Assassination of John F. Kennedy

“Kennedy assassination” redirects here. For the assas-sination of his brother, Robert, see Assassination ofRobert F. Kennedy.

On November 22, 1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35thPresident of the United States, was fatally shot in Dallas,Texas while riding in amotorcade in Dallas’ Dealey Plaza,at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time.[1] Fatally shotby Lee Harvey Oswald, he was traveling with his wife,Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, and Con-nally’s wife, Nellie, in a presidential motorcade. A ten-month investigation from November 1963 to September1964 by the Warren Commission concluded that Oswaldacted alone in shooting Kennedy, and that Jack Rubyalso acted alone when he killed Oswald before he couldstand trial.[2] Kennedy’s death marked the fourth (follow-ing Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley) and most recentassassination of an American President. Vice PresidentLyndon B. Johnson became President upon Kennedy’sdeath,[3] when he took the constitutionally prescribed[4]oath of office onboard Air Force One at Dallas Love Fieldbefore departing for Washington, D.C.In contrast to the conclusions of theWarren Commission,the United States House Select Committee on Assassi-nations (HSCA) concluded in 1979 that Kennedy was“probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy”.[5] TheHSCA agreed with the Warren Commission that the in-juries sustained by Kennedy and Connally were caused byOswald’s three rifle shots, but they also determined theexistence of additional gunshots based on analysis of anaudio recording and therefore "... a high probability thattwo gunmen fired at [the] President.”[6][7] TheCommitteewas not able to identify any individuals or groups involvedwith the conspiracy. In addition, the HSCA found thatthe original federal investigations were “seriously flawed”in respect of information-sharing and the possibility ofconspiracy.[8] As recommended by the HSCA, the acous-tic evidence indicating conspiracy was subsequently re-examined and rejected.[9]

In light of the investigative reports determining that “re-liable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that therewas a second gunman,” the Justice Department has con-cluded active investigations, stating “that no persuasiveevidence can be identified to support the theory of a con-spiracy in ... the assassination of President Kennedy.”[10]However, Kennedy’s assassination is still the subject ofwidespread debate and has spawned numerous conspir-acy theories and alternative scenarios. Polling in 2013showed that 60% of Americans believe that a group of

conspirators was responsible for the assassination.[11][12]As of 2017, Kennedy is the most recent president to diein office.

1 Assassination

1.1 Background

President Kennedy traveled to Texas to smooth over fric-tions in the Democratic Party between liberals RalphYarborough and Don Yarborough (no relation) and con-servative John Connally.[13]

A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreedupon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedy'svice president, and Texas native, and by Governor JohnConnally while all three men were together in a meetingin El Paso on June 5, 1963.[14]

President Kennedy later decided to embark on the tripwith three basic goals in mind: the president wantedto help raise more Democratic Party presidential cam-paign fund contributions;[14] he wanted to begin his questfor reelection in November 1964;[15] and, because theKennedy-Johnson ticket had barely won Texas in 1960(and had even lost in Dallas), President Kennedy wantedto help mend political fences among several leading TexasDemocratic party members who appeared to be fightingpolitically amongst themselves.[16]

President Kennedy’s trip to Dallas was first announced tothe public in September 1963.[17] The exact motorcaderoute was finalized on November 18 and announced tothe public a few days before November 22.[18]

1.2 Route to Dealey Plaza

An

1

2 1 ASSASSINATION

aerial view of Dealey Plaza showing the route of Presi-dent Kennedy’s motorcade

Ike Alt-gens' photo of the Presidential limousine taken betweenthe first and second shots that hit President Kennedy.Kennedy’s left hand is in front of his throat and Mrs.Kennedy’s left hand is holding his arm.

Polaroidphoto by Mary Moorman taken a fraction of a secondafter the fatal shot (detail).

SecretService Special Agent Clint Hill shields the occupants ofthe Presidential limousine moments after the fatal shot.

WitnessHoward Brennan sitting in the identical spot across fromthe Texas School Book Depository four months after theassassination. Circle “A” indicates where he saw Oswaldfire a rifle at the motorcade.

Theassassination site on Elm Street in 2008. White arrowsindicate the sixth floor window of the Texas SchoolBook Depository, and the mark on Elm Street is the spotwhere Kennedy was struck in the head. The buildingseen close to the Depository is the Dal-Tex Building.Main article: Timeline of the John F. Kennedy assassi-nation

President Kennedy’s motorcade route through Dallas wasplanned to give him maximum exposure to local crowdsbefore his arrival,[19] along with Vice President LyndonJohnson and Texas Governor John Connally, at a lun-cheon with civic and business leaders in that city. TheWhite House staff informed the Secret Service thatthe President would arrive there via a short flight fromCarswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth to Dallas LoveField.[19][20]

The Dallas Trade Mart had been preliminarily selectedfor the luncheon and the final decision of the place as theend of the motorcade journey was selected by PresidentKennedy’s friend and appointments secretary KennethO'Donnell.[19][20] Leaving from Dallas Love Field, 45minutes had been allotted for the motorcade to reach theTrade Mart at a planned arrival time of 12:15 p.m. The

1.3 The assassination 3

actual route was chosen to be a meandering 10-mile (16-km) route between the two places, which could be drivenslowly in the allotted time.Special Agent Winston G. Lawson, a member of theWhite House detail who acted as the advance Secret Ser-vice Agent, and Secret Service Agent Forrest V. Sorrels,Special Agent in charge of the Dallas office, were mostactive in planning the actual route. On November 14,bothmen attended ameeting at Love Field and drove overthe route that Sorrels believed best suited for the motor-cade. From Love Field, the route passed through a sub-urban portion of Dallas, through Downtown along MainStreet, and finally to the Trade Mart via a short segmentof the Stemmons Freeway.[21]

For the President’s return to Love Field, from which heplanned to depart for a fundraising dinner in Austin laterthat day, the agents selected a more direct route, whichwas approximately four miles, or 6.4 kilometers (someof this route would be used after the assassination). Theplanned route to the Trade Mart was widely reported inDallas newspapers several days before the event, for thebenefit of people who wished to view the motorcade.[21]

To pass through Downtown Dallas, a route west alongDallas’ Main Street, rather than Elm Street (one block tothe north) was chosen, because this was the traditional pa-rade route, and provided the maximal building and crowdviews. The route on Main Street precluded a direct turnonto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit (which served also asthe Stemmons Freeway exit), which was the route to theTrade Mart, because this exit was only accessible fromElm Street. The planned motorcade route thus includeda short one-block turn at the end of the downtown seg-ment of Main Street, onto Houston Street for one blocknorthward, before turning again west onto Elm, in orderto proceed through Dealey Plaza before exiting Elm ontothe Stemmons Freeway. The Texas School Book Depos-itory was situated at this corner of Houston and Elm.[22]

Three vehicles were used for Secret Service and policeprotection in the Dallas motorcade. The first car, an un-marked white Ford (hardtop), carried Dallas Police ChiefJesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win Lawson, SheriffBill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. Thesecond car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, helddriver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, GovernorJohn Connally, Nellie Connally, President Kennedy andJackie Kennedy.[23]

The third car, a 1955 Cadillac convertible code-named“Halfback”, contained driver Agent Sam Kinney, AT-SAIC Emory Roberts, presidential aides Ken O'Donnelland Dave Powers, driver Agent George Hickey and PRSagent Glen Bennett. Secret Service agents Clint Hill, JackReady, Tim McIntyre and Paul Landis rode on the run-ning boards.On November 22, after a breakfast speech in Fort Worth,where President Kennedy had stayed overnight after ar-riving from San Antonio, Houston, and Washington,

D.C., the previous day,[24] the president boarded AirForce One, which departed at 11:10 and arrived at LoveField 15 minutes later. At about 11:40, the presiden-tial motorcade left Love Field for the trip through Dal-las, running on a schedule about 10 minutes longer thanthe planned 45, due to enthusiastic crowds estimated at150,000–200,000 people, and two unplanned stops di-rected by the president.[25][26] By the time the motorcadereached Dealey Plaza, they were only five minutes awayfrom their planned destination.

1.3 The assassination

1.3.1 Shooting in Dealey Plaza

At 12:30 p.m. CST, as President Kennedy’s uncov-ered 1961 Lincoln Continental four-door convertiblelimousine entered Dealey Plaza, Nellie Connally (theFirst Lady of Texas) turned around to President Kennedy,who was sitting behind her, and commented, “Mr. Presi-dent, you can't say Dallas doesn't love you,” which Presi-dent Kennedy acknowledged by saying “No, you certainlycan't.” Those were the last words ever spoken by John F.Kennedy.[27][28][29]

FromHouston Street, the presidential limousinemade theplanned left turn onto Elm Street, allowing it access to theStemmons Freeway exit. As it turned on Elm, the motor-cade passed the Texas School Book Depository. Shotswere fired at President Kennedy as his motorcade contin-ued down Elm Street. About 80% of the witnesses re-called hearing three shots.[30]

A minority of the witnesses recognized the first gunshotthey heard as weapon fire, but there was hardly any re-action to the first shot from a majority of the people inthe crowd or those riding in the motorcade. Many latersaid they heard what they first thought to be a firecracker,or the backfire of one of the vehicles, shortly after thePresident began waving.[31][32]

Within one second of each other, President Kennedy,Governor Connally, and Mrs. Kennedy all turnedabruptly from looking to their left to looking to their right,between Zapruder film frames 155 and 169.[33] Connally,like the President, a World War II military veteran (and,unlike him, a longtime hunter), testified that he immedi-ately recognized the sound of a high-powered rifle, thenhe turned his head and torso rightward, attempting to seePresident Kennedy behind him. Governor Connally tes-tified he could not see the President, so he then startedto turn forward again (turning from his right to his left).Connally also testified that when his head was facingabout 20 degrees left of center,[28] he was hit in his upperright back by a bullet he did not hear fired. The doctorwho operated on Connally measured his head at the timehe was hit as turned 27 degrees left of center.[28] AfterConnally was hit he shouted, “Oh, no, no, no. My God.They're going to kill us all!"[34]

4 1 ASSASSINATION

Mrs. Connally testified that just after hearing a loud,frightening noise that came from somewhere behind herand to her right, she turned toward President Kennedy andsaw him raise his arms and elbows, with his hands in frontof his face and throat. She then heard another gunshotand then Governor Connally yelling. Mrs. Connally thenturned away from Kennedy toward her husband, at whichpoint another gunshot sounded and she and the limou-sine’s rear interior were covered with fragments of skull,blood, and brain.According to the Warren Commission[35] and the HouseSelect Committee on Assassinations,[36] as Kennedywaved to the crowds on his right with his right arm up-raised on the side of the limo, a shot entered his upperback, penetrated his neck, slightly damaged a spinal ver-tebra and the top of his right lung, and exited his throatnearly centerline just beneath his larynx, nicking the leftside of his suit tie knot. He raised his elbows and clenchedhis fists in front of his face and neck, then leaned forwardand left. Mrs. Kennedy, facing him, then put her armsaround him in concern.[28][37]

Governor Connally also reacted after the same bullet pen-etrated his back just below his right armpit, creating anoval entry wound, impacted and destroyed four inches ofhis right fifth rib, exited his chest just below his right nip-ple, creating a two-and-a-half inch oval sucking-air chestwound, entered his arm just above his right wrist, cleanlyshattered his right radius bone into eight pieces, exitedjust below the wrist at the inner side of his right palm, andfinally lodged in his left inner thigh.[28][37] The WarrenCommission theorized that the “single bullet” (see single-bullet theory) struck sometime between Zapruder frames210 to 225, while the House Select Committee theorizedthat it struck exactly at Zapruder frame 190.[38]

According to the Warren Commission, a second shotstruck the President at Zapruder film frame 313. TheCommission made no conclusion as to whether this wasthe second or third bullet fired. The presidential limou-sine was then passing in front of the John Neely Bryannorth pergola concrete structure. The two investigativecommittees concluded that the second shot to hit the pres-ident entered the rear of his head (the House Select Com-mittee placed the entry wound four inches higher than theWarren Commission placed it) and, passing in fragmentsthrough his head, created a large, “roughly ovular” [sic]hole on the rear, right side. The president’s blood andfragments of his scalp, brain, and skull landed on the in-terior of the car, the inner and outer surfaces of the frontglass windshield and raised sun visors, the front enginehood, the rear trunk lid, the followup Secret Service carand its driver’s left arm, and motorcycle officers riding onboth sides of the President behind him.[39][40]

Secret Service Special Agent Clint Hill was riding onthe left front running board of the follow-up car, whichwas immediately behind the Presidential limousine. Hilltestified that he heard one shot, then, as documented in

other films and concurrent with Zapruder frame 308, hejumped off into Elm Street and ran forward to try to geton the limousine and protect the President. (Hill testifiedto theWarren Commission that after he jumped into ElmStreet, he heard two more shots.)[41]

After the President had been shot in the head, Mrs.Kennedy began to climb out onto the back of the limou-sine, though she later had no recollection of doingso.[34][42] Hill believed she was reaching for something,perhaps a piece of the President’s skull.[41] He jumpedonto the back of the limousine while at the same timeMrs. Kennedy returned to her seat, and he clung to thecar as it exited Dealey Plaza and accelerated, speeding toParkland Memorial Hospital.After Mrs. Kennedy crawled back into her limousineseat, both Governor Connally and Mrs. Connally heardher say more than once, “They have killed my husband,”and “I have his brains in my hand.”[27][28] In a long-redacted interview for Life magazine days later, Mrs.Kennedy recalled, “All the ride to the hospital I keptbending over him saying, 'Jack, Jack, can you hear me? Ilove you, Jack.' I kept holding the top of his head downtrying to keep the ...” The President’s widow could notfinish her sentence.[43]

1.3.2 Governor Connally and a spectator wounded

Governor Connally, riding in the same limousine in a seatin front of the President and three inches more to theleft than the President, was also seriously injured but sur-vived. Doctors later stated that after the Governor wasshot, his wife pulled him onto her lap, and the resultingposture helped close his front chest wound (which wascausing air to be sucked directly into his chest around hiscollapsed right lung).James Tague, a spectator and witness to the assassina-tion, also received a minor wound to his right cheek whilestanding 531 feet (162 m) away from the Depository’ssixth floor, easternmost window, 270 feet (82 m) in frontof and slightly to the right of President Kennedy’s headfacing direction, and more than 16 feet (4.9 m) below thetop of the President’s head. Tague’s injury occurred whena bullet or bullet fragment with no copper casing struckthe nearby Main Street south curb. A deputy sheriff no-ticed some blood on Tague’s cheek, and Tague realizedsomething had stung his face during the shooting. WhenTague pointed to where he had been standing, the po-lice officer noticed a bullet smear on a nearby curb. Ninemonths later the FBI removed the curb, and a spectro-graphic analysis revealed metallic residue consistent withthat of the lead core in Oswald’s ammunition.[44] WhenTague testified to the Warren Commission and was askedwhich of the three shots he remembered hearing struckhim, he stated it was the second or third shot. When theWarren Commission attorney pressed him further, Taguestated he was struck concurrent with the second shot.[45]

1.5 Lee Harvey Oswald 5

1.4 Aftermath in Dealey Plaza

Assassination witnesses Bill and Gayle Newman drop to the grassand cover their children.

The presidential limousine was passing a grassy knoll onthe north side of Elm Street at the moment of the fatalhead shot. As the motorcade left the plaza, police officersand spectators ran up the knoll and from a railroad bridgeover Elm Street (the triple underpass), to the area behinda five-foot (1.5 m) high stockade fence atop the knoll,separating it from a parking lot. No sniper was found.[46]S. M. Holland, who had been watching the motorcadeon the triple underpass, testified that “immediately” afterthe shots were fired, he went around the corner where theoverpass joined the fence, but did not see anyone runningfrom the area.[47][48]

Lee Bowers, a railroad switchman sitting in a two-story tower,[48] had an unobstructed view of the rearof the stockade fence atop the grassy knoll during theshooting.[49] He saw a total of four men in the area be-tween his tower and Elm Street: a middle-aged man anda younger man, standing 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 m) apartnear the triple underpass, who did not seem to know eachother, and one or two uniformed parking lot attendants.At the time of the shooting, he saw “something out ofthe ordinary, a sort of milling around”, which he couldnot identify. Bowers testified that one or both of the menwere still there when motorcycle officer Clyde Haygoodran up the grassy knoll to the back of the fence.[50] In a1966 interview, Bowers clarified that the two men he sawwere standing in the opening between the pergola and thefence, and that “no one” was behind the fence at the timethe shots were fired.[51][52]

Meanwhile, Howard Brennan, a steamfitter who was sit-ting across the street from the Texas School Book Depos-itory, notified police that as he watched the motorcade goby, he heard a shot come from above, and looked up tosee a man with a rifle make another shot from a corner

window on the sixth floor. He said he had seen the sameman minutes earlier looking out the window.[53] Brennangave a description of the shooter,[54] and Dallas policesubsequently broadcast descriptions at 12:45 p.m., 12:48p.m., and 12:55 p.m.[55] After the second shot was fired,Brennan recalled, “This man I saw previous was aimingfor his last shot ... and maybe paused for another secondas though to assure himself that he had hit his mark.”[56]

As Brennan spoke to the police in front of the building,they were joined by Harold Norman and James Jarman,Jr.,[57] two employees of the Texas School Book Deposi-tory who had watched themotorcade fromwindows at thesoutheast corner of the fifth floor.[58] Norman reportedthat he heard three gunshots come from directly over theirheads.[59] Norman also heard the sounds of a bolt-actionrifle and cartridges dropping on the floor above them.[60]

Estimates of when Dallas police sealed off the exits to theTexas School Book Depository range from 12:33 to after12:50 p.m.[61][62]

Of the 104 ear witnesses in Dealey Plaza who were onrecord with an opinion as to the direction from whichthe shots came, 54 (51.9%) thought that all shots camefrom the direction of the Texas School Book Depository,33 (31.7%) thought that all shots came from the area ofthe grassy knoll or the triple underpass, 9 (8.7%) thoughtall shots came from a location entirely distinct from theknoll or the depository, 5 (4.8%) thought they heard shotsfrom two locations, and 3 (2.9%) thought the shots camefrom a direction consistent with both the knoll and thedepository.[30][63]

Additionally, the Warren Commission concluded thatthree shots were fired and said that “a substantial major-ity of the witnesses stated that the shots were not evenlyspaced. Most witnesses recalled that the second and thirdshots were bunched together.”[64]

1.5 Lee Harvey Oswald

Main article: Lee Harvey OswaldLee Harvey Oswald was reported missing to the Dallaspolice by Roy Truly (his supervisor at the Depository)[65]and was arrested about 70 minutes after the assassina-tion for the murder of Dallas police officer J. D. Tippit.According to witness Helen Markam, Tippit had spottedOswald walking along a sidewalk in the residential neigh-borhood of Oak Cliff,[66] three miles from Dealey Plaza.Officer Tippit had earlier received a radio message thatgave a description of the suspect being sought in the as-sassination and called Oswald over to the patrol car.Markam testified that after an exchange of words, Tippitgot out of his car and Oswald shot him four times.[66] Os-wald was next seen by shoe store manager Johnny Brewer“ducking into” the entrance alcove of his store. Suspi-cious of this activity, Brewer watched Oswald continueup the street and slip into the nearby Texas Theatre with-

6 1 ASSASSINATION

Jack Ruby, just a split-second before firing a single shot into Os-wald, who is being escorted by police detectives Jim Leavelle (tansuit) and L.C. Graves for the transfer from the City Jail to theDallas County Jail.

out paying.[67] Brewer alerted the theater’s ticket clerk,who telephoned the police[68] at about 1:40 p.m.According to M.N. McDonald, who was one of the ar-resting officers, Oswald resisted arrest and was attempt-ing to draw his pistol when he was struck and forcibly re-strained by the police.[69] He was charged with the mur-ders of President Kennedy and Officer Tippit later thatnight.[70] Oswald denied shooting anyone and claimed hewas a patsy who was arrested because he had lived in theSoviet Union.[71][72][73]

Oswald’s case never came to trial because two days later,while being escorted to a car for transfer from the DallasCity Jail to the Dallas County Jail, he was fatally shot byDallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby, live on American tele-vision at 11:21 a.m. CST on Sunday, November 24. Un-conscious, Oswald was rushed by ambulance to ParklandMemorial Hospital, the same facility where doctors hadtried to save President Kennedy’s life two days earlier; hedied at 1:07 p.m.[74] Oswald’s death was announced ona TV news broadcast by Dallas police chief Jesse Curry.An autopsy was performed by the Dallas County MedicalExaminer at 2:45 p.m. the same day. The stated cause ofdeath in the autopsy report was “hemorrhage secondaryto gunshot wound of the chest”.[75] Arrested immediatelyafter the shooting, Ruby later said that he had been dis-traught over the Kennedy assassination and that killingOswald would spare "... Mrs. Kennedy the discomfitureof coming back to trial.”[76]

1.6 Carcano rifle

Main article: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle

An Italian Carcano M91/38 bolt-action rifle (see6.5×52mmMannlicher–Carcano cartridge) was found onthe 6th floor of the Texas School Book Depository byDeputy Constable Seymour Weitzman and Deputy Sher-iff Eugene Boone soon after the assassination of PresidentKennedy.[77] The recovery was filmed by Tom Alyea ofWFAA-TV.[78]

This footage shows the rifle to be a Carcano, and it waslater verified by photographic analysis commissioned bythe HSCA that the rifle filmed was the same one lateridentified as the assassination weapon.[79] Compared tophotographs taken of Oswald holding the rifle in his back-yard, “one notch in the stock at [a] point that appears veryfaintly in the photograph” matched,[80] as well as the ri-fle’s dimensions.[81]

The previous March, the secondhand Carcano rifle hadbeen purchased by Oswald under the alias “A. Hidell”and delivered to a post office in Dallas where Oswald hadrented a box.[82] According to the Warren CommissionReport, a partial palm print of Oswald was also found onthe barrel of the gun,[83][84] and a tuft of fibers found ina crevice of the rifle was consistent with the fibers andcolors of the shirt Oswald was wearing at the time of hisarrest.[85][86]

A bullet found on Governor Connally’s hospital gurney,and two bullet fragments found in the Presidential limou-sine, were ballistically matched to this rifle.[87]

1.7 President Kennedy declared dead inthe emergency room

Further information: Timeline of the John F. Kennedyassassination

The staff at Parkland Hospital’s Trauma Room 1 whotreated President Kennedy observed that his conditionwas “moribund” (a mortal wound), meaning that hehad no chance of survival upon arriving at the hospi-tal. George Burkley,[88] the President’s personal physi-cian, stated that a gunshot wound to the skull was thecause of death. Burkley signed President Kennedy’s deathcertificate.[89]

At 1:00 p.m., CST (19:00 UTC), after all heart activityhad ceased and after Father Oscar Huber[90] had admin-istered last rites, the President was pronounced dead. Fa-ther Huber[90] told The New York Times that the Presi-dent was already dead by the time he arrived at the hos-pital, and he had to draw back a sheet covering the Presi-dent’s face to administer the sacrament of Extreme Unc-tion. President Kennedy’s death was officially announcedby White House Acting Press Secretary Malcolm Kilduff

1.8 Autopsy 7

Cecil Stoughton's iconic photograph as Lyndon B. Johnson issworn in as U.S. President aboard Air Force One, Love Field,Dallas. Jackie (right), still in her blood-soaked clothes (not visi-ble in picture), looks on.

at 1:33 p.m. CST (19:33 UTC).[91][92] Kilduff was actingpress secretary on the trip because Pierre Salinger wastraveling to Japan with half the Cabinet, including Sec-retary of State Dean Rusk.[93][94][95] Governor Connally,meanwhile, was taken to emergency surgery, where heunderwent two operations that day.As members of the President’s security detail attemptedto remove Kennedy’s body from the hospital, they brieflyscuffled with Dallas officials, including Dallas CountyCoroner Earl Rose who believed he was legally obli-gated to perform an autopsy before Kennedy’s body wasremoved.[96] The Secret Service pushed through andRoseeventually stepped aside.[97] The forensic panel of theHSCA, of which Rose was a member, later reported thatTexas law indicated that it was the responsibility of thejustice of the peace to determine the cause of death aswell as the necessity of whether an autopsy was needed todetermine the cause of death.[98] Theran Ward, a justiceof the peace in Dallas County, signed the official recordof inquest[98] as well as a second certificate of death.[99]

A few minutes after 2:00 p.m. CST (20:00 UTC),Kennedy’s body was taken from Parkland Hospital to AirForce One. The casket was then loaded aboard the air-plane through the rear door, where it remained at the rearof the passenger compartment, in place of a removed rowof seats. Lyndon B. Johnson, who as Vice President, be-came President upon Kennedy’s death,[100] and had beenriding two cars behind President Kennedy in the motor-cade, refused to leave for Washington without PresidentKennedy and his widow.At 2:38 p.m. CST (20:38 UTC) President Johnson, withJacqueline Kennedy at his side, took the oath of office thatwas administered by federal judge Sarah T. Hughes onboard Air Force One shortly before it departed from LoveField for the sad flight back to Washington, D.C..[101]

1.8 Autopsy

Main article: John F. Kennedy autopsy

The autopsy was performed, beginning at about 8 p.m.and ending at about midnight EST at the Bethesda NavalHospital in Bethesda, Maryland. The choice of autopsyhospital in theWashington, D.C., area wasmade at the re-quest ofMrs. Kennedy, on the basis that John F. Kennedyhad been a naval officer.[102]

2 Funeral

Main article: State funeral of John F. Kennedy

The state funeral took place in Washington, D.C., duringthe three days that followed the assassination.[103]

The body of President Kennedy was flown back to Wash-ington, D.C., and placed in the East Room of the WhiteHouse for 24 hours.[104][105] On the Sunday after theassassination, his coffin was carried on a horse-drawncaisson to the United States Capitol to lie in state.[106]Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands ofpeople lined up to view the guarded casket.[107] Represen-tatives from over 90 countries attended the state funeralon Monday, November 25.[108] After the Requiem Massat St. Matthew’s Cathedral, the President was laid to rest2.7 miles from the White House at Arlington NationalCemetery in Virginia.

3 Recordings of the assassination

No radio or television stations broadcast the assassinationlive because the area through which the motorcade wastraveling was not considered important enough for a livebroadcast. Most media crews were not even with the mo-torcade but were waiting instead at the Dallas Trade Martin anticipation of President Kennedy’s arrival. Thosemembers of themedia whowere with themotorcade wereriding at the rear of the procession.The Dallas police were recording their radio transmis-sions over two channels. A frequency designated as Chan-nel One was used for routine police communications;Channel Two was an auxiliary channel dedicated to thePresident’s motorcade. Up until the time of the assas-sination, most of the broadcasts on the second channelconsisted of Police Chief Jesse Curry’s announcementsof the location of the motorcade as it wound through thecity.President Kennedy’s last seconds traveling throughDealey Plaza were recorded on silent 8 mm film for the26.6 seconds before, during, and immediately followingthe assassination. This famous film footage was taken by

8 4 OFFICIAL INVESTIGATIONS

garment manufacturer and amateur cameramanAbrahamZapruder, in what became known as the Zapruder film.Frame enlargements from the Zapruder film were pub-lished by Life magazine shortly after the assassination.The footage was first shown publicly as a film at the trialof Clay Shaw in 1969, and on television in 1975.[109] Ac-cording to the Guinness Book of World Records, in 1999an arbitration panel ordered the United States governmentto pay $615,384 per second of film to Zapruder’s heirsfor giving the film to the National Archives. The com-plete film, which lasts for 26 seconds, was valued at $16million.[110][111]

Zapruder was not the only person who photographed atleast part of the assassination; a total of 32 photographerswere in Dealey Plaza. Amateur movies taken by OrvilleNix, Marie Muchmore (shown on television in New Yorkon November 26, 1963),[112][113][114] and photographerCharles Bronson captured the fatal shot, although at agreater distance than Zapruder. Other motion picturefilms were taken in Dealey Plaza at or around the timeof the shooting by Robert Hughes, F. Mark Bell, ElsieDorman, John Martin Jr., Patsy Paschall, Tina Towner,James Underwood, Dave Wiegman, Mal Couch, ThomasAtkins, and an unknown woman in a blue dress on thesouth side of Elm Street.[115]

Still photos were taken by PhillipWillis, MaryMoorman,Hugh W. Betzner Jr., Wilma Bond, Robert Croft, andmany others. Ike Altgens was the lone professional pho-tographer in Dealey Plaza who was not in the press cars;he was a photo editor for the Associated Press in Dallas.An unidentified woman, nicknamed the Babushka Ladyby researchers, might have been filming the Presidentialmotorcade during the assassination. She was seen appar-ently doing so on film and in photographs taken by theothers.Previously unknown color footage filmed on the as-sassination day by George Jefferies was released onFebruary 19, 2007 by the Sixth Floor Museum, Dallas,Texas.[116][117] The film does not include the shooting,having been taken roughly 90 seconds beforehand and acouple of blocks away. The only detail relevant to theinvestigation of the assassination is a clear view of Presi-dent Kennedy’s bunched suit jacket, just below the collar,which has led to different calculations about how low inthe back President Kennedy was first shot (see discussionabove).

4 Official investigations

4.1 Dallas Police

After arresting Oswald and collecting physical evidenceat the crime scenes, the Dallas Police held Oswald at theirheadquarters for interrogation. All afternoon, they askedOswald about the Tippit shooting and the assassination

of the President. They intermittently questioned him forapproximately 12 hours between 2:30 p.m., on Novem-ber 22, and 11 a.m., on November 24.[118] Through-out this interrogation, Oswald denied any involvementwith either Kennedy’s assassination or Patrolman Tip-pit’s murder.[118] Captain Fritz of the homicide and rob-bery bureau did most of the questioning, keeping onlyrudimentary notes.[119][120] Days later, he wrote a reportof the interrogation from notes he made afterwards.[119]There were no stenographic or tape recordings. Repre-sentatives of other law enforcement agencies were alsopresent, including the FBI and the Secret Service, andoccasionally participated in the questioning.[121] Severalof the FBI agents present wrote contemporaneous reportsof the interrogation.[122]

On the evening of November 22, Dallas Police performedparaffin tests on Oswald’s hands and right cheek in an ap-parent effort to determine, by means of a scientific test,whether or not he had recently fired a weapon.[121] The re-sults were positive for the hands and negative for the rightcheek.[121] Because of the unreliability of these tests, theWarren Commission did not rely on the results of the testin making their findings.[121]

Oswald provided little information during his question-ing. When confronted with evidence that he could notexplain, he resorted to statements that were found to befalse.[121][123] Dallas authorities were not able to com-plete their investigation into the assassination of PresidentKennedy due to interruptions from the FBI and Oswald’smurder by Jack Ruby.

4.2 FBI investigation

The FBI was the first authority to complete an investiga-tion. On December 9, 1963, the FBI issued a report andgave it to the Warren Commission.[124]

The FBI stated that three bullets were fired during theKennedy assassination; the Warren Commission agreedwith the FBI investigation that three shots were firedbut disagreed with the FBI report on which shots hitKennedy and which hit Governor Connally. The FBI re-port claimed that the first shot hit President Kennedy, thesecond shot hit Governor Connally, and the third shot hitPresident Kennedy in the head, killing him. In contrast,the Warren Commission concluded that one of the threeshots missed, one of the shots hit President Kennedy andthen struck Governor Connally, and a third shot struckPresident Kennedy in the head, killing him.

4.3 Warren Commission

Main article: Warren Commission

The President’s Commission on the Assassination ofPresident Kennedy, known unofficially as the Warren

4.4 Ramsey Clark Panel 9

The Warren Commission presents its report to President Johnson.From left to right: John McCloy, J. Lee Rankin (General Coun-sel), Senator Richard Russell, Congressman Gerald Ford, ChiefJustice Earl Warren, President Lyndon B. Johnson, Allen Dulles,Senator John Sherman Cooper, and Congressman Hale Boggs.

Commission, was established on November 29, 1963, byPresident Johnson to investigate the assassination.[125] Its888-page final report was presented to President John-son on September 24, 1964,[126] and made public threedays later.[127] It concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald actedalone in the killing of President Kennedy and the wound-ing of Texas Governor John Connally,[128] and that JackRuby also acted alone in the murder of Oswald.[129] TheCommission’s findings have since proven controversialand been both challenged and supported by later studies.The Commission took its unofficial name, “The War-ren Commission”, from its chairman, Chief Justice EarlWarren. According to published transcripts of John-son’s presidential phone conversations, some major offi-cials were opposed to forming such a commission, andseveral commission members took part only with ex-treme reluctance.[130] One of their chief reservations wasthat a commission would ultimately create more contro-versy than consensus, and those fears ultimately provedvalid.[130]

All of the Warren Commission’s records were submittedto the National Archives in 1964. The unpublished por-tion of those records was initially sealed for 75 years (to2039) under a general National Archives policy that ap-plied to all federal investigations by the executive branchof government,[131] a period “intended to serve as protec-tion for innocent persons who could otherwise be dam-aged because of their relationship with participants in thecase”.[132] The 75-year rule no longer exists, supplantedby the Freedom of Information Act of 1966 and the JFKRecords Act of 1992.

4.4 Ramsey Clark Panel

In 1968, a panel of four medical experts appointed byAttorney General Ramsey Clark met in Washington,D.C., to examine various photographs, X-ray films, doc-uments, and other evidence about the death of PresidentKennedy. The Clark Panel determined that PresidentKennedy was struck by two bullets fired from above andbehind him, one of which traversed the base of the neckon the right side without striking bone and the other ofwhich entered the skull from behind and destroyed its up-per right side.[133]

4.5 Rockefeller Commission

The United States President’s Commission on CIA activi-ties within the United States was set up under PresidentGerald Ford in 1975 to investigate the activities of theCIA within the United States. The commission was ledby Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, and is sometimesreferred to as the Rockefeller Commission.Part of the commission’s work dealt with the Kennedyassassination, specifically the head snap as seen in theZapruder film (first shown to the general public in 1975),and the possible presence of E. Howard Hunt and FrankSturgis in Dallas.[134] The commission concluded thatneither Hunt nor Sturgis was in Dallas at the time of theassassination.[135]

4.6 Church Committee

Church Committee is the common term referring to the1975 United States Senate Select Committee to Study Gov-ernmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activi-ties, a U.S. Senate committee chaired by Senator FrankChurch, to investigate the illegal intelligence gathering bythe Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Federal Bu-reau of Investigation (FBI) after the Watergate incident.It also investigated the CIA and FBI conduct relating tothe JFK assassination.Their report concluded that the investigation on the as-sassination by FBI and CIA were fundamentally deficientand the facts that have greatly affected the investigationhad not been forwarded to theWarren Commission by theagencies. It also found that the FBI, the agency with pri-mary responsibility on the matter, was ordered by Direc-tor Hoover and pressured by unnamed higher governmentofficials to conclude its investigation quickly.[136] The re-port hinted that there was a possibility that senior officialsin both agencies made conscious decisions not to disclosepotentially important information.[137]

10 5 CONSPIRACY THEORIES

4.7 United States House Select Committeeon Assassinations

Main article: United States House Select Committee onAssassinations

As a result of increasing public and congressional skep-ticism regarding the Warren Commission’s findings andthe transparency of government agencies, House Res-olution 1540 was passed in September 1976, creatingthe United States House Select Committee on Assassi-nations (HSCA) to investigate the assassinations of Pres-ident Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr..[138]

The Committee investigated until 1978, and in March1979 issued its final report, concluding that PresidentJohn F. Kennedy was probably assassinated as a resultof a conspiracy.[5] While one of the reasons for that find-ing of “probable conspiracy” was a since-discredited[9][10]acoustic analysis of a police channel dictabelt record-ing, the HSCA also commissioned numerous other sci-entific studies of acoustic analysis that corroborate theWarren Commission's findings.[139] The Committee con-cluded that previous investigations into Oswald’s respon-sibility were “thorough and reliable” but they did not ad-equately investigate the possibility of a conspiracy, andthat Federal agencies performed with “varying degreesof competency”.[140] Specifically, the FBI and CIA werefound to be deficient in sharing information with otheragencies and the Warren Commission. Instead of fur-nishing all information relevant to the investigation, theFBI and CIA only responded to specific requests and werestill occasionally inadequate.[141] Furthermore, the SecretService did not properly analyze information it possessedprior to the assassination and was inadequately preparedto protect the President.[5]

Concerning the conclusions of “probable conspiracy”,four of the twelve committee members wrote dissentingopinions.[142] In accordance with the recommendationsof the HSCA, the Dictabelt recording and acoustic evi-dence of a second assassin was subsequently reexamined.In light of investigative reports from the FBI’s Techni-cal Services Division and a specially appointed NationalAcademy of Sciences Committee determining that “reli-able acoustic data do not support a conclusion that therewas a second gunman,”[143] the Justice Department con-cluded “that no persuasive evidence can be identified tosupport the theory of a conspiracy in ... the assassinationof President Kennedy”.[10]

Although the final report and supporting volumes of theHSCA was publicly released, the working papers and pri-mary documents were sealed until 2029 under Congres-sional rules and only partially released as part of the 1992JFK Act.[144]

4.8 The JFK Act and AssassinationRecords Review Board

Main article: President John F. Kennedy AssassinationRecords Collection Act of 1992

In 1992, the popular but controversial movie JFK had re-newed public interest in the assassination and particularlyin the still-classified documents referenced in the film’spostscript. Largely in response to the film, Congresspassed the JFK Act, or “President John F. Kennedy As-sassination Records Collection Act of 1992”. The goal ofthe legislation was to collect at the National Archives andmake publicly available all of the assassination-relatedrecords held by federal and state government agencies,private citizens and various other organizations.The JFK Act also mandated the creation of an indepen-dent office, the Assassination Records Review Board, toreview the submitted records for completeness and con-tinued secrecy. The ReviewBoard was not commissionedto make any findings or conclusions regarding the assas-sination, just to collect and release all related documents.From 1994 until 1998, the Assassination Records ReviewBoard gathered and unsealed about 60,000 documents,consisting of over 4 million pages.[145][146] Governmentagencies requested that some records remain classifiedand these were reviewed under section 6 criteria of theJFK Act. There were 29,420 such records and all ofthem were fully or partially released, with stringent re-quirements for redaction.All remaining assassination-related records (approxi-mately 5,000 pages) are scheduled to be released by Oc-tober 2017, with the exception of documents certified forcontinued postponement by the President under the fol-lowing conditions: (1) “continued postponement is madenecessary by an identifiable harm to the military, de-fense, intelligence operations, law enforcement, or con-duct of foreign relations” and (2) “the identifiable harm isof such gravity that it outweighs the public interest in dis-closure.” There is some concern among researchers thatsignificant records, particularly those of the CIA, maystill remain classified after 2017.[147] Although these doc-uments may include interesting historical information, allof the records were examined by the Review Board andwere not determined to impact the facts of the Kennedyassassination.[148]

5 Conspiracy theories

Main article: John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracytheories

Many conspiracy theories posit that the assassination in-volved people or organizations other than Lee HarveyOswald. Most current theories put forth a criminal con-

11

The wooden fence on the grassy knoll, where many conspiracytheorists believe another gunman stood.

spiracy involving parties as varied as the CIA, the Mafia,Vice President Johnson, Cuban President Fidel Castro,the KGB, or some combination of those entities.[149]

Public opinion polls have consistently shown that a ma-jority of Americans believe there was a conspiracy to killKennedy. Gallup polls have also found that only 20–30%of the population believe that Oswald had acted alone.These polls also show that there is no agreement on whoelse may have been involved.[12][150] Former Los Ange-les District Attorney Vincent Bugliosi estimated that atotal of 42 groups, 82 assassins, and 214 people hadbeen accused in various Kennedy assassination conspir-acy theories.[151]

6 Reaction to the assassination

Main article: Reactions to the assassination of John F.Kennedy

The assassination evoked stunned reactions worldwide.Before the President’s death was announced, the first hourafter the shooting was a time of great confusion. Takingplace during the Cold War, it was at first unclear whetherthe shooting might be part of a larger attack upon theUnited States, and whether Vice President Johnson, whohad been riding two cars behind in the motorcade, wassafe.The news shocked the nation. People wept openly andgathered in department stores to watch the televisioncoverage, while others prayed. Traffic in some areascame to a halt as the news spread from car to car.[152]Schools across the United States dismissed their studentsearly.[153] Anger against Texas and Texans was reportedfrom some individuals. Various Cleveland Browns fans,for example, carried signs at the next Sunday’s homegame against the Dallas Cowboys decrying the city ofDallas as having “killed the President”.[154][155]

The event left a lasting impression on many worldwide.As with the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Har-bor before it and the September 11 attacks after it, ask-ing “Where were you when you heard about PresidentKennedy’s assassination” would become a common topicof discussion.[156][157][158][159]

7 Artifacts, museums and locationstoday

Dealey Plaza and Texas School Book Depository in 1969, look-ing much as they did in November 1963.

Plaque on the building that was the former Texas School BookDepository

Dealey Plaza, with Elm Street on the right and the Triple Under-pass in the middle.

12 9 NOTES

Looking southeast, with the pergola and knoll behind the pho-tographer: the X on the street marks the approximate position ofPresident Kennedy in the limousine at the moment he and Gov-ernor Connally were shot (photo taken in July 2006).

The plane serving as Air Force One is on display at theNational Museum of the United States Air Force in Day-ton, Ohio, where tours of the aircraft are offered includ-ing the rear of the aircraft where President Kennedy’scasket was placed and the location where Mrs. Kennedystood in her blood-stained pink dress while Vice Presi-dent Johnson was sworn in as president. The 1961 Lin-coln Continental limousine is at the Henry Ford Museumin Dearborn, Michigan.[160]

Equipment from the trauma room at Parkland Memo-rial Hospital, where President Kennedy was pronounceddead, including a gurney, was purchased by the fed-eral government from the hospital in 1973 and is nowstored by the National Archives at an underground facil-ity in Lenexa, Kansas. The First Lady’s pink suit, theautopsy report, X-rays and President Kennedy’s blood-stained jacket, shirt and tie worn during the assassina-tion are stored in the National Archives facility in CollegePark, Maryland, with access controlled by a representa-tive of the Kennedy family. The rifle used by Oswald, hisdiary, revolver, bullet fragments, and the windshield ofKennedy’s limousine are also stored by the Archives.[160]The Lincoln Catafalque, which President Kennedy’s cof-fin rested on while he lay in state in the Capitol, is ondisplay at the United States Capitol Visitor Center.[161]

The three-acre park within Dealey Plaza, the buildingsfacing it, the overpass, and a portion of the adjacent rail-yard – including the railroad switching tower – were des-ignated part of the Dealey Plaza Historic District by theNational Park Service on October 12, 1993. Much ofthe area is accessible to visitors, including the park andgrassy knoll. Though still an active city street, the approx-imate spot where the presidential limousine was locatedat the time of the shooting is marked with an X on thestreet.[162] The Texas School Book Depository now drawsover 325,000 visitors each year to the Sixth Floor Mu-seum at Dealey Plaza operated by the Dallas County His-torical Foundation. There is a re-creation of the sniper’s

nest on the sixth floor of the building.[163]

At the Historic Auto Attractions museum in Roscoe, Illi-nois, are permanently displayed items related to the as-sassination such as the catalogue Oswald used to orderthe rifle, a hat and jacket that belonged to Jack Rubyand the shoes he wore when he shot Oswald, and a win-dow from the Texas School Book Depository. The TexasState Archives have the clothes Governor Connally woreon November 22, 1963.Some items were intentionally destroyed by the UnitedStates government at the direction of Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedy, such as the casket used to trans-port President Kennedy’s body aboard Air Force Onefrom Dallas to Washington, which was dropped by theAir Force into the sea as “its public display would beextremely offensive and contrary to public policy”.[164]Other items such as the hat worn by Jack Ruby the dayhe shot Lee Harvey Oswald and the toe tag on Oswald’scorpse are in the hands of private collectors and have soldfor tens of thousands of dollars at auctions.[160]

Jack Ruby’s gun, owned by his brother Earl Ruby, wassold by the Herman Darvick Autograph Auctions in NewYork City on December 26, 1991, for $220,000.[165]

8 See also• Trial of Clay Shaw, the only trial to be brought forthe assassination of President Kennedy.

• Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy

• Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture

• Kennedy Curse

• Assassination of Abraham Lincoln

• Assassination of James A. Garfield

• Assassination of William McKinley

• Curse of Tippecanoe

• List of United States presidential assassination at-tempts and plots

9 Notes[1] Stokes 1979, pp. 21.

[2] “Report of the President’s Commission on the Assassi-nation of President Kennedy, Chapter 1: Summary andConclusions”.

[3] “US Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 6; plusprecedent set by John Tyler’s succession in 1841”.

[4] “US Constitution, Article II, Clause 8”.

13

[5] Stokes 1979, p. 2.

[6] Stokes 1979, pp. 90–93.

[7] Stokes 1979, p. 65.

[8] Stokes 1979, pp. 241-255.

[9] “Report of the Committee on Ballistic Acoustics”. Na-tional Research Council. Retrieved November 11, 2013.

[10] “Letter from Assistant Attorney General William F. Weldto Peter W. Rodino Jr., undated” (PDF). Retrieved Octo-ber 19, 2014.

[11] “New Poll Finds that Belief in Conspiracy Still Strong, ButSlipping Slightly”. Associated Press. May 11, 2013. Re-trieved November 1, 2013.

[12] “Majority in U.S. Still Believe JFKKilled in a Conspiracy:Mafia, federal government top list of potential conspira-tors”. Gallup, Inc. November 15, 2013.

[13] Russ. “26, 2009#P12844 Life in Legacy”. Lifeinle-gacy.com. Archived from the original on May 12, 2011.Retrieved March 28, 2010.

[14] Warren Commission 1964, p. 28

[15] White 1965, p. 3

[16] United Press International &American HeritageMagazine1964, p. 7

[17] Associated Press 1963, p. 7

[18] Warren Commission 1964, p. 40

[19] “Testimony of Kenneth P. O'Donnell”. Warren Commis-sion Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research Cen-ter. pp. 440–457. Retrieved November 26, 2012.

[20] Warren 1964, chpt. 2, p. 31.

[21] Warren 1964, chpt. 2, p. 40.

[22] McAdams, John (2012). “Changed Motorcade Route inDallas?". The Kennedy Assassination. Marquette Univer-sity. Retrieved November 26, 2012.

[23] Blaine, G. (2003). The Kennedy Detail. New York:Gallery Books. p. 196.

[24] “November 22, 1963: Death of the President”. John F.Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. RetrievedNovember 26, 2012.

[25] Carr, Heather. “What time was President Kennedy shot?When was Lee Harvey Oswald arrested?". About.comDallas. Retrieved November 26, 2012.

[26] John F. Kennedy by Tanya Savory chapter 12, secondpage. Retrieved January 14, 2016

[27] “Testimony of Mrs. John Bowden Connally, Jr”. WarrenCommission Hearings. Assassination Archives and Re-search Center. pp. 146–149. Retrieved November 26,2012.

[28] “Testimony of Gov. John Bowden Connally, Jr”. WarrenCommission Hearings. Assassination Archives and Re-search Center. pp. 129–146. Retrieved November 26,2012.

[29] “Testimony of Mrs. John F. Kennedy”. Warren Commis-sion. p. 179. Retrieved December 20, 2013.

[30] McAdams, John (2012). “Dealey Plaza Earwitnesses”.The Kennedy Assassination. Marquette University. Re-trieved November 26, 2012.

[31] Warren 1964, chpt. 2, p. 49. Although some close wit-nesses recalled seeing the limousine slow down, nearlystop, or completely stop, the Warren Commission, basedon the Zapruder film, found that the limousine had an av-erage speed of 11.2 miles per hour over the 186 ft of ElmStreet immediately preceding the fatal head shot.

[32] Roberdeau, Donald (November 11, 2012). “The DealeyPlaza Map”. Men of Courage: President Kennedy-elimination Evidence, Motives, Suspects, Discoveries, +Outstanding Researchers. p. 5. Retrieved June 4, 2016.Additional research from the Zapruder film has deter-mined that the car’s speed to specifically slow from 14.4mph to 8.3 mph. See the “Limo Speed” column at indi-cated Zapruder film frames, written on Main Street in theupper right Dealey Plaza detailed map area.

[33] Roberdeau, Donald (August 2009). “Graph of Head-facing Directions, Head-facing Changes, & Head-facingChanges in Speeds of the Kennedys and Connallys at theStart of the Attack”. Men of Courage: President Kennedy-elimination Evidence, Motives, Suspects, Discoveries, +Outstanding Researchers. p. 2. Retrieved June 4, 2016.

[34] “Testimony of Mrs. John F. Kennedy”. Warren Commis-sion Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research Cen-ter. June 5, 1964. pp. 178–181. Retrieved November 26,2012.

[35] Warren 1964, chpt. 1, pp. 18–19.

[36] Stokes 1979, pp. 41–46.

[37] “Testimony of Dr. Robert Roeder Shaw”. Warren Com-mission Hearings. Assassination Archives and ResearchCenter. April 21, 1964. pp. 101–117. Retrieved Novem-ber 26, 2012.

[38] Monroe, Monte L. (January–February 2012). “WaggonerCarr investigates the JFK assassination”. Texas Techsan.Lubbock: Texas Tech Alumni Association: 23–31. TexasAttorney General Waggoner Carr attempted a state-levelinvestigation but received no cooperation from the War-ren Commission. In the end, Carr generally endorsed theWarren Commission’s findings.

[39] “Testimony of Bobby W. Hargis”. Warren CommissionHearings. Assassination Archives and Research Center.April 8, 1964. pp. 293–296. Retrieved November 26,2012.

[40] Zapruder Film on YouTube

14 9 NOTES

[41] “Testimony of Clinton J. Hill, Special Agent, SecretService”. Warren Commission Hearings. AssassinationArchives and Research Center. pp. 132–144. RetrievedNovember 26, 2012.

[42] Zapruder film: frames 370, 375, 380, 390.

[43] Summers, Anthony (2013). Not in Your Lifetime. NewYork: Open Road. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-4804-3548-3.

[44] The Truth Behind JFK’s Asssasination, by Max Holland,Newsweek, November 20, 2014.

[45] “Testimony of James Thomas Tague”. Warren Commis-sion Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research Cen-ter. July 23, 1964. pp. 552–558. Retrieved November26, 2012.

[46] “Testimony of Clyde A. Haygood”. Warren CommissionHearings. Assassination Archives and Research Center.April 9, 1964. pp. 296–302. Retrieved November 26,2012.

[47] Warren Commission Hearings vol. 6, pp. 244–245,Testimony of S. M. Holland.

[48] Rahn, Kenneth A., Sr. (November 2001). “Up by theTriple Underpass 1”. Ken and Greg’s Excellent Adventure:Dallas. Retrieved November 27, 2012. See photos 1, 4,7, and 8.

[49] “Commission Exhibit 2118: View From North Tower ofUnion Terminal Company, Dallas, Texas”. Warren Com-mission Hearings. Assassination Archives and ResearchCenter. p. 548. Retrieved November 25, 2012.

[50] Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Lee E. Bow-ers, Jr.

[51] Myers, Dale K. (2008). “The Testimony of Lee Bowers,Jr”. Secrets of a Homicide: Badge Man. Oak Cliff Press.Retrieved November 26, 2012.

[52] Myers, Dale K. (September 14, 2007). “Lee Bowers: TheMan Behind the Grassy Knoll”. Secrets of a Homicide:JFK Assassination. Oak Cliff Press. Retrieved November26, 2012.

[53] Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 3, p. 143, Testimonyof Howard Brennan.

[54] Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 3, p. 145, Testimonyof Howard Brennan

[55] McAdams, John (November 22, 1963). “The JFK Assas-sination Dallas Police Tapes: History in Real Time”. TheKennedy Assassination. Marquette University. RetrievedNovember 26, 2012.

[56] Summers, Anthony (2013). Not in Your Lifetime. NewYork: Open Road. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-4804-3548-3.

[57] Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 17, p. 209, CE 494,Photograph of James Jarman, showing his position at afifth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository.

[58] Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 17, p. 202, CE 485,Photograph ofHaroldNorman, Bonnie RayWilliams, andJames Jarman, Jr. showing their positions on the fifth floorof the Texas School Book Depository as the motorcadepassed.

[59] “Testimony Of Bonnie Ray Williams”. mu.edu.

[60] Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Harold Nor-man.

[61] Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of WelcomeEugene Barnett.

[62] Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Forrest V.Sorrels.

[63] Not included in the 51.9% are two earwitnesses whothough the shots came from the TSBD, but from a lowerfloor or at street level, and who are thus included in the8.7%. Included in the 31.7% is a witness who thought theshots came from “the alcove near the benches”.

[64] Warren 1964, chpt. 3, p. 110.

[65] Testimony of Roy Truly, Warren Commission Hearingsand Exhibits, vol. 3, p. 230.

[66] Testimony of HelenMarkham,Warren Commission Hear-ings and Exhibits, vol. 3, p. 307.

[67] Testimony of Johnny Calvin Brewer, 7 H 3–5.

[68] Testimony of Julia Postal, 7 H 11.

[69] Testimony of M.N. McDonald, Warren CommissionHearings and Exhibits, vol. 3, p. 300.

[70] Tippit murder affidavit: text, cover. Kennedy murder af-fidavit: text, cover.

[71] Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 20, p. 366, KantorExhibit No. 3 —Handwritten notes made by Seth Kantorconcerning events surrounding the assassination.

[72] Lee Oswald claiming innocence (film), YouTube.com.

[73] Lee Oswald’s Midnight Press Conference, YouTube.com.Archived August 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.

[74] Bagdikian, Ben H. (December 14, 1963). Blair Jr., Clay,ed. “The Assassin”. The Saturday Evening Post. Philadel-phia, PA. 19105: The Curtis Publishing Company (44):26.

[75] The Nook: An Investigation of the Assassination of JohnF. Kennedy, Official Autopsy Report of Lee Harvey Os-wald, November 24, 1963. Accessed January 2, 2013.

[76] Testimony of Jack Ruby, Warren Commission Hearings,vol. 5, pp. 198–200.

[77] “John F. Kennedy Assassination Homepage :: WarrenCommission :: Report :: Page 645”. Jfk-assassination.de.December 5, 2004. Retrieved July 31, 2010.

[78] “Tom Alyea, “Facts and Photos"". Jfk-online.com. De-cember 19, 1963. Archived from the original on July 25,2010. Retrieved July 31, 2010.

15

[79] “Addendum: Report on an Examination of Photographsof the Rifle Associated with the Assassination of PresidentJohn F. Kennedy”. HSCA Appendix to Hearings - VolumeVI. Assassination Archives and Research Center. pp. 66–107. Retrieved November 26, 2012.

[80] Warren 1964, chpt. 4, pp. 125–126.

[81] Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 129.

[82] Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 118.

[83] Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 122.

[84] “Testimony of Lt. J. C. Day”. Warren Commission Hear-ings, vol. IV. Assassination Archives and Research Cen-ter. p. 260. Retrieved November 25, 2012.

[85] Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 124.

[86] “Shaneyfelt Exhibit No. 24”. Warren Commission Hear-ings. Assassination Archives and Research Center. p.467. Retrieved November 25, 2012.

[87] Warren 1964, chpt. 3, p. 79.

[88] “Biographical sketch of Dr. George Gregory Burkley, Ar-lington National Cemetery”. Arlington National Ceme-tery. Retrieved April 28, 2009.

[89] “History Matters Archive — MD 6 – White HouseDeath Certificate (Burkley – 11/23/63), pg”. History-matters.com. Archived from the original on July 29, 2010.Retrieved July 31, 2010.

[90] Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Volume 110, Number3, January 2007, pp. 380–393. Retrieved October 20,2008.

[91] Associated Press 1963, p. 15

[92] “Biographical sketch of Malcolm MacGregor Kilduff,Jr.”. Arlington National Cemetery. Archived from theoriginal on March 29, 2009. Retrieved April 28, 2009.

[93] Associated Press 1963, p. 19

[94] Rusk, Dean (1990). Rusk, Richard; Papp, Daniel S., eds.As I Saw It. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p.296. ISBN 0-393-02650-7.

[95] “Johnson Feared a Plot in Dallas”. The New York Times.Associated Press. December 24, 1963. p. 6. Mr. Kilduffwas the White House press man in charge at Dallas be-cause Pierre Salinger, the chief press secretary, was trav-eling to Japan with members of the Cabinet.

[96] Bugliosi 2007, pp. 92f–93f.

[97] Bugliosi 2007, pp. 110–111.

[98] “Specific considerations pertaining to the John F.Kennedy autopsy”. Appendix to Hearings before the SelectCommittee on Assassinations of the U.S. House of Repre-sentatives. VII. Washington, D.C.: United States Govern-ment Printing Office. March 1979. pp. 188–190.

[99] "[Death Certificate of John F. Kennedy]". The Portal toTexas History.

[100] Article II of the United States Constitution, Section 1,Clause 6

[101] “President Lyndon B. Johnson takes Oath of Office, 22November 1963” John F. Kennedy Presidential Libraryand Museum. Retrieved September 1, 2016.

[102] Associated Press 1963, pp. 29–31

[103] United Press International; American Heritage Magazine(1964). Four Days: The Historical Record of the Death ofPresident Kennedy. American Heritage Publishing Com-pany.

[104] Raymond, Jack (November 23, 1963). “President’s BodyWill Lie in State”. The New York Times. p. 1.

[105] Raymond, Jack (November 24, 1963). “Kennedy’s BodyLies in the White House”. New York Times. p. 1.

[106] Wicker, Tom (November 25, 1963). “Grieving ThrongsView Kennedy Bier”. The New York Times. p. 1.

[107] Associated Press 1963, p. 91

[108] Wicker, Tom (November 26, 1963). “Kennedy Laid toRest in Arlington”. The New York Times. p. 1.

[109] Zaid, Mark; James Lesar; Charles Sanders (November 23,1998). “Zapruder Film Civil Suit Filed”. AssassinationResearch. Retrieved November 27, 2012.

[110] Inverne, James (June 11, 2004). “Think you know yourfilm facts?". The Guardian . London. Retrieved May 6,2010.

[111] Pasternack, Alex (November 23, 2012). “The OtherShooter: The Saddest and Most Expensive 26 Seconds ofAmateur Film Ever Made”. Motherboard. Archived fromthe original on November 30, 2012. Retrieved June 18,2016. Finally, in 1999, an arbitration panel ordered thegovernment to pay the Zapruders $16 million to keep theoriginal film. According to the Guinness Book of WorldRecords, that works out to a record-breaking $615,384per second.

[112] Friedman, Rick (November 30, 1963). “Pictures of theAssassination Fall to Amateurs on Street”. Editor & Pub-lisher: 17.

[113] “A World Listened and Watched” (PDF). Broadcasting.Washington, D.C.: Broadcasting Publications: 36–40, 46.December 2, 1963. Retrieved November 27, 2012.

[114] Schonfeld, MauriceW. (July–August 1975). “The shadowof a gunman”. Columbia Journalism Review. RetrievedNovember 27, 2012.

[115] A different person than the so-called "Babushka Lady".

[116] “George Jefferies Film”. George Jefferies Collection. SixthFloor Museum at Dealey Plaza. Retrieved November 26,2012.

[117] “Museum Releases Newly Discovered Film of JFK Mo-torcade” (Press release). Dallas, Texas: Sixth Floor Mu-seum at Dealey Plaza. February 19, 2007. RetrievedNovember 26, 2012.

16 9 NOTES

[118] Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 180.

[119] “Report of Capt. J. W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department”.Warren Report. Assassination Archives and ResearchCenter. pp. 599–611. Retrieved November 25, 2012.

[120] “Captain Will Fritz’s notes of LHO interrogation”. JFKLancer Productions & Publications. Retrieved November25, 2012. Captain Fritz told the Warren Commission that“I kept no notes at the time” of his several interrogations ofOswald (4 H 209). However, many years later, someonediscovered a little over two and a half pages of Fritz’s con-temporaneous handwritten notes at the National Archives.Fritz also said that “several days later” he wrote more ex-tensive notes of the interrogations (4 H 209).

[121] Warren 1964, chpt. 4, pp. 180–195.

[122] “Reports of Agents of the Federal Bureau of Investiga-tion”. Warren Report. Assassination Archives and Re-search Center. pp. 612–625. Retrieved November 25,2012.

[123] For testimony relating to the interrogation sessions, see 4H 152–153, 157 (Curry); 4 H 207–211, 217, 221–231,239–240 (Fritz); 4 H 355–357 (Winston Lawson); 4 H466–470 (James Hosty, Jr.); 7 H 123–127 (Elmer Boyd);7 H 164–182 (Sims); 7 H 309–318 (James Bookhout); 7H 320–321 (Manning Clements); 13 H 58–62 (Sorrels);7 H 590 (Kelley); 7 H 296–306 (Holmes); CE 1982.

[124] “Investigation of the Assassination of President John F.Kennedy November 22, 1963”. United States Federal Bu-reau of Investigation. December 9, 1963. Retrieved De-cember 8, 2016.

[125] Baluch, Jerry T. (November 30, 1963). “Warren HeadsProbe into Assassination”. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Asso-ciated Press.

[126] Mohr, Charles (September 25, 1964). “Johnson Gets As-sassination Report”. The New York Times. p. 1.

[127] Roberts, Chalmers M. (September 28, 1964). “WarrenReport Says Oswald Acted Alone; Raps FBI, Secret Ser-vice”. The Washington Post. p. A1.

[128] Lewis, Anthony (September 27, 1964). “Warren Com-mission Finds Oswald Guilty and Says Assassin and RubyActed Alone”. The New York Times. p. 1.

[129] Pomfret, John D. (September 28, 1964). “CommissionSays Ruby Acted Alone in Slaying”. The New York Times.p. 17.

[130] Beschloss, Michael R. (1997). “Taking Charge: TheJohnsonWhite House Tapes, 1963-1964”. NewYork: Si-mon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80407-7.

[131] Bugliosi 2007, pp. 136–137.

[132] National Archives Deputy Archivist, Dr. Robert H. Bah-mer, interview in New York Herald Tribune, December18, 1964, p. 24

[133] 1968 Panel Review of Photographs, X-Ray Films, Docu-ments and Other Evidence Pertaining to the Fatal Wound-ing of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963,in Dallas, Texas. Archived July 30, 2007, at WebCite

[134] “Rockefeller Commission Report”. AssassinationArchives and Research Center. Retrieved November 26,2012.

[135] McAdams, John. “E. Howard Hunt and Frank Sturgis:Were Watergate Conspirators Also JFK Assassins?". TheKennedy Assassination. Marquette University. RetrievedNovember 26, 2012.

[136] “Book V: The Investigation of the Assassination of Pres-ident J.F.K.: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies”.Assassinations Archive and Research Center. RetrievedFebruary 6, 2011.

[137] “Book V: The Investigation of the Assassination of Pres-ident J.F.K.: Performance of the Intelligence Agencies”.Assassinations Archive and Research Center. RetrievedFebruary 6, 2011.

[138] Stokes 1979, pp. 9-16.

[139] Stokes 1979, pp. Appendix Volumes 6 & 7.

[140] Stokes 1979, pp. 2-3.

[141] Stokes 1979, pp. 239-261.

[142] Stokes 1979, pp. 483–511.

[143] Council, National Research. Report of the Committee onBallistic Acoustics. doi:10.17226/10264.

[144] “1. The Problem of Secrecy and the Solution of the JFKAct”. Final Report of the Assassination Records ReviewBoard. September 1998.

[145] “Final Report of the Assassination Records ReviewBoard, Chapter 4”. Fas.org. May 30, 2008. RetrievedJuly 31, 2010.

[146] “Assassination Records Review Board: Unlocking theGovernment’s Secret Files on the Murder of a President”.Mcadams.posc.mu.edu. Retrieved 2010-07-31.

[147] Bender, Bryan (25 Nov 2013). “Troves of files on JFKassassination remain secret”. Boston Globe. Retrieved 12February 2015.

[148] Bugliosi 2007, pp. End Notes 147.

[149] Summers, Anthony (2013). “Six Options for History”.Not in Your Lifetime. New York: Open Road. p. 238.ISBN 978-1-4804-3548-3.

[150] Lydia Saad (November 21, 2003). “Americans: KennedyAssassination a Conspiracy”. Gallup, Inc.

[151] “One JFK conspiracy theory that could be true -CNN.com”. CNN. November 18, 2013.

[152] Associated Press 1963, p. 16

[153] Associated Press 1963, p. 29

[154] “Browns Set Back Cowboys, 27 to 17”. The New YorkTimes. Associated Press. November 25, 1963. p.35.(subscription required)

17

[155] Loftus, Joseph A. (November 25, 1963). “Ruby is Re-garded as 'Small-Timer'". The New York Times. p.12.(subscription required)

[156] Brinkley, David (2003). Brinkley’s Beat: People, Places,and Events That Shaped My Time. New York: Knopf.ISBN 978-0-375-40644-7.

[157] White, Theodore H. (1965). The Making of the President,1964. New York: Atheneum Publishers. p. 6. LCCN65018328.

[158] Dinneen, Joseph F. (November 24, 1963). “A Shock LikePearl Harbor”. The Boston Globe. p. 10. – via BostonGlobe Archive (subscription required)

[159] http://www.people-press.org/2011/09/01/united-in-rememberance-divided-over-policies/

[160] Keen, Judy (November 20, 2009). “JFK 'relics’ stir strongemotions”. USA Today. Retrieved November 20, 2009.

[161] “The Catafalque”. History of Capitol Hill. Architect ofthe Capitol. Retrieved November 26, 2012.

[162] “Dealey Plaza Historic District”. National Historic Land-marks Program. National Park Service. Archived fromthe original on November 13, 2012. Retrieved November26, 2012.

[163] “Q: Why is it called The Sixth Floor Museum at DealeyPlaza?". Frequently Asked Questions. Sixth Floor Mu-seum at Dealey Plaza. Retrieved November 26, 2012.

[164] “Documents State JFK’s Dallas Coffin Disposed At Sea”.JFK Lancer Independent News Exchange. Retrieved Oc-tober 2, 2012.

[165] Goldberg, Barbara (December 26, 1991). “Jack Ruby’sGun Sold For $220,000”. Associated Press. RetrievedFebruary 15, 2013.

10 References

• Associated Press (1963). The Torch Is Passed: TheAssociated Press Story of the Death of a President.New York: Associated Press. LCCN 64001351.

• Bugliosi, Vincent (2007). Reclaiming History: TheAssassination of President John F. Kennedy. NewYork: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04525-3.

• Kelin, John (2007). Praise from a Future Genera-tion: The Assassination of John F. Kennedy and theFirst Generation Critics of the Warren Report. fore-word by H. C. Nash. San Antonio, Tex: WingsPress. ISBN 978-0-916727-32-1.

• Manchester, William (1967). The Death of a Presi-dent: November 20-November 25, 1963. New York:Harper & Row. LCCN 67010496.

• Stokes, Louis (1979). “Report of the Select Com-mittee on Assassinations of the U.S. House of Rep-resentatives”. Washington, D.C.: United StatesGovernment Printing Office.

• Sturdivan, Larry M. (2005). The JFK Myths: AScientific Investigation of the Kennedy Assassination.St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 978-1-55778-847-4.

• Summers, Anthony (2013). Not in Your Lifetime.New York: Open Road. ISBN 978-1-4804-3548-3.

• Thompson, Josiah (1967). Six Seconds in Dallas:A Micro-Study of the Kennedy Assassination. NewYork: Bernard Geis Associates. LCCN 67023577.

• Trask, Richard B. (1994). Pictures of the Pain:Photography and the Assassination of PresidentKennedy. Danvers, Mass: Yeoman Press. ISBN978-0-9638595-0-1.

• Waldron, Lamar; Hartmann, Thom (2005). Ulti-mate Sacrifice: John and Robert Kennedy, the Planfor a Coup in Cuba, and the Murder of JFK. NewYork: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-1441-4.

• Warren, Earl (1964). “Report of the President’sCommission on the Assassination of PresidentKennedy”. Washington, D.C.: United States Gov-ernment Printing Office.

11 External links• The Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza

• The President John F. Kennedy AssassinationRecords Collection – National Archives andRecords Administration

• JFK Assassination:A look back at the death of Pres-ident John F. Kennedy 50 years ago – CBS News

• “November 22, 1963: Death of the President”. JohnF. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.

• “JFK: One PM Central Standard Time” – documen-tary produced by PBS

• “The Assassination of President Kennedy” – radiodocumentary by Mike Swickey

• “Weisberg Collection on the JFK Assassination” –Internet Archive

18 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text• Assassination of John F. Kennedy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy?oldid=776871391 Con-tributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Mark, William Avery, SimonP, Shii, Ewlloyd, Mintguy, Montrealais, Ewen, Hephaestos, JDG, Some-one else, Rickyrab, AntonioMartin, Xoder, Drseudo, Stevertigo, Edward, Infrogmation, Kwertii, Jtdirl, BoNoMoJo (old), Menchi, Taras,Ixfd64, Lquilter, Paul Benjamin Austin, Delirium, Dori, Minesweeper, Tregoweth, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Angela, King-turtle, Ugen64, Cyan, Vzbs34, Nikai, Cratbro, Evercat, Arteitle, Jengod, Popsracer, Adam Bishop, RickK, Jwrosenzweig, Andrewman327,WhisperToMe, Wik, DJ Clayworth, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Jodan, Jgm, Tempshill, Phoebe, Joseaperez, Lord Emsworth, Toreau,Kwantus, Fvw, AaronSw, Raul654, Tech77jp, Bcorr, Pakaran, Adam Carr, Michael Glass, Hajor, Skybunny, Rossumcapek, Shantavira,Writerite, Gerd Badur, Dimadick, Phil Boswell, Vt-aoe, Branddobbe, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Kizor, Schutz, Moncrief, Securiger, Low-ellian, Mirv, Postdlf, Merovingian, Sverdrup, Der Eberswalder, Texture, Sekicho, Timrollpickering, Acegikmo1, Andrew Levine, 75thTrombone, Hadal, Wikibot, JackofOz, Wereon, Magicker71, Aetheling, Casito, SoLando, Walloon, Seth Ilys, Diberri, Nauvoo, American-Century21, Alan Liefting, Jacoplane, Wolfkeeper, Netoholic, Tom harrison, Aratuk, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Fastfission, IRelayer, Karn,Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, Lestatdelc, Curps, Michael Devore, Gamaliel, Mirer, Syed Atif Nazir, Ofus, Maroux, DO'Neil,Beardo, Yekrats, Mboverload, Gregb, Gzornenplatz, VampWillow, Glengarry, Bobblewik, Wiki Wikardo, Cam, Avaragado, Wmahan,JFKtruth, Auximines, Alexf, Lst27, Toytoy, Geni, R. fiend, GeneralPatton, Bart Versieck, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Piotrus, Vanished user1234567890, Tim Pritlove, PDH, Jossi, JimWae, DragonflySixtyseven, Mpiff, Joobie, Jawed, Karl-Henner, Pyro~enwiki, KingGeekoid,Jcw69, Michael L. Kaufman, Ukexpat, Fermion, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Squash, TheCustomOfLife, Gazpacho, Mike Rosoft, Dr.frog,Freakofnurture, Venu62, DanielCD, Indosauros, MysteryDog, Discospinster, Badgeman, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Kdammers, Ross Uber,Digamma~enwiki, MeltBanana, Rex071404, Mikkel, Byrial, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner,JoeSmack, Alex3917, MBisanz, El C, Tom, RoyBoy, Triona, Bookofjude, Causa sui, Bobo192, DanielNuyu, Hurricane111, Dystopos, Feit-club, Smalljim, BrokenSegue, Shenme, Viriditas, Elipongo, Guido del Confuso, Adrian~enwiki, Maurreen, Jguk 2, Britomart, ParticleMan,9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, SNIyer1, Sasquatch, Darwinek, Obradovic Goran, Osbojos, Sam Korn, Pearle, Jonathunder, Nsaa, Jakew,Perceval, Beades, Luckyluke, HasharBot~enwiki, Adambisset, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Stephen G. Brown, Danski14, Alansohn, Tairen,Eleland, Sherurcij, Free Bear, Borisblue, Mbarlowm, Rd232, Wjbean, Bigcheesebebbs, Ashley Pomeroy, Lectonar, SlimVirgin, Lightdark-ness, SamUK, Vbdrummer0, YDZ, Ramsquire, TommyBoy, 52yearinvestigator, Cdc, RoboAction~enwiki, Scott5114, Pax~enwiki, Mari-anocecowski, Wtmitchell, DallasWitness, Velella, Fordan, ProhibitOnions, Vcelloho, JUSTtheFACTS, Omphaloscope, Bradipus, Skyring,Computerjoe, Netkinetic, Ralph Schuster, Coolgamer, Dan100, Harvestdancer, Vanished user dfvkjmet9jweflkmdkcn234, Tariqabjotu,Hijiri88, Crosbiesmith, KUsam, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), The JPS, Simetrical, Reinoutr, Woohookitty, Mr Tan, Tiger-Shark, LOL, Jersyko, LoopZilla, Cmcgilton, Benbest, ^demon, Windsok, WadeSimMiser, Niloc, MONGO, Jok2000, Tabletop, Ke-lisi, LIU, Bkwillwm, Hbdragon88, Al E., Wikiklrsc, I64s, BartBenjamin, Bluemoose, GregorB, Macaddct1984, OCNative, Skywriter,Zzyzx11, Wayward, Prashanthns, Stefanomione, Icydid, Wgsimon, Sneakums, Dysepsion, Miken32, Mandarax, Graham87, Deltabeignet,Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Amorrow, BorgHunter, Calicocat, Pmj, Canderson7, Sjö, Sjakkalle, Koyna, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan,Tim!, Evin290, Kelora, Koavf, Erebus555, Jake Wartenberg, Mkidson, Vary, Bill37212, Rillian, JHMM13, Harro5, Bruce1ee, Lord-kinbote, Vegaswikian, Funnyhat, XLerate, Stilgar135, HappyCamper, Bubba73, Jkeaton, Afterwriting, The wub, Bhadani, TheGWO,MarnetteD, GregAsche, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, Andrzej P. Wozniak, Titoxd, Cjpuffin, FlaBot, Mirror Vax, Schumin-Web, G Clark, RobertG, Windchaser, Ground Zero, Old Moonraker, Geldart, Doc glasgow, Arasaka, Nihiltres, Harmil, Nivix, MarkSublette, Rune.welsh, RexNL, Wctaiwan, Gurch, AdamantlyMike, Ayla, Wars, Jrtayloriv, John geraghty, Drumguy8800, ViriiK, TeaD-rinker, Preslethe, Simishag, Alphachimp, Acefitt, Theshibboleth, Valentinian, Ybarkai, Jamesevanpilato, DVdm, VolatileChemical, An-tiuser, Cactus.man, HarryCane, Zimbabweed, Jpfagerback, Wasted Time R, BlueJaeger, YurikBot, Albanaco, RattusMaximus, Jeffpw,Hairy Dude, RussBot, 10stone5, Madrone, Pburka, AVM, ChuckyDarko, RPlunk, DanMS, Hellbus, Tonywiki, Lar, RadioFan, Stephenb,Hyperbole, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Wimt, RadioKirk, Big Brother 1984, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki,Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Joshdboz, Grafen, Welsh, Trovatore, ONEder Boy, Rjensen, Howcheng, Toya, Esthurin, Anetode, Michaelfeb16,Moe Epsilon, Scs, OettingerCroat, Tony1, MSJapan, GeorgeC, Vlad, DeadEyeArrow, Tachyon01, Elkman, Jpeob, Canuckguy, Phenz,Nlu, Wknight94, Xabian40409, Roger Gianni~enwiki, Vonfraginoff, Alecmconroy, Jaysuschris, 21655, Deville, Zzuuzz, Encephalon, The-MadBaron, Ageekgal, Jessica Mulley, Thnidu, Pb30, Neilmc, Th1rt3en, Tsunaminoai, Skullfission, Nothlit, Red Jay, CWenger, Nae'blis,Jolb, Lowell Silverman, ArielGold, Easter Monkey, Jack Upland, Argos’Dad, Kungfuadam, Jonathan.s.kt, Crunch, NeilN, Bizkit311J,Airconswitch, Chic happens, Kiwifilm, Tsm1128, Snottily, PKtm, Flamingplaydoh, Remiel, SmackBot, Amcbride, Wangyunfeng, The-Billy, Aim Here, Elonka, Rob110178, Unschool, Djohnson66434, Reedy, Arniebuteft, KnowledgeOfSelf, NineEighteen, Ariedartin, Pgk,C.Fred, Hobbes747, Glm~enwiki, Ssbohio, Michael Dorosh, Jab843, KelleyCook, Paxse, Frymaster, Boris Barowski, ZS, Imzadi1979,Edgar181, Evanreyes, DrBear, Toonmon2005, TypoDotOrg, IstvanWolf, Wildcat156, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi , Cheshil, Gilliam, Hmains,Betacommand, Skizzik, Sixteenraisins, Andy M. Wang, Marc Kupper, RosenCruz, Saros136, Happywaffle, Master Jay, KaragouniS, Kee-gan, Leo505, Myxsoma, Persian Poet Gal, Bjmullan, RPJ, Jprg1966, Master of Puppets, GregRM, Bonesiii, SchfiftyThree, Renamed userSloane, JoeBlogsDord, Afasmit, Baa, NicAgent, DHN-bot~enwiki, Sbharris, Rcbutcher, Yanksox, GoodDay, Bov, Camillus McElhinney,Sim man, Warbuck50, Muboshgu, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Fishhead64, MadameArsenic, Neilgroom, DHeyward, DLand, Or-phanBot, Avb, JonHarder, Jhiner, TheKMan, Themadchopper, Britmax, Rsm99833, Andy120290, Addshore, Francisx, Frederick crowe,Threeafterthree, 1sttomars, Jmlk17, Pepsidrinka, YankeeDoodle14, Flyguy649, Fuhghettaboutit, RFD, Ianmacm, Mytwocents, Sliprock-doc, Nakon, OranL, TedE, Rossman123, QuintPint14, RaCha'ar, Invincible Ninja, Mini-Geek, Weregerbil, EdGl, Woodrow Buzard,DDima, Mostlyharmless, Kukini, Drunken Pirate, Neil9327, Cvieg, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Pinecone, Byelf2007, Weatherman1126,F15 Sanitizing eagle, Ktdreyer, Minaker, Kuru, John, Libertariandeist, J 1982, SilkTork, CPMcE, Lazylaces, Robofish, JorisvS, Mgigan-teus1, NYCJosh, Goodnightmush, Tdudkowski, Aliwali60, Peterlewis, Nearo~enwiki, Bryanm61, IronGargoyle, Cielomobile, Chrisd87,Melody Concerto, 041744, Ckatz, Freddythemudshark, Ripe, JHunterJ, Gwendy, Kingsevil, Timmeh, Stwalkerster, Admshiloh, Nyarkni,Boomshadow, Noah Salzman, George The Dragon, Avs5221, Publicus, Optakeover, Waggers, Eridani, Doczilla, Dr.K., Citicat, Negrulio,TheWrongMan, Iamthejenk, Fifties, MrDolomite, Josefritz, KJS77, Hu12, Pejman47, Bunggie, Quaeler, Corvi, Levineps, DouglasCalvert,Nehrams2020, Nonexistant User, Iridescent, Lathrop1885, TwistOfCain, Joseph Solis in Australia, ChrisZ~enwiki, Gholam, Wayfar-ers43, Jorrit787, Pegasus1138, Joao.caprivi, Macdata~enwiki, R. J. Robertson, Civil Engineer III, Adambiswanger1, Courcelles, Ziusudra,Amnesta, Chovain, Carinya, Thelovelyjazmin, Tawkerbot2, Cormican69, Dlohcierekim, Hammer Raccoon, BruceGrubb, Pink Fae, CesarTort, JForget, FleetCommand, Anthony22, Le savoir et le savoir-faire, Joegoodfriend, President David Palmer, Ale jrb, Yallways, Wa-fulz, Articnomad, Iced Kola, AlbertSM, W guice, JohnCD, Dynzmoar, Nunquam Dormio, CWY2190, KnightLago, Kylu, Mother3, THF,Gfrankson, DanielRigal, Ganfon, Mctaviix, Sarah crane, FlyingToaster, Shizane, Moreschi, TheTito, Location, Richard Keatinge, Tex,Karenjc, Fletcher, Funnyfarmofdoom, Nauticashades, Cydebot, Acefighter, Cahk, Abeg92, Andreasegde, Registered user 92, Gogo Dodo,

12.1 Text 19

Bellerophon5685, Siberian Husky, JFreeman, Corpx, Tec15, Llort, Dsine, Bazzargh, GRBerry, Chasingsol, Blackmetalbaz, JamesLucas,Maskedavenger, Odie5533, Christian75, DumbBOT,Maskedavenger2, Bryan Seecrets, JustFacts, DonFB,Waxigloo, JayW, Daven200520,Gonzo fan2007, Ebyabe, Omicronpersei8, Almostfm, Hermes3m, Gimmetrow, Tewapack, Atakaratebud, JohnInDC, Farzan1, Epbr123,Sinanwolfgazo, Drewheasman, Btball, Figgie123, Coelacan, Dubc0724, Pajz, Cgarrod, God Of Hell, Kablammo, Vidor, N5iln, Smee,Leedeth, Canada Jack, Jdooz121, Marek69, Bobblehead, Second Quantization, Somegeekintn, Philippe, Lithpiperpilot, Srose, NatalieErin, Escarbot, Dalliance, Omaunder, Porqin, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Seattlehawk94, Gioto, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, StringRay,Antique Rose, Paste, F-451, Edokter, AaronY, Waerloeg, LuckyLouie, Whoosher, Clamster5, Eflteacher, Trezjr, LibLord, Johnny Sum-ner, Haugedo, Φ, Golgofrinchian, Serpent’s Choice, Mhagerman, Erxnmedia, JAnDbot, Dan D. Ric, Gatemansgc, Leuko, MER-C, Nthep,Hypnometal, Ericoides, EKindig, Zaindy, MikeFlynn52, Db099221, Myrab, Langley808, PhilKnight, R27182818, HockeyRocksMySocks,Svenna, LittleOldMe, Charlene.fic, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Ny156uk, Lewjoh17, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Hb2019, Fallon Turner,C d h, JNW, Mbc362, Kokin, HollaAtYaHero, Javaman200, Imwid3awak3, Zenomax, WODUP, The Anomebot2, PEAR, Midgrid,Nick Cooper, BrianGV, Catgut, Superworms, Bazzbee, Animum, Zetterberg40, Bierleka, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, Knatty-pheet, SniffBlinky, ArmadilloFromHell, Mcfar54, DerHexer, JaGa, Edward321, GregU, Russeasby, TheRanger, Defenestrating Monday,Hdt83, MartinBot, M3tal H3ad, Observer 144, Arjun01, Tvoz, RFM57, Anaxial, Sm8900, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius,Brothejr, Fortwortharchitect, LittleOldMe old, Smokizzy, Lilac Soul, Billy Pilgrim, 03rp110, Shellwood, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wiz-ards, DrKay, Ali, ElizabethF, RRawpower, Uncle Dick, JPLeonard, Midnightman, Ginsengbomb, Hodja Nasreddin, Reaper928, Van-ished user 342562, Ii-Metal-Il, Alex2706, TomCat4680, Blotto adrift, Katalaveno, Igutgold, Zedmelon, Jeepday, Jon Ascton, Pocklington-Dan, Sodfijd, JayJasper, Chriswiki, Junafani, NewEnglandYankee, In Transit, Johnnycobra, Rwessel, Themoodyblue, Amanal, Ddawn23,Cmichael, Dpm12, 2help, Joshua Issac, Benjaminso, WJBscribe, Lebob, Malopicaso, Jsnook1, Action Jackson IV, LordCo Centre, Gem-ini1980, Bobo2000, Nybigpoppa6, Gtg204y, Bonadea, Xaxx, Ja 62, Useight, Ronbo76, Flemo 82, CardinalDan, Funandtrvl, Vermeire,Michaeloptv, Wikieditor06, Gilletre, Lights, X!, Sam Blacketer, Deor, Kingkong90, Wwetruewwe, VolkovBot, CWii, One Night In Hack-ney, ABF, JGHowes, Nullx42, Mr. Bouncy, Jeff G., Dma124, Bry9000, Majoreditor, Katydidit, Al.locke, Αναρχία, Kinneytj, Kanda-har69, Ryan032, Tkloes, Philip Trueman, Athanasius28, TXiKiBoT, Dirtyshoes7, Mercy, Sroc, Saskcitation, KindDeeds, USRoute66,Rougelement, Technopat, OmSvaha, Mosmof, Bbltype, SteveStrummer, AlysTarr, Qxz, Billydee84, IllaZilla, Clarince63, Thundergod89,Broadbot, Chellebell93, LeaveSleaves, SGT141, Mannafredo, Tbrittreid, David in DC, Jonathanmills, Anglomachian, Rumiton, Sujames,Nedrutland, Mwilso24, Blueangel76, Sitron, BigDunc, Lemmiwinks900, Blurpeace, RandomXYZb, Malganis, Enigmaman, Happyme22,Meters, Lillecavalier, Teryl, Wasted Sapience, Thomack, Joseph A. Spadaro, Francis Flinch, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Superkrups20056,RaseaC, The Devil’s Advocate, Detetco, Edkollin, HiDrNick, Bernstein2291, Chenzw, Pjoef, Quantpole, Logan, Justicewell, W4chris,PericlesofAthens, Russellane, K69, D. Recorder, Givegains, Wjl2, MikeRumex, Tylerneely42, Whiskey in the Jar, Desertjakl, ATS,Sophos II, Rondh69, Skootles, Kevinmac81, Jsc83, Legion fi, Dawn Bard, Ravensfire, Rl1rl1, Yintan, Tomwhite56, LeadSongDog, Groove-Dog, Warhammer 8, Rudoleska, Keilana, Boscoboy, Drax10, Bentogoa, Happysailor, Toddst1, Flyer22 Reborn, Save-Me-Oprah, Ferret,JSpung, Prestonmag, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, CurtisEm, Faradayplank, Avnjay, Harry-, Bagatelle, Hello71, Adam37, KoshVorlon,J496, Lightmouse, Hobartimus, Ntkarr, Markpommier, Moletrouser, IdreamofJeanie, Sunrise, Kumioko (renamed), Ukfencer22, Rjfost,MadmanBot, Potato dude42, Sajeewashaluka, StaticGull, Wuhwuzdat, Mygerardromance, Maralia, TaerkastUA, Faulknerfan, WikiLau-rent, Dabomb87, Dvp1961, Iamwisesun, Denisarona, Ahuitzotl, Richard David Ramsey, Jons63, Randy Kryn, DaddyWarlock, MenoBot,Church, Loren.wilton, Sfan00 IMG, MBK004, ClueBot, Dakman111, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Badger Drink, Foxj, The Thing ThatShould Not Be, Rodhullandemu, Rjd0060, Jan1nad, Fcoghlan, Cptmurdok, Ignorance is strength, Drmies, TheOldJacobite, Uncle Milty,Boing! said Zebedee, Bstock84, Chartax, Blanchardb, Dylan620, Davidvp, Nobaddude, Arbeit Sockenpuppe, The 888th Avatar, Trivi-alist, Neverquick, William Ortiz, Passargea, Puchiko, Rockfang, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, PixelBot, Wikitumnus, Eeekster, Asmaybe,Gulmammad, NuclearWarfare, Ice Cold Beer, Nmoo, Arjayay, CowboySpartan, Randolph Polasek, Dekisugi, Editor510, Random86,Mikaey, 09patrick, BOTarate, ChrisHamburg, Kakofonous, Qwiggalo, Bald Zebra, Thingg, News Projects, Aitias, JDPhD, Scalhotrod,Versus22, Berean Hunter, Ubardak, Londonclanger, SoxBot III, Editor2020, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, Jmanigold, Internet-Meme, Kelseyb-3, BarretB, Against the current, Badmachine, XLinkBot, Will-B, Spitfire, Gnowor, Bahman15, Lucas Malor~enwiki,Sir Sputnik, Booklover96, Little Mountain 5, Georgieandflair, Ilikepie2221, Skarebo, NellieBly, Beach drifter, DiRitual, HarlandQPitt,WikiDao, Vhoscythe, Stephiepoo89, 3973cds, Good Olfactory, Hippoattack, RyanCross, Gggh, EEng, Surtsicna, HexaChord, Matthew-Vanitas, Jack forbes (renamed), Vcorani, Coojay, Addbot, MikeMeier44, 13jbenesh, ConCompS, Willking1979, RandySavageFTW,Renamed user sACb6x5Zz8lNYu9btY, Some jerk on the Internet, IronmanVIIIIIIIX, Nisgatreaty, Lucckky, Jojhutton, Landon1980,Captain-tucker, Invalid username 6698435~enwiki, Aljofo, Thomas Guibal, Ronhjones, Jeanne boleyn, Fieldday-sunday, Zaid319, Shirt-waist, Blackdragon15, CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, Download, Morning277, PranksterTurtle, Buster7, Glane23, Patricia Meadows, Chzz,Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, Evadinggrid, 5 albert square, Lord Neos, Wikithumper, CuteHappyBrute, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Dayewalker, Bv2332, Tide rolls, SDJ, Lightbot, Thunberg, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, Granpuff, Themfromspace, Fraggle81,Newportm, Rsquire3, Gothic2, Buddy431, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, QueenCake, There’sNoTime, Bbb23, Gunjones, Markshaw,AnomieBOT, Googlean, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, IRP, Pernelldh, Piano non troppo, Ipatrol, Aditya, Andros Amatakis, Kingpin13,Yachtsman1, RandomAct, Jeff Muscato, Materialscientist, RadioBroadcast, Danno uk, Gtyrebiter, Citation bot, OllieFury, Onesius, John-nyB256, GB fan, ArthurBot, LovesMacs, Quebec99, LilHelpa, FreeRangeFrog, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Buzzbomber, Lowesvisa, Ammub-have, Lemmys61, Sionus, Cureden, Dk100, Capricorn42, Jeffrey Mall, Nasnema, Mononomic, Ezicdmucddrakesa, Gilo1969, Jmundo,Gap9551, Maddie!, AbigailAbernathy, UnitedPress, Hi878, Sparrow329, Raprchju, RadiX, GrouchoBot, MilfordBoy991, Ab1, DonVBZ,Frankie0607, Shirik, Johnnysmitthy, Prunesqualer, RibotBOT, Homie727, Libertarian Tom, Tangjackson, CaptainDrWho, IShadowed,MLauba, Maitchy, FredrichVonHupoinen, In fact, Whatcheeseisntyourcheese?nachocheese, E0steven, Andrewo330, Sesu Prime, Dougof-borg, Tktru, BoomerAB, Hushpuckena, Rebbing, Shamwow86, FrescoBot, Amsterdam360, Daerlun, Sandgem Addict, Kierzek, Pep-per, Tollund man, Misch113, Meowmeow18, JillKSwanson, Ndboy, Astronomyinertia, 4kjn5tb, Galorr, Jedimaster1214, Talladega87,Wifione, KelbyHeffner, Dinorawrsbig, ZenerV, SueGD, Cannolis, HamburgerRadio, Afroman2322, Javert, Intelligentsium, Mimzy1990,WQUlrich, Bobmack89x, Pollkman, Glass spiders, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rayshade, BloodFold, Fat&Happy, Hoo man, Bannable,Pikiwyn, Jaguar, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Σ, Cullen328, Monkeymanman, Woona, Lissajous, Mascmen8, Reconsider the static, Cnwilliams,NimbusWeb, Dutchmonkey9000, Tim1357, Enemenemu, DC, Lightlowemon, Jedi94, Roohollah1988, South7930, Trappist the monk,Declan Clam, Pollinosisss, FFM784, Wolfehhgg, LogAntiLog, Grapesoda22, Callanecc, Javierito92, Puppies dressed as cats, Vrenator,Suomi Finland 2009, SeoMac, Jhoch10, LawBot, Reaper Eternal, Oplax21, Visite fortuitement prolongée, Dusty777, Connelly90, Forever-charmed88, Diannaa, JV Smithy, Bam7643, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Spursnik, Minimac, Danemaricich, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,Ggeezz, Bigdaddy19822000, Onel5969, Why why why why why, Itain'tsobad, Unioneagle, BkfldCat, RjwilmsiBot, 7mike5000, MShabazz,AuroraDragonEmporer777, NameIsRon, Hackerjordan, Yaush, DRAGON BOOSTER, Beyond My Ken, Pisti200, Bangedurdaughter,Matthewmeadhead, Becritical, Slon02, Enauspeaker, DASHBot, Jpatros, Steve03Mills, P2prules, RonTruth, EmausBot, John of Read-ing, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Ghostofnemo, Immunize, Gfoley4, Willthriller, BobbyMoinahan, Katherine, Racerx11, Faceless Enemy,Theeditorincheif, TellitubbyTub, Nonlife, Thatguytimes2, Coolninja567, Razor2988, Lopez all day ho, Geraldblow, Jessyeah, Rename-

20 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

dUser01302013, JFKYB, Teerickson, Solarra, Lovelovefilm, Meerkat16, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Zulushawn, Thalimed,WikipedianSeth, Imapikapoo, White Trillium, JBrothersandJBieber, King Floyd the Great, Fæ, Josve05a, MorbidEntree, Consciouslee,Michael Essmeyer, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Sajjaat, Elektrik Shoos, 1234r00t, Unreal7, Hdarvick, Cymru.lass, Biggs173, Brianschwartz,Wayne Slam, Linnicinnil, Rcsprinter123, Town,WP, Alexgentleftm, Δ, Doug Shaver, L Kensington, Donner60, Korruski, 2tuntony, Puffin,Damirgraffiti, Carmichael, Orange Suede Sofa, Mad Hieronimo, Robert O'Rourke, AndyTheGrump, Insommia, Johnz56, Inspectorcritic,DASHBotAV, Flapane, Stevea20022002, Annamaria2, Sonicyouth86, Petrb, Wehoowehoo, Grapple X, ClueBot NG, Jimi-Facepalm, Mel-bourneStar, This lousy T-shirt, A520, Epalinurus, GBHaley, Joefromrandb, Geezgeezgeez, Bped1985, Baseball Watcher, Guitarboy48,Stocko14, Spartan7W, Wdchk, Cstuart20, MGoBlueHockey, Bcermak7060, Janae415, O.Koslowski, Bobotheowl, Bubba jackson, Om-niconsumerproducts, Tgkb123, BrandonTR, Widr, WikiPuppies, Groupuscule, WERESOEPIC, Gavin.perch, Kaidemon13, Kprewitt22,Blelbach, Quantx, Theopolisme, Sören Koopmann, SaraNicole69, Onehstrybuff, Helpful Pixie Bot, In actu, Bmaljevec, Harley Hudson,Bobherry, Psychonaut25, Nick Cooper 3, Endclaim001, Calidum, Breckham101, Jphill19, Marchacki, Sarakayla, Jeraphine Gryphon, Ki-naro, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Murry1975, Grizzwold1, Ddsss, Wellings, Emayv, Olopop, Cyberpower678, FotayshaJones, Poi-soncrush2, Norweigan Word, MusikAnimal, Georgeous10, Tjarai, Jenniferlove, BizarreLoveTriangle, Piguy101, Mark Arsten, Sugar-Rat, Compfreak7, Emadix, Rm1271, Matrixmama, AdventurousSquirrel, Mr Justice Destry, Gorthian, Joydeep, VirusKA, Noaccoun-taccount, LoganHGoforth, Gt1045, Harizotoh9, Snow Blizzard, HHGold, Youdontknowme123, LFevas, ProudIrishAspie, Boomer1962,CAWylie, Day rodriguez, Terrance the James, DMN2011, John122122, Achowat, Dom7676, Wain 123, SOWATAB, MAMMO777,Dourios, Jakebarrington, Guanaco55, Bigdowg111, Justincheng12345-bot, Bluesoccerboy101, Miszatomic, Binge03, BillRollin, Mrt3366,NWRGeek, Cyberbot II, Mediran, Usernamekiran, Teletubbie123, Varunmohindra, JYBot, Winkelvi, Deathlasersonline, Dhight6, Rm-sears03, Pjobm, Raymond1922A, Tsiebel, Dexbot, ColonelCrazie, TDKKL, Angelwren1, Charles Essie, Mogism, 331dot, Jackninja5,Omid.espero, Ndhouston, UsefulWikipedia, Lugia2453, AldezD, Collegestu46, Czech is Cyrillized, Joshtaco, Mr Popolocoism, Mar-ion91, HullIntegrity, Athomeinkobe, Nicholasemjohnson, Fgaff010, Kelly2700, Cadillac000, Samee, Cco103, Eagleash, Starship9000,Oldtownacademypoopydoodles, Addot678, Faizan, Annepayer, Epicgenius, Kawaii-Soft, Porkchopstephen, توفيق ,أحمد I am One ofMany, 31ite-tr0113r, Howicus, Melonkelon, Madreterra, EvergreenFir, Cherubinirules, Master of Time, ElHef, DavidLeighEllis, QPT,

, TronLover, Kharkiv07, DallTX314, Mandruss, The Maigne Event, Podiaebba, Quenhitran, RealDealBillMcNeal, Jackmcbarn,AddWittyNameHere, Liz, Lennox101, Dbocek2013, MagicatthemovieS, Stephen marney, JamesBroden, Davidbena, Bojo1498, Yoloswag77, Atcovi, Johnsmith42591, SarahRMadden, Francinum, FrB.TG, Unclemikejb2, Huckleberry44, Roborule, Mencken55, Wonka-mencken, Lakun.patra, Adamtt9, MaryBruce62, Suelru, Centromax, Tilthe, ModernSportsEra, Blurryman, CogitoErgoSum14, Leoleobp,Alkea13, Icarus4, TRUEandHONESTuser, 5198blk, Bali88, Melcous, Monkbot, Maggie4695, Amiller8830, AKS.9955, Lucyloo10, Land-ingdude13, Conorrandall, VandVictory, Koijmonop, Partypants85, Fyddlestix, BeatlesVox, BethNaught, Scarlettail, Cheease corrector,Mysterious.Brain, Ptb1997, GBeeFàn, Gdeblois19, Kl1997, Jsr 2014, BARRY252525, Michael2603jordan, Itzyaboylobster, Mlynch55,Mesospheric, Adam3519, HMSLavender, Dificulty, A Great Catholic Person, Maxrocks22, BiggumsTheNarrator, Chey0987, Edispoopoo,Hudbnb, Homeric Dithyramb, NerfersUnited, Dfdemt, Louisasn1, Crystallizedcarbon, RealMafia, Alvindomondon, Cara2628, Samf4u,Govindaharihari, Eteethan, Rubbish computer, ScrapIronIV, Kirin1234, Marthawarra, Wiki115john, Sizeofint, Sundayclose, DanielsanvT, LoudLizard, Danielfradin, Bigganig, AesopReads, UnicornMan2403, Moneycollector101, Craftwerker, Whiteboy44, DarbandiJake,GeneralizationsAreBad, Jdcomix, DarkendLegacy, Random user-hobo, Uncleledogg, Timothyjosephwood, Supdiop, RedPanda25, 3 ofDiamonds, Qaei, LegalTrivia, Mr.Brewers fav student, AirbusAviation, TheSturgenator, JJMC89, Jw171747, Richard27182, Arijit4223,Ösīrīs18, Imalmosthuman, Murph9000, Dalek Foundation, Newesxy, Ddmeltzer 8, Feminist, Limbo885, Ctznd, Jackbell12, Sanza29,CodeBadger, Mayateisaac, Mayatemayate78, Winterysteppe, Simplexity22, WayfaringWanderer, Doulph88, Allthefoxes, Jeremilamber-son, H.dryad, InternetArchiveBot, Helmut von Moltke, Boomer Vial, Bagger21, Elefurgy, Swagmoney420blazin, Peter SamFan, Manwith facts, BlockInformation101, Breadloafengel, Fitindia, KGirlTrucker81, GreenC bot, Weebhs, Tymezz, FerStomp, John “Hannibal”Smith, RunnyAmiga, Pasty Kensit, Luisportillogomez, Olliedudderidge, Super997, Juantheman96, Ryan1783, Bender the Bot, Meow-Moon, Liammellor0109, Useranonymous87358789, Patricklake, Timothy Robinson12345, Bargen 6799, Omegadog19, RAGERBLX,Willdowrulez, Evan0512, S337744, Laurdecl, 31028sw, Therealjakkob, Jake.hoffer, Borinquen1996, Hinksssssssss, Camden0885, BretHall, N0MINAY, C-harlie123, Christian Friends and Anonymous: 3053

12.2 Images• File:Altgens_mary_ferrell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fa/Altgens_mary_ferrell.jpg License: Fair use Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Clint_Hill_on_the_limousine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Clint_Hill_on_the_limousine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Justin Newman´s photograph (Noteː as of December 25, 2014, the “link” is not valid. “Website expired.”) Original artist: Justin Newman

• File:Coat_of_Arms_of_John_F._Kennedy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Coat_of_Arms_of_John_F._Kennedy.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Committee on Heraldry, New England Historic Genealogical Society. ARoll of Arms. 9 vols. Boston, 1928-1980 Original artist: Glasshouse using elements by Sodacan and Heralder

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Dallas_2012.19.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Dallas_2012.19.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Javaman200

• File:Dallas_Elm_Street.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Dallas_Elm_Street.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Dallasjfk.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Dallasjfk.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:Traansferred to Commons by User:Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Lowesvisa at English Wikipedia

• File:DealeyPlazaAerial.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/DealeyPlazaAerial.jpg License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Walloon

• File:Dealey_Plaza_(1969).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Dealey_Plaza_%281969%29.jpg Li-cense: Attribution Contributors: JGHowes Original artist: JGHowes, photographer, using a <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kodak-brownie-starmite-camera.jpg' title='File:Kodak-brownie-starmite-camera.jpg'>Kodak Starmite camera</a>

12.3 Content license 21

• File:Downtown_Dallas_from_the_Trinity_River.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Downtown_Dallas_from_the_Trinity_River.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Downtown Dallas from the Trinity River Original artist:nthomas76207

• File:Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rightleftright

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:HowardBrennan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/HowardBrennan.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Photograph (as marked by Brennan) from the Warren Commission Hearings and Evidence, vol. 17, p. 197, CommissionExhibit 477. Original artist: Howard Leslie Brennan

• File:JFK_Wooden_Fence.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/JFK_Wooden_Fence.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Self-published work by BenFrantzDale Original artist: BenFrantzDale

• File:JFK_limousine.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/JFK_limousine.png License: Public domainContributors: JFK-Motorcadee.gif, Penn Jones Photographs. Baylor University Collections of Political Materials. Waco, Texas. Origi-nal artist: Walt Cisco, Dallas Morning News

• File:Jfk-final-shot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Jfk-final-shot.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readableauthor provided. Bradipus assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:John_F._Kennedy,_White_House_photo_portrait,_looking_up.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset+Tree/Asset+Viewers/Image+Asset+Viewer.htm?guid=\protect\char"007B\relax959B8D46-B5E7-40E8-A0BD-60E09229B8C3\protect\char"007D\relax&type=Image Original artist: White House PressOffice (WHPO)

• File:John_F_Kennedy_Signature_2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/John_F_Kennedy_Signature_2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader traced by hand Original artist: Connormah, John F. Kennedy

• File:Kalebp_skull.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Kalebp_skull.svg License: CC0 Contributors:https://openclipart.org/detail/201856/skull Original artist: kalebp

• File:Lbj-wc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Lbj-wc.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: WhiteHouse photo by Cecil Stoughton, via LBJ Library; TIF converted to .jpg Original artist: Cecil W. Stoughton

• File:Lyndon_B._Johnson_taking_the_oath_of_office,_November_1963.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Lyndon_B._Johnson_taking_the_oath_of_office%2C_November_1963.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:http://photolab.lbjlib.utexas.edu/detail.asp?id=18319 Original artist: Cecil W. Stoughton

• File:Moorman_photo_of_JFK_assassination.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Moorman_photo_of_JFK_assassination.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Public domain Original artist: Mary Ann Moorman (Mary Krahmer)

• File:Newman_Family.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Newman_Family.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://www.maryferrell.org/wiki/index.php/Photos_-_JFK_Library_-_Dealey_Plaza_-_p1 Original artist: Cecil W.Stoughton

• File:Pappas_Exh1-murder_Oswald-21-19.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Pappas_Exh1-murder_Oswald-21-19.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Image can be found at http://www.history-matters.com/archive/archive_holdings.htm Originated from the Warren Commission report, aUS Government report.Original artist: Ira Jefferson “Jack” Beers Jr. (1910-2009) for The Dallas Morning News

• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: DTR

• File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Extracted from the title page of PDF doc-ument at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

12.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0