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Magazine of Concrete Research, 2012, 64 (12), 1067–1078

http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/macr.11.00179

Paper 1100179

Received 28/10/2011; revised 03/03/2012; accepted 23/03/2012

Thomas Telford Ltd & 2012

Magazine of Concrete Research

Volume 64 Issue 12

Assessing the quality of sandstones for use

as aggregate in concrete

Tugrul and Yilmaz

Assessing the quality ofsandstones for use asaggregate in concreteAtiye TugrulIstanbul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of GeologicalEngineering, Avcılar/Istanbul, Turkey

Murat YılmazIstanbul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of GeologicalEngineering, Avcılar/Istanbul, Turkey

Sandstones have been widely used as a source of concrete aggregates. Sandstones show a variety of textural,mineralogic and chemical characteristics that may affect their physico-mechanical properties as well as their use as a

construction material. The aim of this paper is to assess the influence of the composition and texture of sandstones

on aggregate properties. In this study, Ordovician sandstones were compared with Carboniferous, Devonian and

Permo-Triassic sandstones used as concrete aggregates in Istanbul. The sandstone samples were tested to determine

their petrographic, mineralogic and chemical characteristics and aggregate properties. Then, the testing concretes

were prepared by using these aggregates, and hardened concrete properties were determined. According to the

results obtained, although Ordovician sandstones have poor aggregate quality as compared to other sandstones,

they were found to be suitable for use as coarse aggregate in low-strength concrete production.

Introduction

Rock aggregates are a material used in various types of construc-tion works, such as buildings, roads, highways, bridges and

railroads. Although the demand for crushed stone aggregates has

increased, supplies of good quality aggregates close to urban

areas are becoming depleted (Grattan-Bellew, 1978; Witczak et

al., 1971). Moreover, increased fuel costs make transportation

from distant sources uneconomical, so less acceptable aggregates

are being used more frequently. Therefore, upgrading local low-

quality aggregates with poor mechanical properties, low durabil-

ity or poor particle shape is becoming more important (Koukis et

al., 2007).

Aggregate is the major constituent of concrete. Aggregategenerally constitutes 75–80% of concrete by volume and there-

fore can be expected to have an important influence on the

concrete’s properties (Al-Oraimi et al., 2006). Good quality

aggregates should consist of particles having adequate strength

and desirable engineering properties along with resistance to

exposure conditions (Al-Harthi and Abo-Saada, 1997). Also,

good quality aggregates should not contain materials (such as

coatings, reactive silica and sulfates) with the potential to cause

damage to the short- and long-term performance of the concrete

(Fookes, 1980). The essential requirements of aggregate for

concrete must be defined quantitatively by selecting relevant tests

and assessment procedures and specifying appropriate acceptance

criteria (Smith and Collis, 2001).

Sandstone is a widespread aggregate resource used in concrete

construction around the world. The geological properties of this

sedimentary rock are fairly diverse, and aggregates such as

quartzite, subarkose and greywacke can produce a range of

hardened concrete properties. Therefore, it is important thatsandstone aggregates can be easily characterised to obtain

predictable aggregate and concrete properties (Mackechnie,

2006).

In this study, representative samples of unweathered or slightly

weathered sandstones were collected as blocks of rock from cut

slopes and from rock quarries in the Omerli, Ayazaga, Cebecikoy

and Catalca regions of northwestern Turkey (Figure 1). The study

was conducted in four stages: (a) geological, petrographic and

chemical investigations; (b) aggregate tests (methylene blue

absorption, sand equivalent, saturated surface dried particle den-

sity, water absorption, Los Angeles coefficient, magnesium sulfatevalue, flakiness indices and alkali–silica reactivity); (c) scanning

electron microscopy (SEM) to observe the expansion after alkali–

silica reaction testing; (d) making a comparison with the strength

of concrete, the testing concretes were prepared by using these

aggregates, and hardened concrete properties were determined.

Geological characteristics of the sandstonesThere are many types of sandstone located near Istanbul. The

locations and geological characteristics of these sandstones are

given in Figure 1 and Table 1. The eight sandstone types used in

this study ranged in age from Ordovician to Lower Triassic. The

sandstone samples belonging to the Kurtkoy Formation (OS1,

OS4, OS5) or the Kartal Formation (K3, K4) were collected from

the Anatolian (i.e. east) side of Istanbul. The sandstone samples

belonging to the Trakya Formation (AS, CBS) and the Sermat

Quartzites (CS) were collected from the European (i.e. west) side

of Istanbul.

1067



Laboratory analysisThe petrographic and mineralogic characteristics of the sand-

stones were determined by thin section studies (Figure 2), and

were classified according to Folk (1968) classification. The results

are given in Table 2.

To determine the chemical characteristics of the sandstones,

chemical analyses were performed by semi-quantitative elemen-

tary analysis using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry

(Philips PW-2404). The chemical compositions of the sandstones

are given in Table 3. As seen in Table 3, the sandstones contain

variable compositions: 24.1–96.82% silicon dioxide (SiO2),

0.26–17.54% aluminium oxide (Al2O3), 0.96–12.21% iron (III)

oxide (Fe2O3), 0–34.9% calcium oxide (CaO), 0.53–2.43%

magnesium oxide (MgO), 0.15–3.5% potassium oxide (K 2O) and

0.03–3.11% sodium oxide (Na2O). The loss on ignition values

vary between 0.74 and 28%.

The sandstone samples were broken into smaller pieces with a

hammer. The aggregate fractions were prepared from the smaller

pieces using a laboratory jaw crusher. The aggregate tests

included methylene blue, sand equivalent, saturated surface dried

particle density, water absorption, Los Angeles coefficient, flaki-

ness indices, magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) and the accelerated

mortar bar test. The tests were performed in accordance with

European Standards (EN). Each test was performed at least three

times. The results of these tests are given in Table 4 and Figure 3.

Alkali–silica reactivity

The alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is an internal chemical reaction

between the alkaline components in the cementitious system and

certain silica-based mineral constituents in some aggregates. The

reaction results in the formation of a gel that absorbs water,

expands and produces internal stresses sufficient to cause the

concrete to crack (Binal, 2008; Moranville-Regourd, 1997; Nixon

Gr

CS PT

Pl

Mi

Avcilar Bakirköy

Marmara SeaN

Kartal

Tuzla

0 20 kmGebze

Qal

Catalca

Ahmediye

EoCa

Habibler

CBS

Ca

Pl

Qal

Cr Pl

AS

KemerbuigaBeykoz

SariyerCr

Istinye

Gr

Usküdar

Kadikoy

OS 1

Or-Dev K3 and K4

OS 4

OS 5

Or-Dev

Cr

Gr

Hüseyinli

Omerli

Pl-Qal

Ca

Mi

Pl-Qal

Pl-Qal

Pl-Qal

Cr

Black Sea

IstanbulAnkara

Izmir Turkey

0 200 km

Qal Quaternary units

Pl-Qal Plio-Quaternary units

Pl Pliocene units

Mi Miocene units

Eo Eocene units

Cr Cretaceous units

Gr Granitic rocks

Tr Triassic units

PT Permo-Triassic

Sermat Quartzite

Ca Carboniferous

Trakya formation

Or-Dev Ordovician-Devonian

Kurtköy and Kartal formations

SettlementsN

Quarry

Cut slopes

Black Sea

Subasi,

Figure 1. Geological map of the Istanbul region showing location

of the sample sites

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Assessing the quality of sandstones for

use as aggregate in concrete

Tugrul and Yilmaz



and Page, 1987) causing loss of concrete strength (Marzouk and Langdon, 2003; Struble and Diamond, 1981; Wakizaka, 1998). To

evaluate the aggregate constituents, especially in the presence of

deleterious components, and identify the potential for ASR,

petrographic analyses on the sandstone were carried out accord-

ing to ASTM C 295 (ASTM, 1994a). The reactivity of the

sandstones was also determined by means of accelerated mortar

bar tests (ASTM C 1260 (ASTM, 1994b).

The accelerated mortar bar test is a fast reliable test for the potential

alkali–aggregate reactivity of an aggregate source. This test was

performed on at least three samples in accordance with ASTM C

1260 (ASTM, 1994b), which is similar to CSA A23.2-25A (CSA,

1994). Concrete mixes were prepared using each of the sandstones

and were tested in a standard gradation with a high alkali Portland

cement (CEM I 42.5 R) and with distilled water. The chemical

characteristics of the Portland cement are given in Table 5. The

cement met all the requirements for use in the mortar bar test. The

bars were removed from the moulds after 1 day of storage in air at

208C and a relative humidity of more than 50% and cured in

alkaline solutions at 808C. Their lengths were measured after 24 h

and successive measurements were taken after 7, 14, 16 and 21

days. The percent linear expansion of concrete prisms at a given

curing time was determined as an average expansion of three

specimens. Results of the accelerated mortar bar tests are given in

Figure 3. According to the results obtained, the maximum expan-sion at 14, 16 and 21 days was obtained in samples OS1 and OS4.

To observe the effects of the ASR and its products following the

accelerated mortar bar tests, the OS1 sample was examined using

SEM analysis. The morphological and microstructural features of

the mortar used in the accelerated mortar bar tests are shown in

Figure 4. The figure also displays the reaction features of the

ASR products, including the ASR gel and the shape and aperture

of microcracks formed during the ASR. The SEM results show

clearly that the circular cracks that formed on the surface of OS1

include the gel product.

Preparation of concrete specimens

The cement type used in this study was CEM II 42.5 R which

was checked to conform to EN 197-1 (CEN, 2000). The

chemical, physical and mechanical features of this cement are

given in Table 5.

In order to investigate the effects of different sandstone aggre-

gates on the strength of concrete, eight concrete mixtures were

designed. Tests were performed in accordance with TS 802 (TSI,

1985) standard. The mixture proportions of testing concretes are

given in Table 6. As seen in this table; all mixtures were designed

with a water/cement (w/c) ratio in the range between 0.61 and

1.05 and a free water content in the range between 179 and

287 kg/m3: In all mixtures, cement content was kept constant and

a lignosulfonate-based plasticisers admixture was used.

Hardened concrete properties were determined from six S a m p l e

c o d e

S a m p

l e l o c a t i o n

F o r m a t i o n

C o l o u r

P a r t i c l e s i z e

D e g r e e o f

s o r t i n g

R o u n d n

e s s

A g e

O S 1

S o u t h

w e s t o f O ¨ m e r l i

K u r t k o ¨ y

M o t t l e d l i g h t p u r p l e

F i n e – m e d i u m

F i n e – v e r y fi n e

C i r c u l a r

– f e w a n g u l a r

O r d o v i c i a n

O S 4

S o u t h

o f O ¨ m e r l i

K u r t k o ¨ y

P u r p l i s h – d a r k p i n k

C o a r s e

M o d e r a t e

G e n e r a l l y c i r c u l a r – e l l i p s o i d a l –

f e w a n g

u l a r

O r d o v i c i a n

O S 5

S o u t h

e a s t o f O ¨ m e r l i

K u r t k o ¨ y

P i n k i s h p u r p l e

V e r y fi n e –

fi n e – m e d i u m

F i n e – m o d e r a t e

C i r c u l a r


O r d o v i c i a n

K 3

N o r t h

e r n s i d e o f O ¨ m e r l i

K a r t a l

G r a y i s h b l a c k

F i n e

F i n e

G e n e r a l l y c i r c u l a r –

f e w a n g u l a r

D e v o n i a n

K 4

N o r t h

e r n s i d e o f O ¨ m e r l i

K a r t a l

G r e y


F i n e – m o d e r a t e

C i r c u l a r


D e v o n i a n

A S

A y a z a g ˘ a ,

W e s t e r n s i d e o f

I s t a n b u l

T r a k y a

G r e y i s h b l a c k


F i n e

F e w c i r c

u l a r – a n g u l a r

C a r b o n i f e r o u s

C B S

C e b e

c i k o ¨ y , W e s t e r n s i d e o f

I s t a n b u l

T r a k y a

G r e y

F i n e

F i n e

F e w c i r c

u l a r – a n g u l a r

C a r b o n i f e r o u s

C S

C a t a l c a

S e r m a t

W h i t e – l i g h t g r e y

M e d i u m – c o a r s

e

F i n e

C i r c u l a r


P e r m o - T r i a s s i c

T a b l e

1 . G e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e s

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Figure 2. Polarising microscope photographs of the sandstones:

(a) OS1, (b) OS4, (c) OS5, (d) K3, (e) K4, (f) AS, (g) CBS, (h) CS

(Crossed nicol, 25X) (Q: quartz, F: feldspar, M: mica, Qrtz:

quartzite, Mu: muscovite)

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150 mm3

150 mm3

150 mm cubes. These cubes were cast.After 24 h, concretes were removed from the mould and cured in

lime-saturated water until the age of test. Compressive strength

testing was performed to determine hardened concrete properties.

The results of these tests are given in Table 7.

The compressive strength tests were performed on the hardened

concrete specimens at ages of 7 and 28 days. The tests were

carried out according to the procedures given by EN 12390-3

(CEN, 2009a). Table 7 displays the results for compressive

strength at different ages. The results range between 9.1 and

33.4 MPa at 7 days and between 12.1 and 40.8 MPa at 28 days.

These values are the lowest for OS5 and the highest values for

the hardened concrete belong to CS at 7 and 28 days.

Results and discussionDeleterious materials such as clay, silt and dust in aggregates may

result in expansion and shrinkage when wetted and dried, thereby

damaging the bond between the aggregate and the cement paste(Koukis et al., 2007). The most important negative effect of fine

materials in aggregate is an increase in the quantity needed for

the concrete to achieve a given workability. When some coatings

are not removed during processing, fine material can impair the

aggregate–cement bond (Fookes, 1980; Neville, 1995). To deter-

mine the quality of very fine particles in fine aggregates,

methylene blue and sand equivalent test results can indicate the

amount of potentially harmful fine material (Kandall et al., 1998).

Low absorption values may show a small amount of clay (Stapel

and Verhoef, 1989). There is no absolute value given that limits

these values in standards. However, results based on past research

indicate that if the methylene blue value is found to be below

1 g/kg, there is no negative effect on concrete strength, and a high

sand equivalent value for fine aggregate indicates a positive effect

on concrete properties (Eryurtlu et al., 2004; Hasdemir, 2004).

According to the test results reported in Table 4, except for the

quartz sandstone (K4) and quartzite (CS) samples, the methylene

Samplecode

Composition Cement Classification (Folk, 1968)

OS1 Quartz, feldspar, sericite, muscovite, rock fragments (schist,

quartzite, silicious sedimentary rock fragments)

Very l ittle clay Subarkose/arkose

OS4 Quartz, feldspar, rock fragments (quartzite, schist, phyllite),

sericite, muscovite, opaque minerals

Clay Sublitharenite –litharenite/

methasandstone

OS5 Quartz, feldspar, clay, muscovite, rock fragments Clay Arkose/methasandstone –

methasiltstone

K3 Quartz, feldspar, muscovite, sericite Carbonate Arkose

K4 Quartz, feldspar, muscovite, calcite, opaque minerals Carbonate and very

little clay

Quartz sandstone

AS Quartz, feldspar, muscovite Carbonate and verylittle clay Subarkose

CBS Quartz, feldspar, muscovite, rock fragments Very little carbonate Subarkose

CS Quartz, muscovite, opaque min. Mosaic texture Quartzite

Table 2. Petrographic characteristics of sandstones

Sample

code

Major element oxide: %

Losses on

ignition

Silicon dioxide

(SiO2)

Aluminium

oxide (Al2O3)

Iron (III) oxide

(Fe2O3)

Calcium oxide

(CaO)

Magnesium

oxide (MgO)

Potassium

oxide (K2O)

Sodium oxide

(Na2O)

OS1 3.68 59.92 17.23 10.74 0.29 1.4 3.18 2.98

OS4 5.12 57.48 17.54 11.58 0.44 1.87 2.69 3.11

OS5 4.77 57.68 18.20 12.21 0 2.04 2.81 2.95

K3 4.88 61.66 16.54 6.67 2.02 1.93 3.5 0.97

K4 28 24.1 4.65 4.58 34.9 1.24 0.77 0.31

AS 4.31 64.17 12.45 5.5 3.44 2.43 3.08 2.72

CBS 3.98 62.18 10.55 4.32 2.68 1.86 2.77 2.43

CS 0.74 96.82 0.26 0.96 0.27 0.53 0.15 0.03

Table 3. Percentages of major element oxide of the sandstones

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blue values of all sandstones are above 1 g/kg. The subarkose/

arkose (OS1), sublitharenite/litharenite (OS4) and arkose (OS5)

samples show higher methylene blue values and lower sand

equivalent values than the other sandstones. A higher methylene

blue value is related to a decrease in the sand equivalent (Figure

5). This result may be attributable to a higher percentage of clay

in these samples as indicated by the aluminium oxide (Al2O3),

potassium oxide (K 2O), sodium oxide (Na2O) and iron (III) oxide

(Fe2O3) contents, which suggest the presence of feldspar, clay and

mica minerals (Table 2). In addition, the percentage of aluminium

oxide, potassium oxide, sodium oxide and iron (III) oxide

correlated with the corresponding methylene blue absorption and

sand equivalent values (Figure 6). While the percentages of

aluminium oxide, potassium oxide, sodium oxide and iron (III)

oxide increased, the methylene blue absorption values increased

and the sand equivalent values decreased.

Aggregate tests and standard no. OS1 OS4 OS5 K3 K4 AS CBS CS

Methylene blue absorption: g/kg

EN 933-9 (2009)

2.25 2.5 4 1.25 0.5 1.8 1.8 0.25

Sand equivalent: %

EN 933-8 (1999)

30 53 35 38 65 36 65 79

Saturated surface dried 0–4 mm 2.75 2.70 2.77 2.70 2.70 2.68 2.68 2.65

particle density: g/cm3 4–11.2 mm 2.70 2.65 2.64 2.73 2.71 2.71 2.70 2.66

EN 1097-6 (2000) 11.2–22.4 mm 2.69 2.62 2.66 2.73 2.73 2.72 2.71 2.66

Water absorption: % 0–4 mm 2.63 2.21 3.75 3.01 1.82 1.6 1.6 1.8

EN 1097-6 (2000) 4–11.2 mm 2.19 2.17 3.65 0.89 0.48 0.7 0.7 0.57

11.2–22.4 mm 2.03 2.19 3.62 0.45 0.37 0.7 0.5 0.45

Los Angeles coefficient (500 cycles): % 26 34 29 13 14 20 22 12EN 1097-2 (2010)

Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) value: %

EN 1367-2 (2009)

45 87 82 36 12 10 11 6.8

Flakiness index: %

EN 933-3 (1997)

31 26 35 13 10 19 20 30

Table 4. Results of aggregate tests

00·010·020·030·040·050·060·070·080·090·10

7 14 16 21

Percentageofexpansion

inlength:%

Days

OS1

OS4

OS5

AS

CBS

K3

K4

CS

Figure 3. Changes in expansion values at 7, 14, 16 and 21 days

Cement properties CEM II 42.5 R

Chemical properties

Insoluble residue: % 0.87

Silicon dioxide (SiO2): % 21.94

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3): % 5.51

Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3): % 2.67

Calcium oxide (CaO): % 62.26

Magnesium oxide (MgO): % 2.07

Sodium oxide (Na2O): % 0.23

Potassium oxide (K2O): % 0.63

Sulfur trioxide (SO3): % 2.13

Losses on ignition 3.03Chloride (Cl): % 0.0145

Free calcium oxide (CaO): % 0.70

Physical properties

Relative density 3.11

Specific surface: cm2 /g 4130

Water/cement ratio: % 28

Initial setting time: min 150

Final setting time: min 180

Volume expansion: mm 0.5

Compressive strength

2 days: MPa 28.4

7 days: MPa 48.228 days: MPa 60.6

Table 5. Cement properties used in test concretes and accelerated

mortar bar tests

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Figure 4. SEM photomicrographs of typical alkali silica gel

developed in OS1 sample

Concrete sample OS1 OS4 OS5 K3 K4 AS CBS CS

Cement: kg/m3 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Water: kg/m3 236 235 287 213 211 205 215 179

Natural sand: kg/m3 202 203 195 217 221 534 509 358

Crushed sand (0/4 mm): kg/m3 572 565 489 611 621 255 269 452

Crushed stone no. 1 (4/11.2 mm): kg/m3 491 485 499 394 397 442 454 529

Crushed stone no. 2 (11.2/22.4 mm): kg/m3 489 480 502 636 646 591 564 529

Chemical additive: kg/m3 2.4 2.4 2.4 3.78 3.78 1.80 1.80 2.12

Water/cement 0.84 0.83 1.05 0.71 0.70 0.68 0.72 0.61

Table 6. Concrete mix design

Concrete code Compressive strength: MPa

7 days 28 days

OS1 15.2 20.4

OS4 17.8 21.9

OS5 9.1 12.1

K3 24.2 30.3

K4 26.4 32.7

AS 20.6 40.4CBS 21.5 37

CS 33.4 40.8

Table 7. The properties of hardened concrete

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 1 2 3 4

Sandequivalent:%

Methylene blue absorption: g/kg

y x

R

9·85 67·790·65

Figure 5. Relationship between sand equivalent value and

methylene blue absorption

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0

0·5

1·0

1·5

2·0

2·5

3·0

3·5

4·0

4·5

0 5 10 15 20Methyleneblueabsorption:g/kg

Aluminium oxide (Al O ): %

(a)2 3

y

R

0·29e0·92

0·13 x

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 5 10 15 20

Sandequivalent:%

Aluminium oxide (Al O ): %

(b)2 3

y x

R

2·30 78·100·85

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5

Sandequivalent:%

Sodium oxide (Na O): %(d)

2Sodium oxide (Na O): %(c)

2

y x

R

8·09ln( ) 50·620·74

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 1 2 3 4

Sandequivalent:%

Potassium oxide (K O): %(f)

2

y x

R

12·30 79·270·83

Potassium oxide (K O): %(e)

2

Methyleneblueabsorption:g/kg



20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Sandequivalent:%

Iron (III) oxide (Fe O ): %(h)

2 3

y x

R

17·15ln( ) 79·860·79

Iron (III) oxide (Fe O ): %(g)

2 3

0

0·5

1·0

1·5

2·0

2·5

3·0

3·5

4·0

4·5

0 1 2 3 4

y

R

0·38e0·93

0·66 x

0

0·5

1·0

1·5

2·0

2·5

3·0

3·5

4·0

4·5

0 1 2 3 4

y

R

0·30e0·86

0·64 x

0

0·5

1·0

1·5

2·0

2·5

3·0

3·5

4·0

4·5

0 5 10 15

y x x

R

0·01 0·13 0·330·87

2

Figure 6. Relationship between percentage of aluminium oxide

(Al2O3), sodium oxide (Na2O), potassium oxide (K2O), iron (III)

oxide (Fe2O3) and methylene blue absorption-sand equivalent

value

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The saturated surface-dried particle density of normal aggregatesshould be a minimum of 2.6 g/cm3, in accordance with BS EN

812 (BSI, 1998). The saturated surface-dried particle density

values of the sandstone aggregates fulfil this requirement.

The water absorption of aggregates can affect their physical and

mechanical properties (Smith and Collis, 2001). Increasing the

amount of water in a concrete mixture to accommodate the higher

water demand of the aggregate with high absorption requirements,

will decrease concrete strength. The water absorption value of

sandstone aggregates in different particle sizes varies between

0.37 and 3.75% (Table 4). Poitevin (1999) showed that high-

strength concrete can best be made with rock of low water

absorption (, 2%). Fookes (1984) also indicated that the water

absorption of aggregate should be less than 1.5%. According to

the test results of this study, subarkose/arkose, sublitharenite/

litharenite and arkose are not suitable for high-strength concrete

production because these aggregates absorb too much water.

The aggregates in the Los Angeles test suffered a combination of

attrition and impact, with the latter being probably more signifi-

cant. The Los Angeles coefficient is influenced by geological and

clast features of an aggregate (Smith and Collis, 2001). Toureng

and Denis (1982) showed that aggregates with a Los Angeles

coefficient (after 500 cycles) between 30–40% can be used in

low-strength concrete (, 36 MPa). Based on the Los Angeles testresults, all of the sandstone aggregates in this study fulfil the Los

Angeles requirements for use in all types of applications (Table

4). A good correlation was obtained between the Los Angeles

coefficient and the percentage of aluminium oxide, sodium oxide

and iron (III) oxide (Figure 7). As the percentage of aluminium

oxide, sodium oxide and iron (III) oxide increased, the Los

Angeles coefficient also increased. Thus, the higher the Los

Angeles coefficient, the poorer the aggregate quality.

Durability tests evaluate the wetting and drying behaviour of

aggregates, with the addition of chemicals to hasten breakdown

(McNally, 1998). According to ASTM C 33 (ASTM, 1986),which has a similar test procedure and equipment to EN 1367-2

(CEN, 2009b), the soundness values for coarse aggregates should

be less than on 18% loss. In this study, the magnesium sulfate

values of subarkose/arkose (OS1), sublitharenite/litharenite (OS4)

and arkoses (OS5 and K3) do not lie within this standard limit,

but the quartz sandstone (K4), subarkoses (AS and CBS) and

quartzites (CS) are within the standard limit (Table 4). In

contrast, the magnesium sulfate values of the sandstones studied

herein correlated with the percentage of aluminium oxide and

iron (III) oxide (Figure 8). Figure 8 shows that when the percent-

age of aluminium oxide and iron (III) oxide increases, the

magnesium sulfate values of sandstones also increase.

Aggregate shape is an important property and is influenced by

the petrographic, fabric and structural characteristics of the rock

and production techniques (Ramsay et al., 1974; Smith and

Collis, 2001). Thin elongated particles can be an indicator of a

possible high Los Angeles coefficient and generally will result in

a harsh mix with poor handling properties and poor pumpability.

Fookes (1984) indicated that the flakiness indices should be less

than 25%. An increase in the Los Angeles coefficient can occur

with an increase in the flakiness index. Also, the sandstone

aggregate tensile strength can decrease with an increasing per-

centage of flaky particles (Smith and Collis, 2001). In this study,

the flakiness index values of subarkose/arkose (OS1), sublithar-

enite/litharenite (OS4) and arkoses (OS5) are higher than 25%.

Shakoor et al. (1982) and Pigeon and Pleau (1995) suggested that

rocks with water absorption values greater than 3% and 2%,

respectively, have the potential to be damaged in freezing and

thawing service conditions. According to the test results obtained

from this study, all sandstones except arkoses (OS5) have water

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 5 10 15 20

LosAngelescoefficient:%

Aluminium oxide (Al O ): %(a)

2 3

y x x

R

0·03 0·27 12·310·72

2

LosAngelescoefficient:

%

Sodium oxide (Na O): %(b)

2

y

R

11·47e0·94

0·28 x

LosAngelescoefficie

nt:%

Iron (III) oxide (Fe O ): %(c)

2 3

y x

R

1·69 9·30

0·85

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5

0

5

10

15

20

2530

35

40

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Figure 7. Relationship between percentage of aluminium oxide

(Al2O3), sodium oxide (Na2O), iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) and Los

Angeles coefficient

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absorption values of less than 3% (Table 4). The water absorption

values of samples can be related to the type of clay mineral

present and the feldspar and mica minerals. Based on petrographic

evaluation, the studied sandstones, subarkose/arkose, sublithare-

nite/litharenite and arkose contain feldspar and mica minerals.

The cement in these sandstones is composed of clay (Table 2).

According to ASTM C 1260 (ASTM, 1994b), the expansion at

16 days should be less than 0.10%. Expansions of less than

0.10% at 16 days are, in most cases, indicative of innocuous

behaviour. Expansions of more than 0.20% at 16 days are

indicative of deleterious aggregates. Expansions between 0.10%

and 0.20% at 16 days are known to be either innocuous or

deleterious. In such a situation, it may also be useful to take

comparative readings until 28 days or to perform other alkali

reactivity tests. According to CSA A23.2-94 (CSA, 1994), the

percent expansion at 14 days should be under 0.10%. An

expansion of less than 0.10% indicates non-reactive aggregates,

and expansions between 0.10% and 0.40% have a potential for

slow ASR. Many field and laboratory investigations on concrete,

mortar or aggregate samples have demonstrated or suggested that

quartz, feldspars, micas, clay minerals, metamorphic or strained

quartz in sandstones can release significant amounts of alkalis in

the concrete pore solutions or can react with the free alkalis in

cement (Blight et al., 1981; Choquette et al., 1991; Hunger et al.,

1996; Van Aardt and Visser, 1977). Based on petrographic

studies, all the studied sandstones are mainly composed of quartz,

feldspars, micas and clay minerals, and they did not display anexpansion of more than 0.10% (Figure 3). This result is expected

because the studied sandstones contain significant amounts of

these minerals, and they do not contain metamorphic or strained

quartz.

The mortar bars were also examined using SEM. These observa-

tions confirm that the concrete samples made from the studied

sandstones are not affected by ASR. The subarkose/arkose (OS1)

had more expansion and showed the occurrence of alkali–silica

gel. Figure 4 displays a coating on the surface of the aggregate

exhibiting the characteristic expansion cracks. Reaction products

were observed at the aggregate surface and aggregate–paste

interface. The expansion in sample OS1 occurred predominantly

at the particle surface.

Based on the results of the aggregate tests, especially the

methylene blue, water absorption and magnesium sulfate tests

(Table 4), the sublitharenite/litharenite (OS4) and arkose (OS5)

samples are of extremely poor quality when compared with all

the other samples in the study. This result is expected because

these sandstones contain a higher percentage of clay cement, as

indicated by the highest aluminium oxide and iron (III) oxide

contents (Table 2). In addition, these two samples are metamor-

phosed (Table 2 and Figure 2) and their particle sizes range from

very fine to fine (OS5) to coarse (OS4). Therefore, based on these potentially deleterious properties, the sublitharenite/litharenite

(OS4) and arkose (OS5) samples should not be used in concrete

production. Other low-quality sandstones such as subarkose

(OS1) and arkose (K3) can be used in low-strength concrete, but

they should not be used in freezing and thawing service

conditions.

The compressive strength of testing concretes produced from

different sandstones is shown in Table 7. As seen in this table,

crushed aggregates of subarkoses (AS and CBS) and quartzite

(CS) produce higher compressive strength than other sandstones.

The 28-day compressive strengths of concretes made withsubarkose– arkose (OS1), sublitharenite– litharenite (OS4) and

arkose (OS5) aggregates are nearly 40–50% lower when com-

pared to subarkose aggregate concrete.

ConclusionPetrographic studies indicate that most of the sandstones tested in

this work are classified as subarkose, arkose, sublitharenite,

litharenite, quartz sandstone and quartzite. According to the test

results, sublitharenite/litharenite and arkose cemented with clay

should not be used as concrete aggregates, whereas quartz

sandstone, subarkose and quartzite can be used. However, the

hardened concrete properties produced with studied sandstones

support aggregate test results.

Additionally, subarkose and arkose should be evaluated carefully

before use as coarse aggregates in low-strength concrete owing to

their potential susceptibility to damage in freeze and thaw service

0

10

20

3040

50

60

7080

90

100

0 5 10 15 20

MgSO

value:%

4

Aluminium oxide (Al O ): %(a)

2 3

y

R

4·87e0·86

0·13 x

MgSO

value:%

4

Iron (III) oxide (Fe O ): %(b)

2 3

y R

4·40e0·95

0·24 x

010

2030

4050

607080

90100

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Figure 8. Relationship between percentages of aluminium oxide

(Al2O3), iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)value

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conditions. However, these sandstones do not appear to besusceptible to deleterious alkali– aggregate reactions.

The chemical composition of the sandstones (especially the

percentage of aluminium oxide, potassium oxide, sodium oxide

and iron (III) oxide) provide generally positive information about

the aggregate quality.

Although there is an increasing demand for aggregates and

decreasing amounts of good quality aggregate resources in the

world, especially around large metropolitan areas, lower quality

aggregates should be used with caution in low-strength concrete,

with special attention paid to durability characteristics and test-

ing, especially for magnesium sulfate soundness, when used in

exterior service conditions.

AcknowledgementThis study was supported by the Research Fund of the Istanbul

University (project number: 517/05052006).

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assessing the quality of sandstones for use aas aggregate in concrete

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