challenge, therefore, is to maintain economic

growth and improved living standards while

addressing environmental sustainability,

climate change, and environmental damage

from urban production, consumption, and

waste generation.

Supply-side approaches, such as burning

clean coal in the industrial sector; increasing

the use of natural gas; developing mass

public transport; and introducing regulations,

fees, and targeted subsidies, have not been

encouraging so far, with failures especially

apparent in efforts to reduce demand.

However, cities can, and should become,

better places for everyone to live, with

Many of Asias largest citiesare vulnerablelocated onor close to the shore


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Cities can protect theenvironment through

integrated developmentof low-carbon buildings,industry, and transport

more green spaces and less air and water

pollution. The global environment must be

protected by encouraging lower emissions

of greenhouse gases. Sustainable butaffordable urban development represents

a dramatic shift from focusing on economic

growth to focusing on quality of life. This

can be accomplished. Better planning and

new technology can substantially reduce the

demand for fossil fuels without adversely

affecting quality of life.

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Healing the Urban Environment

Any future urban model must be

sustainable. Economies must thrive, and

people have the right to earn a living.

However, future cities will have to be

significantly more environmentally friendly,

and to this end, Asian cities are turning

to green urban development. Green

urban development focuses on reducing

the energy consumption of buildings,

industries, and transportation. The six keyelements of green city investments are

low-carbon transport; green industry;

energy-efficient building; city greening;

green, resilient infrastructure; and

intelligent systems (Figure 2).

Support to Low-Carbon

Transport

Green

Industry

Complex

Energy-Efficient

Buildings

Green,

Resilient

Infrastructure

City

Greening

Intelligent

Systems

Figure 2 Green City Investments

Source: Asian Development Bank.

Green Cities

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Low-Carbon Transport

The most practical approach to creating

sustainable cities is to influence the scale,

location, and type of land development

and its integration with transport. Without

access, there is no development, and

thus the transportation network can be

highly effective in guiding growth. Yet city

authorities rarely deploy their authority to

manage land or to develop roads as a way

to manage growth. To guide development,

governments can construct infrastructure,

particularly for water, transport,

and housing.

The first step, therefore, is to create links

between planning and implementation.

This requires a strong planning process that

includes representatives from national and

city governments, public works departments,

major developers, and civil society. The second

step is to develop area road networks (both

arterial and secondary) in fringe areas

where development is desired. Design and

construction guidelines in these areas should

be consistent with the needs and means

of future occupants, including low-income

groups. Efficient public transport reduces

pollution and should be provided from the

outset. The use of zero-emission vehicles and

bicycles should be encouraged, and private

cars should be kept out of city centers.

Green Industry

Cities with effective recycling schemes can

recycle up to 75% of household waste, but

manufacturing and construction activities

generate four times as much waste as

households (Girardet 1996). One way to

overcome this problem is to mimic nature,

IntegratedPublicTransportandDenserLandUseHelpSaveEnergyandthePlanet


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Well-designed builtenvironment can encourageairflow for passive coolingand reduced energy loads

building capacity for CE implementation

and monitoring through enhanced

training and dissemination of local and

international experience; and

strengthening governance by

establishing high-level leadership,

coordinating CE efforts across sectors

and ministries, and promoting and

enforcing private CE activity rather than

directly implementing such activity

(World Bank 2007).

For example, Japans Kitakyushu Eco-Town

has created an extensive range of recyclingand environmental industries covering a

large number of materials and products, from

plastic, paper, and metal to office equipment,

vehicles, construction waste, and solvents.

Energy-Efficient Building

Solar energy is becoming less expensive,

and solar electric roof tiles could make

buildings largely self-sufficient. Another

option is simply to use less power; electricity

consumption could be cut by more than60% by adopting existing eco-friendly

devices and practices.

The incentives for more energy-efficient

building and behavior must come both from

national and local government policies. In

addition to transport and land-use initiatives,

cities can act to reduce individual energy

use through planning; encourage energy

alternatives, such as wind and solar power;

support the development and use of efficient

transport technologies; and encourage the

adoption of energy-efficient development,

housing, and construction materials. Much

of the agenda can be accomplished orencouraged through appropriate utility

pricing and property taxes, as well as through

building regulations attuned to sustainability.

From an environmental perspective, building

codes should aim to maintain densities,

encourage the use of natural light and the

harvesting of water, utilize alternative energy,

and deal adequately with wastewater. Asias

building codesoften based on those of

countries with different climates and physicaland social environmentsmust become more

appropriate to the needs of dense, rapidly

growing, largely tropical or subtropical cities.

One example of encouraging innovation in

the quest for more sustainable buildings is

the U.S. Green Building Councils Leadership

in Energy and Environmental Design Green

Building Rating System. This voluntary,

consensus-based rating system encourages

builders to adopt accepted benchmarks for

the design, construction, and operation of

sustainable buildings. Such buildings have

lower operating costs and increased asset

value, reduce waste and greenhouse gas

emissions, and conserve energy and water.

A similar approach could be adopted

in Asian cities, beginning with national,

provincial, and local governments, which

should develop their own new buildings

according to the highest green standards

and should rate their existing buildings with

a view to later upgrades. Private developers

should be encouraged to do likewise, and

local governments should undertake the

evaluation of the building stock with an eye

toward further improvement.


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City Greening

As the climate heats up, city planners will

be challenged to create compact, cool

communities with natural amenities thatoffer alternatives to urban sprawl and its

consequences. Wind affects temperature,

rates of evaporative cooling, and plant

transpiration, and thus, is an important

factor in implementing district-wide passive

cooling strategies at a microclimate level.

The built environment can encourage airflow

for passive cooling and reduced energy

loads. Parks, green roofs, and water bodies

can accentuate the cooling effect of wind,

and the alignment and design of streets canreinforce both external and passive cooling.

For example, streets in Abu Dhabis

Masdar development and in the planned

redevelopment of Thanh Hoa, Viet Nam,

encourage air circulation, fresh air distribution,

and microclimate protection (Raven 2010).

Parks and open plazas are vital components

of such designs. Trees absorb carbon and

sulfur emissions, filter dust, cool the urban

environment, produce oxygen, and helpreduce carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.

About 30% of the worlds land is presently

used for agriculture, and farming has

radically altered the natural landscape

and ecosystems. Rapid population growth

requires more land for food, but land is no

longer available. Alternative approaches

to food production aim to avoid further

encroachment on remaining functioning

ecosystems while also increasing a citysbiodiversity and resilience. Instead of

trucking or flying produce in, for instance,

produce can be grown in the city. Shanghai,

for example, is almost self-sufficient

in vegetables and grain, and growing

vegetables on empty urban lots and

on rooftops is popular in Berlin and New York.


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Intelligent Systems

The use of information and communication

technologies can improve information

and service delivery; encourage citizenparticipation; and make government more

accountable, transparent, and effective.

Such systems integrate green infrastructure,

increase efficiencies and cost recovery,

improve service delivery, and enable cross-

sector synergies. For example, efficient

transport and higher-density building

development provide energy efficiency

benefits while yielding higher taxes. As such,

these systems represent the backbone of

a green city.

Traditionally, the interaction between a

citizen or business and government occurred

in a public office. Now, information and

communication technologies make it possible

to locate service facilities much closer to clients,

whether through a kiosk in a government

agency or through a users personal computer.Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu, India, for example,

employs a number of e-governance initiatives,

including systems to track the condition

of streetlights and the status of garbage

collection; to monitor legal cases, land records,

and town planning; and to address complaints

or collect taxes and fees.

Efficient transport and

higher-density buildingdevelopment provideenergy efficiency benefitswhile yielding higher taxes


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Financing Sustainable Cities

tradable rightsto use a quantity of

a resource (usually water) and the

establishment of a market for such rights;

marketable permitsentitling an entity

to treat its waste and sell its permit, or

to not treat its waste and purchase

more permits;

employers taxeson all but small

employers;

joint developmentthrough public

private partnerships;

tax-increment financing,in which a

portion of tax revenues resulting from

improvements is earmarked to repay the

cost of those improvements; and

refund systemsfor commodities

packaged in nonreturnable containers,

to ensure that these are returned for

proper disposal or reuse.

Leverage Private Sector Financing

Private sector participation must be

supported by effective, independent

regulation to resolve the risks associated

with a purely private sector, laissez-faire

approach to basic commodities, such as

water and energy. The regulatory regime

must contain provisions for a fair service

price, sustainable service provision, and

protection of distributional objectives.

Contracts should clearly specify that

funding for any public service obligation

of the provider, such as lower prices

for the poor, is guaranteed by

the government.

The regulatory regime

must contain provisionsfor a fair service price,sustainable serviceprovision, and protectionof distributional objectives

Acity can finance its sustainable

services by maximizing existing

revenue sources and locating

potential new ones, by leveraging

additional resources from the private sector,

and by accessing international and local

funding to support the development of

green investments.

Maximize Conventional FinanceAside from collecting all mandated taxes,

there are several additional areas where

cities may bolster financing, including

user chargesthat cover the full cost of

services, such as water and electricity,

including the cost of providing the

supply and of damages caused by usage,

and the opportunity cost of taking the

resource from other potential users,

including the ecosystem; emission (effluent) chargesbased on

quality or quantity of waste (usually

wastewater);

product chargeson products that

pollute surface or groundwater during or

after consumption, based on the actual

value of damages caused by their use;


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viability and nonviability. Examples include

the following:

The Clean Development Mechanism,

defined in the Kyoto Protocol, is designed

to fund greenhouse gas reduction

through energy efficiency projects or

through such emerging bilateral cap-

and-trade systems as Japans New Clean

Development Mechanism or the Republic

of Koreas Emission Reduction Scheme.

Climate Investment Fundsoffer

financing to improve fuel economy

standards, accelerate fuel switching,

and promote shifts to public transportin large metropolitan areas.

There is also is a need to explore the

unbundling of commercially viable or

contestable infrastructure components (which

can involve the private sector in financing)from components that must be government

funded. For instance, water treatment plants

can be unbundled from the piped network in

a water system.

Funding for Green Investment

There are now many different modes

of financing for climate change and

environmental projects. These usually

supplement other financing sources and

rarely cover the full cost of an investment,but they can make the difference between


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The Global Environment Facility

is a partnership of 182 countries

and international institutions,

nongovernment organizations, andthe private sector to address global

environmental issues. Since 1991, it has

allocated $9.2 billion, supplemented by

more than $40 billion in cofinancing.

The Clean Energy Financing Partnership

Facilityaims to help developing countries

achieve significant, measurable change in

their energy consumption patterns while

securing a low-carbon future. It funds

energy efficiency investments, financessome technology transfer costs, and

provides grant assistance for activities,

such as technology development.

Ethical fundspool the money of

hundreds of investors into a single fund

which, in turn, invests in the stock market.

The choice of investments is influenced

by a range of social, environmental, or

other ethical considerations, and funds

employ various criteria to exclude or

include a company in a portfolio.

Export credit agenciesare government

agencies that promote national exports

by financing transactions when private

financing is not availableoften because

of unacceptably high risks, such as for

innovative but unproven clean technologies.

Such agencies account for $50 billion to

$70 billion of financing annually, supporting

large industrial and infrastructure projects in

developing countries (Norlen et al. 2002).

Urban Financing Partnership Facility

of the Asian Development Bank (ADB)

was established to raise and utilize

development partner funds for the

cofinancing of urban environmental

infrastructure projects and a wide range

of technical assistance to help lay the

groundwork for such projects. It supports

investment in climate change mitigation

and local urban infrastructure projectsthat benefit the poor.

All of these elements can be used in

structuring the financing of a project, and

ADB can help in this. For instance, the Cities

Development Initiative for Asia, a partnership

between ADB and a number of development

agencies, has focused its activity specifically

in this area.

ADB will help nationaland city governments todevelop networks that willstrengthen collaborationbetween businesses andgovernment in this field


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References

Brandon, C., and R. Ramankutty. 1994. As Asia

Urbanizes, Pollution Problems Grow Even

More Urgent. International Herald Tribune.4 January.

CNN. 2000. Traffic Pollution Kills Thousands EveryYear. 1 September.

Despommier, D. 2009. The Vertical Farm:Reducing the Impact of Agriculture

on Ecosystem Functions and Services.Available at www.verticalfarm.com/more?essay1&bcsi_scan_B90AE85AF6AB15

C6=b6rzsENyrxrIrRZhDiYvXBwAAAA0tUo1

Girardet, H. 1996. Giant Footprints. Our Planet.

8 (1). pp. 2123.

Norlen, D., R. Cox, M. Kim, and C. Glazebrook.2002. Unusual Suspects: Unearthing the

Shadowy World of Export Credit Agencies.ECA Watch.

Ontario Medical Association. 2000. Illness Costs

of Air Pollution in Ontario. Toronto, Canada.

Pearce, F. 2006. Eco-Cities Special: Ecopolis Now.New Scientist. June.

Raven, J. 2010. Climate Resilient Urban Design.Paper presented at the Resilient Cities

Congress 2010, Bonn, Germany,

27 May 2010.

Sheram, K., and T. Soubbotina. 2000. Urban Air

Pollution. In Beyond Economic Growth:An Introduction to Sustainable Development.

Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

United Nations. 2004. World UrbanizationProspects: The2003 Revision. New York.

Watson, R. T. 2001. Climate Change 2001. Paperpresented at the resumed Sixth Conference

of Parties to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change, Bonn,

Germany, 19 July 2001.World Bank. 2007. Study on Policies for Promoting

Circular Economy in China. New York.

public transport, encourage non-

motorized transport, and discourage

the use of cars for the daily commute.

Building construction and resilient,energy-ecient infrastructure.

Through zoning codes, building

codes, and the permitting process,

municipalities can encourage building

and neighborhood designs that save

energy and resources and adopt

infrastructure designs that are more

efficientusually both in financial, as

well as energy terms. Plan for climate

resilience when planning infrastructure.

Local economic activity.Municipaleconomic development initiatives are

opportunities to encourage development

in low-energy, zero-carbon directions, by

both incentive and example. In particular,

local 3Rreduce, reuse, recycleplans

should be encouraged to make both

households and industry more efficient.

Efficient logistics both saves money for

business and the environment.

ADB will help national and city governments to

better target investments on capacity

development that will support the

Green City investments set out above;

work collaboratively to identify critical

strategic infrastructure projects that will

enhance the environmental and climate

performance of cities in the region;

build partnerships among development

assistance agencies, the private sector,

and governments to provide incentives

for improved performance; and

develop networks that will strengthen

collaboration between businesses and

government in this field.Photographs on pp. 1, 5, and 15 by AFP; on pp. 2 (left), and 4 (left) by

ADB; on pp. 2 (center), 34, 9, by F. Steinberg; p. 13, ADB. 2008. Managing

Asian Cities. Manila.


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Asia shares a vision of one day making all its cities livable. The knowledge and financialresources needed to realize that vision exist. But if the challenges of climate change andpollution are to be met, it is essential that we reduce energy demand in cities, and reduce theundesirable environmental impacts associated with energy production. It is also necessaryto address the pollution of watersheds and the air. To achieve this, we must manageurbanization, city form, design, development density industry and logistics systems moreefficiently and effectively.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADBs vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developingmember countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite theregions many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the worlds poor: 1.8 billion peoplewho live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB iscommitted to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentallysustainable growth, and regional integration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its maininstruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equityinvestments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgPublication Stock No. ARM102658

Printed in the PhilippinesPrinted on recycled paper

asian urban forum brochure green cities

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