askscience issue 01

8/10/2019 Askscience Issue 01

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AskScience

QuarterlyOctober 2014Issue 1

Menstruation,

Algae,Eyeand the human

carbon fighting

in the dark

chemistry ofthe brain


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AskScience Quarterly

October 2014Issue 1Version 34

Neurotransmitter GABA and neurosteroid proges-

terone molecules outside a phospholipid bilayer.

what causes the psychological changes seen during pms?by Dr. William MK ConnellyCardiff School o Biosciences, Cardiff University, United Kingdom

how can algae be used to combat climate change?by /u/patchgrabber

how does the human eye adapt to the dark?by Demetri PananosDepartment o Applied Mathematics, Western University

is mathematics discovered or invented?by various authors

tiny dinosaursMeet Wallace and Charlie

AskScience Group (vectorized by Jesse Griggs)

/u/AsAChemicalEngineer, /u/StringOfLights

the fbonacci spiral

How the Fibonacci sequence and the golden ratio are related

the last of the dinosaursby /u/StringOLights

phospholipid bilayer

letter from the editorToughts rom the /r/AskScience Moderation eam

3

contacts and informationWant to be an author? Send a letter? Read our copyright license?

next issues coverOceans o the Solar System

4

5

6

8

11

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2askscience quarterlyoctober 2014issue one


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letter from the editorwelcome to the soap-box.

neurosteroid progesterone

neurotransmitter GABA

Welcome to the very first issue o the AskScienceQuarterly! We are a new popular science magazinecreated by the scientists o reddit. Specifically, we hailrom the subreddit known as AskScience, thoughsome o our writers may come rom other commu-nities as well. You can check out our active commu-nity by going to www.reddit.com/r/askscience. Ourmission is science education and public outreachand while well be discussing technical topics, wevealways tried our best to keep the language as readerriendly as possible. I youve taken the time to read the table ocontents, youll have noticed that were planning tocover a wide range o topics. Were looking to dis-

cuss issues and concepts rom all o science. Our ar-ticles are written by real scientists who want to ex-plain something amazingto everyone, not just otherscientists in the know. Tis issue we have dinosaurs,brain chemistry, algae and mathematics, who knowswhat well have next time? Well... I youre interestedin a sneak peak, I recommend you check out the lastpage, but thats just between us.

- Te AskScience Group



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ManiraptoraCoelurosauria

TeropodaDino

sauriaArchosauria

image credits: on p15

the last of the dinosaurs

Avialae

Tis is a tree (phylogeny) showing the evolutionaryrelationships o dinosaurs and their closest relatives.

All the groups shown are nested, starting with thelargest, Archosauria. For example, all theropods aredinosaurs and all dinosaurs are archosaurs, but notall archosaurs are dinosaurs.

Tese nested relationships mean that birdsare dinosaurs. Teir closest living relatives, the croc-odiles, are not, although they are archosaurs. Birdsmay be the last o the dinosaurs, but there are 10,000living species. Tat means there are more dinosaursspecies alive today than there are species o mam-mals!


by /u/StringOfLights


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tiny dinosaurs

How do we know birds are dinosaurs? Tey look sodifferent rom their ancestorsor do they? I we take

a closer look many traits o dinosaurs come to lie.Check out the dinosaurian on living birds and thegroups in which they first appear:

eathers(Coelurosauria or earlier)

asymmetricalflight eathers(Avialae)

wrist that oldslike a wing(Maniraptora)

reversible big toe(Avialae)

wishbone(Teropoda)

lungs withunidirectional airflow

(Archosauria or earlier)

used oot bones(Coelurosauria or earlier)

hollow bones(Teropoda)

parents care ornests and young(Archosauria)

5

AvialM

aniraptoCoel

urosaurTeropoDin

osaurArchosaur

askscience quarterlyoctober 2014issue onefeaturing Wallace and Charlie

by /u/StringOfLights


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In order to understand what causes PMS, first we needto define what were actually talking about. PMS, orpremenstrual syndromeis a collection o largely psy-chological symptoms that occur in a cyclical ashion,and are seen during the luteal phase, that is, thetime approximately two weeks beore menstruationbegins. PMS comes in a more severe orm, which Imgoing to ocus on, calledpremenstrual dysphoric dis-order(PMDD) which may affect between 2 and 18%o women and eatures anger, depression, anxiety andpanic attacks.

what causes the psychological

changes seen during pms?by Dr. William MK Connelly

so what causes pmdd?

It is hard to rule out the idea that some o the psycho-logical changes seen as a result o PMDD are in re-sponse to the physical effects that are coincident withthe premenstrual phase, as or instance, women withpainul periods are more likely to report premenstru-al depression [1]. However, it seems almost certainthat there is something undamental going on in thebrain during the menstrual cycle, and some o these

seem like prime candidates or the causes o PMDD.Let me point out something interesting:

About 40% o women with epilepsy have somethingcalled catamenial epilepsy, that is, the requency otheir seizures ollows their menstrual cycle, with thehighest rate o seizures seen during menstruation [2].why point out epilepsy?

First, it seems hard to believe that epilepsy could bethe result o the physical symptoms seen during thepremenstrual phase, this shows that something very

significant is changing in the brain. Second, it allowsme to tell you another important act: the hormoneprogesterone (the blood concentration o which in-creases over 10 old during the luteal phase) is a po-tent anaesthetic when injected into the blood stream,and is able to reduce the occurrence o catamenialepilepsy in about 75% o sufferers [3]. So we can painta simple picture (i.e. its not the whole story, but agood start) that catamenial epilepsy is largely causedby the reduced progesterone levels seen when the lu-teal phase ends, and the menstrual phase begins.

why is progesterone important

in preventing epilepsy?

Well I need to tell you a ew more things. First, I sort olied to you beore when I said progesterone was anti-epileptic and an anaesthetic, its actually largely inac-tive, but is converted into something called allopreg-nanlone(ALLO) which really does the work. Toughto be air, ALLO might urther be converted into some-

thing called 3,5-etrahydrodeoxycorticosterone.Te conversion o progesterone isnt the im-portant part, what is important is that the compoundis metabolised at all. Tis shows that the brain in-nately is able to deal with these type o compoundsand the reason or this is because the brain is alreadyinvolved in their production and use, neuroscientistscall such compounds neurosteroids. We dont knowhow the release o these neurosteroids is regulated,but we know they do something, as when you pre-vent the production o neurosteroids (but leave ste-

roid unction in the rest o the body alone) animalsget more anxious, showing us neurosteroids are con-stantly working to keep us calm [4]. Tankully, we know how these neurosteroidswork: Tey increase the action o proteins called GA-BA

Areceptors. GABA is the primary inhibitory neu-

rotransmitter in the brain. Basically every neuronin the brain expresses GABA

A receptors, allowing

GABA to regulate those neurons activity. GABAAre-

ceptors are targeted by drugs like alcohol and valium,both drugs

Figure 1. Hormone changes during a menstrual cycle. PMDD is

most likely to occur during the late part o the luteal phase, whenprogesterone levels all.



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how does gaba relate to pmdd?

Well now we can put it all together. We know thatPMDD happens during the luteal phase, and is asso-ciated with anger, anxiety and depression. We knowthat during the luteal phase, progesterone levels in-crease and we know that progesterone has anti-anx-iety, and anaesthetic actions thanks to the act that itenhances the action o GABA at GABA

Areceptors.

So youre smart reader, can you guess what is

happening? I bet you can, and so did a lot o scientists.Tey guessed that women with PMDD somehow hadlow progesterone during the luteal phase. However,this does not appear to be the case as progesteronetherapy has almost no effect on PMDD and impor-tantly, there appears to be no correlation betweenplasma progesterone concentrations and PMDD [5,6]. So I propose an alternative conclusion: I theproblem isnt with the progesterone, then what i the

references:[1] Bancrof et al., (1995) Perimenstrual depression: its rela-tionship to pain, bleeding, and previous history o depression.Psychosomatic Medicine, 57:44552[2] Herzog et al., (2004) Frequency o catamenial seizure exac-erbation in women with localization-related epilepsy. Annalso Neurology, 56:431-434[3] Herzog et al., (1995) Progesterone therapy in women withcomplex partial and secondary generalized seizures. Neurology,45:1660-1662

which enhance the action o GABA at this receptor,an effect shared by neurosteroids. Tis makes it evenmore clear why catamenial epilepsy occurs; proges-terone (through one o its metabolites, like ALLO)enhances the action o GABA, increasing neuronalinhibition and preventing epilepsy. However, at theend o the luteal phase, when progesterone levels all,

GABA no longer produces strong enough inhibition,and seizures can happen.

Figure 2. Neurosteroid action at the synapse. GABA is released and acts at GABAA

receptors. Neurosteroids, which are produced romprogesterone, act at GABA

Areceptors to enhance the inhibitory action o GABA

Areceptors. While represented in this ashion or simplicity,

neurosteroids may or may not be released by the same neurons which release GABA.problem is with the GABA

A receptors that would

sense the progesterone? Indeed, evidence is mount-ing that the anxiety that is ofen seen afer pregnancyand associated with puberty may be due to altera-tions in GABA

Areceptors, specifically, that they stop

being sensitive to neurosteroids [7, 8]. And it appearsthat there is a clear regulation o the GABA

Arecep-

tors during the menstrual cycle as well [9].Tus, it appears that many o the symptomsseen during PMDD may be due to a change in in-hibitory GABA

A receptors, such that they are no

longer sensitive to the neurosteroids that enhancetheir action. We havent proved this yet, as it is hardto measure what kind o GABA

Areceptors are being

expressed in a persons head, nor do we have goodanimal models o PMDD. However, the clear link be-tween neurosteroids, behaviour, and the menstrualcycle make this one o the leading theories [10].



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[4] Wal et al., (2006) Inhibiting 5alpha-reductase in the amyg-dala attenuates antianxiety and antidepressive behavior o natu-rally receptive and hormone-primed ovariectomized rats. Psy-chopharmacology, 186:302-11[5] Wyatt et al., (2001) Efficacy o progesterone and progesto-gens in management o premenstrual syndrome: systematic re-

view. BMJ, 323:776-780[6] Backstrom et al., (1983) Mood, sexuality, hormones, and themenstrual cycle. II. Hormone levels and their relationship to the

premenstrual syndrome. Psychosomatic Medicine, 45:503:507

[7] Shen et al., (2007) Reversal o neurosteroid effects atalpha4beta2delta GABA

Areceptors triggers anxiety at puberty.

Nature Neuroscience. 10:469-77[8] Maguire et al., (2009) Excitability changes related to GA-BA

Areceptor plasticity during pregnancy. Journal o Neurosci-

ence. 29:9592-601[9] Maguire et al., (2005) Ovarian cycle-linked changes in GA-BA

Areceptors mediating tonic inhibition alter seizure suscepti-

bility and anxiety. Nature Neuroscience. 8:797-804

[10] Connelly (2014) Neurosteroids and extrasynaptic GABAAreceptors. In Errington, Di Giovanni and Crunelli (Eds), Extra-synaptic GABA

AReceptors. Springer

how can algae be used to

combat climate change?

Algae are some o the most efficient organisms onthe planet, and they are responsible or 20-30% o theworlds primary productivity [1]. Teir natural affin-ity or CO

2makes them ideal or absorbing the waste

gas rom industry, and turning it into the oxygen webreath. Te resulting biomass isnt wasted either andcan undergo urther processing to be sold as biodies-el, nutraceuticals, or ertilizer. Additionally algae arenot a ood crop, and do not compete or arable landthat could otherwise be used or ood production. All

o this makes algae ideally suited or the task o help-ing to mitigate anthropogenic CO

2.

than most algae like, so finding strains tolerant to thehigh CO

2and temperatures is a must.

Te gas can then be directed to the algal sys-tem or sequestration. wo options are avoured oralgal culturing, open pond systems and photobiore-actor systems. Open pond systems are cheap, but su-er rom contamination problems and excessive spacerequirements. Photobioreactors such as the bioence(pictured on the next page) allow or more controland sterility, but are energy intensive and thus more

costly. At pH 7 the CO2typically exists in wateras bicarbonate. Tis is perect or algae who also likethis pH, because they can actively transport the bi-carbonate into their cells [3] which the chloroplaststhen convert back into CO

2or the Calvin Cycle.

how does algal co2

sequestration work?

Yes. Flue gas is not only composed o CO2, some

other chemical species o importance are NOX and

SOXgases. While these gases are dangerous to algae

in high concentrations, they also contain the nitro-gen and sulur that algae need to grow, and this is theocus o my current research. While even relativelysmall concentrations o NO

Xcan inhibit algal growth

[4], the combined effect with CO2and O

2can offset

the inhibition and promote growth [5]. Sulur oxides,specifically SO

2, can be problematic i their concen-

trations are too high, so depending on the algal spe-cies the gas may need some pretreatment, althoughthis increases costs.

by /u/patchgrabber

are there components other

than co2in ue gas?

Te first step involves the flue gas itsel, which con-tains the carbon dioxide produced rom industry.Here we have a ew options or when to capture theCO

2, such as post-combustion, pre-combustion, and

oxyuel combustion. Algal sequestration would bebest suited to take place at locations such as powerplants, cement plants, or other places o industry thathave large outputs o flue gas. Tese locations typical-ly use post-combustion, which involves capturing theCO

2afer the burning o the ossil uels. Te capture

o the gas must be done beore the gas can expand toatmospheric pressure as the CO

2concentration drops

rapidly as it travels urther rom the point source.Flue gas typically has CO

2concentrations o around

15% [2] and a temperature o 40C, which is higher



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why isnt the technology

more developed?

Tere was a huge push in the late 1970s by the De-partment o Energy in the US to find strains o algaesuitable or biouel production. While this isnt di-rectly related to CO

2sequestration it underscores the

problems acing algal energy research, namely, that

research unding is related to the price o oil, gasolineand energy.

Figure 1. wo rows o bioensehousing algae. Te bioense is beingilluminated with artificial lighting.

Back in the gasoline shortage o the 70s,there was a lot o thought as to alternatives, and algaelooked promising. As the price o gasoline dropped,so did the unding. Recent initiatives to protect theenvironment such as the Kyoto Protocol also in-creased interest in algae research, so it was a mix ocheaper ossil uels and a lack o desire or planning toreduce pollution that has set back research.



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what does the future of algal

co2sequestration look like?

Figure 2. Chemostats are constant volume bioreactors that allowprecise control over the growing conditions while continuouslyadding and removing growth medium. Here we are trying cheaperlight sources such as LEDs o varying colors to investigate the effecton growth.

[1] Pisciotta, John M.; Zou, Yongjin; Baskakov, Ilia V. (2010)Light-Dependent Electrogenic Activity o Cyanobacteria. PLoSONE 5(5):e10821.[2] Maeda et al. (1995) CO2 fixation rom the flue gas on coal-fired thermal power plant by microalgae. Energy Conversionand Management, 36, pp. 717720.

[3] Spalding, M.H. (2008) Microalgal carbon-dioxide-concen-trating mechanisms: Chlamydomonas inorganic carbon trans-porters. J Exp Botany, 59, pp. 14631473.[4] He, L.; Subramanian, V.R.; ang, Y.J. (2012) Experimentalanalysis and model-based optimization o microalgae growth inphoto-bioreactors using flue gas. Biomass Bioenergy, 41 (2012),pp. 131138.[5] Nagase et al. (1998) Improvement o microalgal NOx re-moval in bubble column and airlif reactors. J. Ferment. Bioeng.,86, pp. 421423.[6] Lam, MK; Lee, K; Mohamed, AR. (2012) Current statusand challenges on microalgae-based carbon capture. Interna-tional Journal o Greenhouse Gas Control, 10, pp. 456469.

what challenges do algae face?

Tere are several. Finding the appropriate algal spe-cies is a challenge, none o them really have all thecharacteristics were looking or. We need high growthrates, tolerances to CO

2, high temperatures and other

gases like NOXas well as the high production o oilin the orm o triacylglycerols, which is necessary orbiouels.

Weve kept looking though, and several labshave libraries o hundreds to thousands o strains.Genetic engineering o algae is slow, but there arepromising genes in yeast, or example, that increaseoil production but each one o those yeast genes shareancestry with multiple genes in algae so it is muchmore complicated to control. Te toxicity o flue gas is another issue that

can be handled in several ways such as pretreatingthe gas, but getting the algae to utilize as much o theNO

Xand SO

Xas possible is a challenge because they

dont grow on it directly and need to be supplied anadditional nitrogen source; this can be handled byusing municipal wastewater as the growth medium

Te uture is very promising! Many countries areworking on projects using algae as a mitigator oCO

2, and plenty o labs are doing research into the

algae themselves. Weve ound several species o algaethat have high extracellular carboanhydrase activity,which is essential or converting carbonate to ree

CO2so the cell can use it. Were also using chemo-stats to investigate other possible sources o lightingto finely control growing conditions to optimize bio-mass production. As we refine our methods or producing bio-diesel rom algae and find strains with the atty acidprofiles best suited or uel, we can help alleviate someo the costs associated with using algae systems by al-lowing industry to profit rom selling a cleaner uelthat is made with organisms they already have andcare or. Current operations sequestering CO

2

withalgae can capture 80-90 tonnes o CO

2per acre per

year, and as the technology develops those numberswill increase.

why not just store industrially

produced co2underground?

Sustainability or one. Tere are also a variety o po-tential social problems with sequestering CO

2 un-

derground, and the issue o saety is a big concernor geological sequestration; algae has no real issuewith saety. Tere is also no need to transport the

CO2to a storage site as all o the algal sequestration isdone at the source. Te additional economic bonusesbrought in by downstream processing also have anadvantage as there is no monetary benefit to storingCO

2underground.

which is high in nitrates, phosphates, all the thingsalgae needs.

Lastly, there is cost. Photobioreactors, fluegas pretreatment or scrubbing, and the cost o down-stream processes like converting algae into biodieselall actor in comparison to current practices. Tere isalso a cost associated with the requirement o inor-ganic nutrients to eed the algae and the intensive en-

ergy needed to cultivate, harvest and dry the biomassproduced [6].

10

references:

askscience quarterlyoctober 2014issue one


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-- --

how does the human eye adapt

to the dark?by Demetri Pananos

It has happened to all o us beore; you are walkinghome on a bright winter day with the sun reflectingoff the resh snow. You open the door to your houseand upon entering: Youve lost your sight! Some timelater, your eyes adjust to the darker environment andyour sight is as it was beore. Te sudden loss, andgradual restoration, o visual sensitivity ollowing in-tense illumination is known as dark adaptation. ounderstand how and why our visual sensitivity is re-stored, we have to understand the,

opsin cycle o vision

OS

IPM-

RPE

--

--

---

--

Rhodopsin lives in the outer segments o the eyes photoreceptorsUnder heavy illumination, the photons break up Rhodopsin intoits two constituent molecules: Opsin and 11-Cis-Retinal.

1

2

o create more Rhodopsin, we need 11-Cis-Retinal. In the RPE11-rans-Retinal is re-bent into 11-Cis-Retinal in preparationto be sent back across the IPM to combine with Opsin.

3

3

4

5

A chemical reaction causes 11-Cis-Retinal to change its struc-ture, straightening the molecule out into 11-rans-Retinal. Te

Opsin stays in the outer segments o the photoreceptor while the11-rans-Retinal is carried across the Inter-Photoreceptor Ma-trix (IPM) into the Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE).

2

When the illumination ends (e.g when you walk inside thebuilding) the new 11-Cis-Retinal is pumped back across theIPM where it can bind with ree Opsin to create an Opsin-11-Cis-Retinal compound.

4

Tis Opsin-11-Cis-Retinal compound is then turned into Rhodopsin, and the process starts again once we walk outside.5

1



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I you have ever taken an introduction to cal-culus, or have seen differential equations beore, youdknow enough to get this ar by yoursel! Te K

m, B

and are all parameters, and may differ rom personto person. Te W is Te Lambert W Functionand is avery special unction, much like the logarithm. Withthe parameters set as K

m= 0.05, B = 1 and = 0.5 we

get the curve shown in Figure 1.Afer 10 minutes obeing in the dark, Rhodopsin concentration reaches

Tat last two parts (4, 5) are where the adaptationhappens. As the Opsin combines with the 11-Cis-Retinal, Rhodopsin is created and you gradually re-gain your visual sensitivity.

how long does it take to get

my vision back?

o answer that, we have to use something ew biolo-

gists use; we have to use mathematics! We want anequation that can tell us how much Rhodopsin ispresent when I put in a particular time. Te easiestway to do that is with a differential equation. Differ-ential equations, or DEs or short, allow us to relatehow ast something changes to how much o it ispresent. So by knowing how quickly the Rhodopsinis being created, we can know how much Rhodop-sin is present in the outer segments o the photore-ceptors at any time. As scientists do, lets make a ewsmall assumptions:

First, lets assume that as soon as the 11-Cis-Retinal enters the outer segments, it is immediatelypicked up by a molecule o Opsin. Tis is called TeQuasi Steady State Assumption, and is used by Bio-chemists in modelling enzyme-substrate interactions[1]. Second, lets assume that the rate at which 11-Cis-Retinal is being pumped across the IPM is propor-tional to the the concentration o 11-Cis-Retinal inthe RPE. More 11-Cis-Retinal means a aster rate odelivery, while less 11-Cis-Retinal means a slower

rate o delivery. With a ew other assumptions regarding theconcentration o Opsin in the outer segments, as wellas some assumptions on how ast the Opsin-11-Cis-Retinal compound is turned into Rhodopsin, we cancreate our differential equation, solve it, and haveour equation. Te details o the mathematics can beound in Dark Adaptation & Te Retinoid Cycle o Vi-sion[2]. Here it is the final solved equation well use:

Figure 1. A plot o our equation. On the x-axis is the time aferthe illumination has ended (in minutes), and on the y-axis is theconcentration o rhodopsin (as a raction).

88%, and just afer 12 minutes, Rhodopsin concen-trations reach 99%. Tis replenishment o Rhodopsinis what ultimately brings back your vision.

With just a little bit o math, we can quantiyhow quickly we can adapt in the dark. Furthermore,i we can choose parameters rom experiment suchthat the model matches recovery times or patients

with diseases such as Oguchi disease, the mathemat-ics could help pinpoint which step in the Opsin cycleis causing the abnormally slow dark adaptation, ur-thering our understanding o the disease.

[1] Nicholas F. Britton. Essential Mathematical Biology. Spring-er, 2005.[2] .D. Lamb and E.N. Pugh Jr. Dark adaptation and the reti-noid cycle o vision. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research,23(3):307 { 380, 2004.

references:



13/16

1 1

2

3

5

8

13

21

34

Tis is the amous Golden Spiral approximately show-cased by the Fibonacci sequence. Each number in thesequence is the sum o the previous two numbers. Geo-metrically this traces out a spiral which nearly growsby a logarithmic actor also known as the goldenratio. Te ratio o each two numbers in the Fibonacci

sequence approaches the golden ratio.

1/1 = 12/1 = 23/2 = 1.55/3 = 1.666...8/5 = 1.613/8 = 1.62521/13 = 1.615...34/21 = 1.619...

= 1.6180339887498948482...

the fbonacci

spiral



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I am personally ar into the Invented camp [...] o memath is an art above all else. It is an art where you areable to reely explore abstraction and create new ideas[...] Your work is, o course, criticized by your peers butthis criticism is closer to what happens in the artisticcommunity where its value is based on whether or notit is relevant and interesting.

Its perectly reasonable to say that Napier and Brgi

independently invented the logarithm operator [...]Mathematicians like Euler then discovered things aboutthat operator that revealed it to have proound implica-tions, allowing the remarkable and unexpected union oarithmetic and geometry. [...] Youre ree to invent anymathematical toys and tools you like, but you arent reeto assert what is and is not true about those inventions.

is mathematics

discovered or

invented?Carl Friedrich Gauss called mathematics the Queeno the Sciences. Was he right? You may be surprised tolearn that there is no single consensus among scientists.Tis months discussion ocuses on the philosophical de-bate on whether or not mathematics is an intrinsic parto our universe or a useul fiction...

image credit: User: Mysid / Wikimedia Commons / Greys Anatomy / Public Domain

I am normally inclined to say that mathematics is dis-covered. Axioms are laid down, and we discover their

implications. But the nature o things like the ouriertransorm, which is largely or applications (though notentirely so), seems to make me think that it is somehowinvented.

Demetri Pananos

/u/unctor7

Greg Jensen

Mathematics is generally considered to be deductive. Byanalogy then, in the syllogism:

Socrates is a manMan is mortal

Socrates is mortalWhat would we term the conclusion? Certainly more oa discovery than an invention. [...] But then o course,a lot o appliedmaths isnt really like anyway. Instead itmight, or example, be more about inventingbetter al-gorithms or techniques. Id say that a Fourier ransormfits more into this camp.

/u/petejonze

Evidently (and my experience backs this up), there is

not a consensus, but neither is a there a right answer toachieve a consensus on; it depends on how you view thenature o math. Personally I all in the discover camp.

/u/diazona



15/16

contacts and information

,,,

[email protected] the /r/AskScience Moderators on reddit!

:------------------anonymousreddit: /u/StringOLights

Dr William MK ConnellyCardiff School o Biosciences, Cardiff University, United Kingdomreddit: /u/NeuroBill

anonymousreddit: /u/patchgrabber

Demetri PananosDepartment o Applied Mathematics, Western Universityreddit: /u/EulerANDBernoulli

:------------------Demetri Pananosreddit: /u/petejonzereddit: /u/unctor7Greg Jensonreddit:/u/diazona

: AskScience Group :

AskScience Group (vectorized by Jesse Griggs) ( ):

smokeybjb (vectorized by . Michael Keesey) / CC BY-SA 3.0 / PhyloPic Mark Witton / (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) / PhyloPic Andrew A. Farke / CC BY-SA 3.0 / PhyloPic Emily Willoughby / (CC BY-SA 3.0) / PhyloPic Scott Hartman / CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 / PhyloPic Hanyong Pu, Yoshitsugu Kobayashi, JunchangL, Li Xu, Yanhua Wu, Huali Chang, Jiming Zhang, Songhai Jia& . Michael Keesey / CC BY 3.0 / PhyloPic Scott Hartman / CC0 1.0 / PhyloPic Matt Martyniuk (vectorized by . Michael Keesey) /

CC BY-SA 3.0 / PhyloPic Lifarn / CC BY-SA 3.0 / PhyloPic : User: Mysid / Wikimedia Commons / Greys Anatomy/ Public Domain : NASA / JPL / Space Science Institute

A - -. , AS G.

A . , AS G.

AS Q AS G http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience CC A-NC-SA .I L. (CC BY-NC-SA .)

:------------------Andrew SteinmetzDepartment o Physics, University o Arizonareddit: /u/AsAChemicalEngineer

anonymousreddit: /u/StringOLights



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