Warwick Business School

Assessed Research Proposal

Why do people undertake voluntary work?

Researching Organizations

IB96Z0

MA Management and Organizational Analysis

Student Id – 1161780

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Voluntarism and will: Students perspective towards volunteering

“Voluntarism, one of the most powerful mechanisms for building community networks, serves as

an important indicator of social capital as well as a tool for building it” (Chapman, 2007, p.1)

Setting the Scene

A large online survey conducted by Pye et al., (2009) on young people in volunteering gave key insights

into their attitudes, behaviors and experiences of young people in England during the recession, it was

found that nearly 68% of people aged 16-25 actually volunteered in formal or informal programs across

the country. While Pye et al., (2009) study looked young people, Brewis et al., (2010) study of 8,000

students over 6 universities revealed more than 60% students have actually participated in some form of

volunteering.

So why do people volunteer? This question concerns itself with the underlying motives, actions, needs

and desires of individuals to freely give up time and work towards social good, many authors have been

interested in this question. Research towards motivations in volunteering comes from different

perspectives. To gain insights into these perspectives the following proposed study will be undertaken.

The proposal’s outline is as follows; in the first part, I would be describing key concepts of voluntarism

and the meaning of volunteer having emphasis on student’s participation in voluntary work in different

institutions’. Next, past studies in the field of voluntary work will be discussed and analyzed, which will

lead to framing our research question. The next part will be to highlight the chosen methodological tactics

to be used in the research; another perspective to this will be to outline our epistemological and

ontological stance. This section would also reflect the reasons why the chosen approach would be relevant

and assist in answering the set research question. The following part will be to give a rationale behind

how the research data would be collected, generated and analyzed and any ethical considerations our

research may bring, in the conclusion there would be a tentative period for our study.

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Literature Review

Wilson, (2000, p.215), defined volunteering as ‘any activity in which time is given freely to benefit

another person, group or an organization without any financial reward’. On the other hand, Cnaan &

Amrofell, (1994) and Ascoli & Cnaan, (1997) mapping of literature surrounding volunteerism suggests

that majority of literature does not define explicitly volunteerism but assumes it as a social phenomenon.

Ellis, (1985) inferred, saying the terms voluntarism and volunteer concepts in future studies should be

accurately defined. The proposed study will look at definitions of volunteer as one, ‘individual’s act in his

own accord without any coercion and second the service provided should be without any monetary

compensation and going beyond one obligation’. (Karl, 1984, p.514) (Ellis & Noyes, 1990).

Student volunteering campaigns and campus-based volunteering initiatives through on a rise in UK have

been under-researched Holdsworth, (2010, p.423), but participation by students in these programs and

their underlying motives to participate have been well documented in Americas, a large longitudinal study

carried over for past two decades by (Sax, 2004) (Astin & Sax, 1998) (Astin et al., 1999). Astin & Sax,

(1998) study through their CIRP1 freshman survey which sampled more than 3,000 students from over 42

institutions found that volunteering during their undergraduate years enhanced their academic skills as

well as instill a “sense of civic responsibility”. For the students, volunteering would make them

empowered towards serving communities and would encourage then to “socialize”. Following this Sax,

(2004, p.76) study showed a trend towards students who volunteered when they could make a

“difference”; they chose programs, which suited to their needs like education, crime and environment.

Another parallel research undertaken during this time by the trio Astin et al., (1999) reflected that students

found greater motive to pursue higher advanced degrees and volunteering made then more employable for

graduate work. The mentioned studies in the Americas were significantly “statistical” (Astin et al., 1999,

p.201) and missed the importance of the “environmental and cultural context of volunteering” as

highlighted by (Haski-Leventhal et al., 2008, p.6).

Another American studies conducted by Jones, (2002) and Serow, (1991) quantitatively analyzed

‘decision factors in supporting participation in volunteering activities’ both the studies supported the

claim that for the majority respondents the primary motive behind volunteering was “belief in a cause”

and a “sense of satisfaction from helping others”. Inducting from both the research the projected research

will “deal with the underlying motives and not with the outcomes of volunteerism”. (Serow, 1991, p.556)

1 Cooperative Institutional Research Program

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Studies based on characteristics of student volunteers for example of (O'Brien, 1993) (Marks & Jones,

2004) their demographic analysis found more number of female students participated more in the

volunteering programs than males and are ‘likely to come from higher socio-economic background’.

However, (O'Brien, 1993, p.9) insisted that more research should be conducted to yield “experiences of

participating students in volunteering programs” and not just demographical analysis of participants. The

proposed research will not be restricted to just uncovering motives behind contribution, but would add to

this notion, to collect experiences of students enrolled in these initiatives.

Haski-Leventhal et al., (2008, p.4) say that, it is important that “universities and higher educational

institutes and their policy makers understand the perceptions and motivations and characteristics of

student volunteers”, ensuing this, the proposed study will aim to uncover the perspectives of the actors

involved in volunteering. More importantly Holdsworth & Quinnb, (2010, p.124), found gaps in the

student volunteering research, claiming that even though “there have been cases studies on specific

project and institution but are fragmented in nature”, thus giving the proposal ample width and

opportunity to place the study.

“Student volunteering is not only in the best interest of the community and the student but also for the

interest of the academic institution” (Haski-Leventhal et al., 2008). While Holdsworth & Quinn, (2012)

infer that the promotion of student volunteering in UK has been primarily due to “benefits for students in

terms increased skills for employability and universities through improved relations and access to local

communities and organizations”. Existing research in the United Kingdom, specifically Holdsworth,

(2010, p.422), focused on motivations of students in volunteering assumed that volunteering not only

“increases the reputation of the university, increase employability of students, provides students with

stimulating experiences and instill a sense of civic responsibility” similar to the American studies.

However for him it is highly unlikely that “one such activity can provide all these outcomes rather, a

student has the option to select which volunteering activities that meet his requirements”. (p.422).

(Holdsworth, 2010, p.435) operationalized their research through quantitative and qualitatively methods,

under quantitative methods, the results were straight forward and reflected “increasing employability” as

their primary schema for volunteering, on the other hand they citied that the survey data revealed

complexities in analyzing, ‘since respondents were ambiguously in agreement with not one or more

motivational questions but to all”. Analysis of the qualitative data revealed “association with building

self-confidence, ability to tackle difficult situations, to some extent to improve employability and other

altruistic acts” (p.434).

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Our study will places an emphasis on international postgraduate students, who form part of university the

rationale of researching students came from Burns et al., (2006) who say target young people as potential

volunteers because of their idealist views and high amounts of energy make them as excellent resource of

volunteering. Majority of the past research indicated in this literature review and the ones we have come

across in our preliminary investigations were based on quantitative methods to analyze data which

considerably limits the data being collected, as respondents can only chose from pre-defined categories

set by researchers Rehberg, (2005). As noted by Myers, (2008, p.9) in his book, conducting quantitative

research principally may restrict the findings on motivational research, and ‘many of the contextual

factors in relation to social and cultural aspects would be missed’. Thus, the proposed study would utilize

a qualitative approach and to the body of knowledge qualitatively.

Theoretical Perspective towards Volunteer Motivation

The findings and reviews of past research citied suggest that the field of participation and volunteering is

highly diverse (Smith, 1994). To capture the complexity of the field, it would be beneficial if a theoretical

perspective were applied to the proposed research.

Unger, 1991, (p.93) article examined the ‘existence of an altruistic motive behind volunteering’; his

studies revealed that an underlying altruistic motive does exists and ‘a volunteer is motivated by his/her

perception of the needs of others in the community’. His studies were supported by (Burns et al., 2006,

p.84) their study assumed ‘logically a positive relation between altruism and motivation to volunteer’

which indicated that altruism does play a role in motivating people in volunteering activities. Their results

reflect the following correlations; “altruism appears to be pervasive throughout the various motivations to

volunteer… but are not equal across all the motivating factors” (p.88). Therefore, what is altruism? ,

(Chou, 1996, p.297) defines it as “voluntary, intentional behavior motivated to benefit another that is not

motivated by the expectation of any external rewards”. While for Piliavin & Charng, (1990, p.30)

altruistic behavior “must benefit another person, must be performed voluntarily plus intentionally and

without any expectations”. Additionally to add to this theoretical stance, (Becker, 1976, p.818) calls an

altruist an entity who is willing to reduce his consumption in order to increase the consumption of the

others. More so as Yeung & Saari, (2006) have said, “the role of motivation is central and a dispensable

part of the definition and meaning of altruism”. Therefore, for the proposed study certain elements of

altruism would be reflected upon.

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Research Question

The following questions will act as a goal to test in the proposed research.

What motivates international postgraduate students to undertake voluntary work?

o Does altruism play an important part in motivating students to volunteer?

Philosophical Research Grounding

The proposed research with its qualitative inquiry will adopt constructivist ontology (Stake, 1995). The

constructivist ontology places emphasis on “holistic treatment of a social phenomenon” (Sheḳedi, 2005,

p.3). For the proposed research, holistic treatment means understanding the context of the phenomenon to

understand the social meaning of the phenomenon. (Patton, 1980). As Sheḳedi, (2005) indicates

researchers adopting constructivist ontology should understand what the actors and their action means in

their own subjective point of view for example different students may have been involved in same

imitative but may have different needs (Bussell & Forbes, 2002), thus a constructivist ontology will help

uncover different motives in volunteering. With the constructivist ontology, the proposed research will

focus towards perspectives and experiences of international postgraduate students and their motivations

towards volunteering, thus manifesting an interpretive epistemology (Grix, 2010). As Sheppard, (2006)

explains, under interpretivism there is “no single view of the world …. and individuals develop their own

interpretations of the world in different fashions”.

Finally, the proposed research using this interpretivist and constructivist framework would validate

existing research highlighted in the previous research, find new patterns and themes (using qualitative

approach) in theories to uncover and highlight motivations and engagement levels in students

participating in volunteering activities at the University of Warwick.

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Research Design: A case study

A case or a unit of analysis refers studying and observing a phenomenon at a single point in time or over

a period whereas a study denotes the behavior of individuals (Gerring, 2007, p.19). Bryman & Bell,

(2007) suggest that using a case should enable a researcher to illustrate an in-depth understanding of the

content of the unit for example in this proposed research an individual student’s perspective. Moreover,

the proposed study will utilize a single case design (Yin, 2009) because our study would offer uniqueness

and an opportunity to explore an extremely rare state of intrinsic motivation in an in-depth look

(Winterton & Winterton, 1999, p.37). The researcher also acknowledges that case study results cannot be

externally valid or generalizable but a certain degree of theoretical generalizability can be achieved from

this case. (Bryman & Bell, 2007, p.63) (Yin, 2009)

Case & Sample Selection: University of Warwick

O’Boyle, (2011) paper provides us with the rationale for selecting University of Warwick as the case to

study, he says that volunteering has now become more university dominant than it has ever been,

furthermore for him universities should take up the challenges of volunteering not just locally but also

nationally. Studying motivations and perceptions of students volunteering will not only help university

policy makers but will also assist nonprofit organizations and communities to recruit, retain and enhance

commitment levels of the volunteers (Haski-Leventhal et al., 2008). It is important for the university to

have the knowledge and understanding of volunteer motivations in order to develop marketing techniques

to recruit and retain these resources (McCurley, 2005).

Our association as a student of the University of Warwick and the access to Warwick Volunteers a

program set up by the university will be the source of our sample. Warwick Volunteers comprises of

student-run projects as well as certain external projects run by an external organization under Warwick

Volunteers supervision, these projects are undertaken within Coventry and Warwickshire counties. The

opportunities in these projects run from formal and regular committed opportunities to flexible informal

volunteering projects, additionally the content of these initiatives is diverse and runs from fundraising and

political campaigning to helping elderly and tutoring underprivileged and learning disabled children.

More importantly apart from recruitment and selection, Warwick Volunteer also performs background

checks on potential and new recruits for special and vulnerable projects; this is done through CRB2 who

scrutinize your police and criminal records. Warwick Volunteers also provides need and project based

2 Criminal Records Bureau: is an agency that provides criminal background checks as part of a safer recruitment drive by Warwick University

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training to all volunteers. Certain other aspects of this initiative is that, if any expenses are occurred for

any activities undertaken during the program these expenses can be reimbursed thus insuring safeguard

and well-being of student volunteers. Any member of the University can enroll for volunteering under

Warwick Volunteers; from international students3 to staff have an opportunity to experience volunteering.

The researcher also acknowledges that other universities within the West Midlands region could have

been selected, but have been omitted because of the limits of time and cost.

Data Generation and Collection: A qualitative approach

Since the focus of the proposed research is to uncover how students feel towards volunteering for

volunteer initiatives, which is very much idiographic, it would be essential to “describing aspects of the

social world by offering detailed synopsis of social settings, processes and relationships” (King &

Horrocks, 2010, p.11). Thus, qualitative interviewing would facilitate the proposed research by enabling

the participants to “share their experiences and understandings”. Qualitative interviewing was deemed fit

for the proposed research because it could understand the “lived experience of respondents and make

meaning of it and more so to understand in what context people could behave, by so providing an insight

into people’s behaviors” (Seidman, 2006, pp.9,10).

The proposed study will utilize semi-structured interviews to generate and collect data on individual

student’s motivations towards volunteering. An “interview protocol” will be developed to assist in

systematic collection of data (Lodico et al., 2010). The interview protocol and the semi-structured

interviews will be focused specifically on the following topics: firstly intrinsic motivations and benefits of

volunteering, secondly image of volunteering initiatives amongst student volunteers, thirdly perceived

rewards or recognitions sought from volunteering and lastly any barriers to volunteering faced by student

volunteers (Rochester, 2006).

The proposed study will omit the use of participant and non-participant observation (Ferraro & Andreatta,

2009, p.102) because often the data collected in hard to codify and to categorize and also to collect and

record data while observing special events. Ferraro & Andreatta, (2009) also infer that using participant

and non-participant observation may cause “obtrusive effect” which refers to change of behavior of

participants in presence of the researcher in turn would affect the validity of results. The use of in-depth/

intensive interviews will also be omitted, Klenke, (2008) says these interviews requires immense skill and

experience on part of the researcher to codify and analyze data, further it could also be time consuming in

3 International Students: Not part of UK, and EEA, paying international fees as part of Warwick University rules and regulations

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addition, would require multiple interactions with the students which might not be feasible given the

limits for the proposed study.

One of the key questions in the proposed research would be to put forth is, how many interviews are

enough and viable? While there are no definite answers, the proposed research will aim to interview at

least 15-17 international postgraduate students participating in volunteering initiatives started by Warwick

Volunteers. The length of each will last semi structured interview will be from 45 minutes to an hour.

Sampling and selection of students would be done through purposive sampling (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003),

here the researcher selects sample units based on their ability to contribute theoretically to the study. In

other words, the “units will be selected on the basis of symbolic representation, as they hold

characteristics that are known to be beneficial to the study” (p.107). The study will purposively select

students who have been deemed international under University of Warwick guidelines and have enrolled

themselves in a postgraduate degree of any specialization. In addition to these characteristics, the study

will only handpick students how have done some sort of informal or formal volunteering activities before

enrolling under Warwick Volunteers, this data would be collected through secondary data from the

University and Warwick Volunteers. For the convenience for the students participating in the study,

location of interviews of their choice would be picked.

Data Analyses and Management

After selection the prospective students should be provided with credible rationale for the proposed

research in which would be participating. This would include the aims and objectives of the study, the

researchers identity and researcher funder, selection of the sample, assurances about the confidentiality of

the data of the participants responses (Bryman & Bell, 2007, p.218). This introductory statement would

typically be accompanied by the written consent letter, which the respondents have to duly agree by a

written agreement and a signature, according to the University of Warwick guidelines.

The researcher would need to capture information emerging from the interviews through field noted or

recorded through audiotapes. Written field notes would aid in further investigations if some aspects of the

interview process has been missed or omitted. Pequegnat, (2010) opines that “electronic transcription

provides an opportunity to reflect on the information collected to identify topics for further investigation

or to uncover new finding”. Typically, transcription of an hour-long interview would take approximately

3-5 hours. Afetr transcription the data will be to “tidy up” the data, this will include content copying,

filtering, labeling and collecting additional/missing data through field notes to create a single or multiple

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complete sets of data. Thereafter, the researcher should ‘sift the data by repeated readings to identify,

categorize and code the data into relevant literature surrounding the research questions” (LeCompte,

2000, p.148). Through the continuous process of re-reading and refinement gives way to refutation of data

(Spiggle, 1994), in other words the researchers findings would be subject to empirical scrutiny where

previously set categorizes will either be dropped or modified. This according to Spiggle increases the

“trustworthiness” of the research in question.

Thematic analyses would be incorporated on collected data to generate research findings; a thematic

analysis has come back in “vogue” because it overcomes problematic epistemological concerns regarding

constructivism (Willig & Rogers, 2008, p.382). Thematic analysis is defined as “an analysis of textual

material (newspaper, interviews etc.) in order to indicate the major themes to be found in them” (Howitt

& Cramer, 2008, p.336). However, in simpler terms it means to read and re-reading of transcribed data in

order to find re-current themes that may arise across the data (Daniel, 2010, p.419).

Ethical Considerations

University of Warwick and their ethical guidelines mandatorily asks for consents to be obtained by the

researcher from the gatekeepers as well as participants in any sort a research based activity. This ensures

no harm may arise out of misuse of data. Bryman & Bell, (2007) suggests care should be maintained

while keeping confidentiality of records and anonymity of accounts. This means that the identities and

records of individual students and projects would be maintained confidentially at all times. Miller & Bell,

(2002, pp.67-68) provides some key aspects in relation to these considerations, the researcher should

always be reflexive in order to address key issues in relation to “representation of individuals voices” and

further for the researcher consent should be negotiated continuously at every stage of the research process

from collection to analyses of the transcript. The researcher should always keep a research diary in hand

to plan, be reflexive and add insights into various themes and adding comments that may have been

missed.

Research Statistics

Cost and Funding – Self funded, £100

Time- 105 days

Access- University of Warwick, Warwick Volunteers

Researcher – Self, 1

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Time Scheduling

To illustrate the period of the proposed research, a Gantt chart has been included.

Duration Tasks

Week 1 Submit Research Proposal

Week 2- 4 Literature Review

Week 2-3 Sample Selection

Week 4-7 Data Collection

17 Semi-structured interviews 45-60 minutes in duration Approx. 3-5 hours transcription time per interview

Week 7-10 Data Analysis

Week 10-11 Submit Draft

Week 11-12 Revision and Final Amendments

Week 12 Submission of Dissertation

30-Apr 20-May 09-Jun 29-Jun 19-Jul 08-Aug 28-Aug

Submit Research Proposal

Literature Review

Sample Selection

Data Collection and Management

Data Analysis

Submit Draft

Revision and Final Amendments

Submission

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