Athletic Events

Athletic Events were an integral part of the sport competitions held in the classical days. Some of the competitions of those days were the Pythian Games, the Nemean Games and the Isthmian Games, which were all the Pan-Hellenic Games. There were also the Roman Games. Athletics was also the main event in the first Summer Games.

However, in the Roman Games, sports like chariot racing, wrestling and later on the gladiatorial combat commanded a greater fan following as compared to the athletics. The athletics were of course a part of combat training. In Europe, various athletic events became popular from those early days. The sports became popular in Britain during the period between thirteenth and sixteenth century. Now there are many international events, where the track and field athletics is a major attraction. The field of international track and field athletics is governed by International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF.

Track And Field Events in Athletics: Track and field athletics is a collection of three sports disciplines. These disciplines are running, throwing and jumping. The origin of the name, "athletics" is the Greek word, "athlon". In Greek, the meaning of "athlon" is "contest". In some languages, track and field athletics are referred to as "light athletics" to differentiate them from the "heavy athletics". The sport events included in the "heavy athletics" are weight lifting and wrestling. The track and field athletics is more of a direct manifestation of the Olympic motto, "Citius, Altius, Fortius", which means "faster, higher, stronger".

In the present time, modern track and field athletics are generally held on a running track of 400 meters length. The track events or the running events take place on the track. The field enclosed within the track is used for staging the field events like jumping, vaulting and throwing. The athletics competitions for men and women are held separately. The distance of the sprint events are generally the same for men and women. However, the barriers in the hurdle and steeplechase events are lowered for women. The weight of the shot, javelin, hammer and discus are also less in women's competition. The track and field events are held in two different seasons.

Indoor Season - The indoor sports events are held during winter. The length of the indoor track varies from 145 meter to northamerica_unitedstates meter. However, the standard length of an indoor track is 200 meter consisting of six lanes. The indoor events in athletics are generally the same as the events held on the outdoor track except a few minor variations. The length of some sprint events and hurdle races are reduced in the indoor track. Among the field events, the javelin, hammer and discus throwing events are excluded from the indoor program. The field events held in the indoor season are the long jump, high jump, triple jump, pole vault and shot put. The northamerica_unitedstates meter, 600 meter, 1000 meter sprint, 35 pound weight throw, pentathlon, heptathlon, standing long jump and standing high jump are some of the other events in the indoor competition.

Outdoor Season - The outdoor season is run during spring and summer seasons. The oval shaped outdoor track is generally of 400 meter length. The number of lanes in the outdoor track varies between six and ten. Bigger tracks also include a steeplechase lane with water pit. The field inside the track is often referred to as the infield. The field events are held in the infield. In some tracks, the infield is made of Field Turf or Astro Turf. The field events include the high jump, long jump, triple jump, pole vault, javelin, hammer and discus throws and shot put. However, in the stadiums with the play field inside the tracks, javelin, hammer and discus throwing events are staged outside the stadium.

Track And Field Athletics in Summer Olympics: Athletics was the main event at the first Summer Games which took place in 776 B.C. The only event included in the schedule of the 776 B.C. Summer Games was the "stade", a foot race which was run the length of the stadium. Athletics sports events have been a part of the Modern Olympic program since the 1896 Athens Summer Games, the first modern Olympics. However, women were not allowed to compete in the track and field events in athletics until the 1928 Amsterdam Summer Games. The Olympic track and field events can be divided into four categories. The categories are -

Track events - The track events include sprints, middle distance running and long distance running of different lengths. There are also obstacle events, including the hurdle races, relays and steeplechase events.

Field events - The field events of athletics will include long jump, triple jump, high jump, pole vault, shot put, the javelin, discus, and hammer throw for both men and women.

Combined events - The combined events include the decathlon for men and the heptathlon for women.

Road events - The marathon and long distance walking events are included in the road events.

There are also some track and field athletic events in athletics which are either obsolete or are not competed regularly. These events are -

Record holders in Track And Field Athletics: A number of athletes from all over the world have created Olympic records in the sporting disciplines of track and field athletics.

Some athletes who hold Olympic records in various track events are Donovan Bailey, Michael Johnson, Vebjorn Rodal, Noah Ngeny, Said Aouita, Kenenisa Bekele, Xiang Liu, Kevin Young, Julius Kariuki, Florence Griffith Joyner, Marie-Jose Perec, Nadezhda Olizarenko, Paula Ivan, Gabriela Szabo, Derartu Tulu, Joanna Hayes, Fani Halkia, Asafa Powell, Wilson Kipketer, Hicham El Guerrouj, Daniel Komen, Carl Lewis, Marita Koch, Jarmila Kratpchvilova, Svetlana Masterkova, Qu Yunxia, Wang Junxia, Tegla Loroupe, Yordanka Donkova and Yuliya Pechonkina.

In the field events, the Olympic record holders are Charles Austin, Bob Beamon, Tim Mack, Kenny Harrison, Ulf Timmermann, Virgilijus Alekna, Sergey Litvinov, Jan Zelezny, Roman Sebrle, Yelana Slesarenko, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Yelena Isinbayeva, Inessa Kravets, Ilona Slupianek, Martina Hellmann, Olga Kuzenkova, Osleidys Menendez, Javier Sotomayor, Sergei Bubka, Mike Powell, Jonathan Edwards, Randy Barnes, Jurgen Schult, Galina Chistyakova, Stefka Kostadinova, Inessa Kravets, Natalya Lisovskaya, Gabriele Reinsch and Heike Drechsler.

Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Austra Skujyte, Irina Belova, Roman Sebrle, Dan O'Brien are the Olympic record holders in the combined events.

Carlos Lopes, Naoko Takahashi, Haile Gebrselassie, Robert Korzeniowski, Vyacheslav Ivanenko, Liping Wang, Jefferson Perez, Maurizio Damilano, Thierry Toutain, Robert Korzeniowski, Tegla Loroupe, Paula Radcliffe, Olimpiada Ivanova and Tatyana Lebedeva are the Olympic record holders in the road events, which include the marathon and long distance walking events.

Track events

100 meter sprint for men

100 meter sprint for women

200 meter sprint for men

200 meter sprint for women

400 meter sprint for men

400 meter sprint for women

800 meter event for men

800 meter event for women

1500 meter event for men

1500 meter event for women

5000 meter event for men

5000 meter event for women

10000 meter event for men

10000 meter event for women

Marathon for women

Women 80-meter hurdle

Women 100-meter hurdle

Women 400-meter hurdle

3000 meter steeplechase for Women

110 meter hurdle for men

400 meter hurdle for men

3000 meter steeplechase for men

4x100 meter relay event for men

4x100 meter relay event for women

4x400 meter relay event for men

4x400 meter relay event for women

Field events

Long Jump for men

Long Jump for women

Triple Jump for men

Triple Jump for women

High Jump for men

High Jump for women

Shot Put for men

Shot Put for women

Discus Throw for men

Discus Throw for women

Hammer Throw for men

Hammer Throw for women

Javelin Throw for men

Javelin Throw for women

Road events

Introduction

Marathon for men

Marathon for women

20 kilometer walking event for men

20 kilometer walking event for women

50 kilometer walking event for men

Combined events

Decathlon for men

Heptathlon for women

There are also some track and field athletic events which are either obsolete or are not competed regularly. These events are -

Obsolete Track and Field athletic events

60 Meters sprint

200 Meter Hurdles

2500 Meter Steeplechase

2590 Meter Steeplechase

3200 Meter Steeplechase

4000 Meter Steeplechase

Medley Relay

3000 Meter Team Race

5000 Meter Team Race

3 Mile Team Race

4 Mile Team Race

3000 Meter Walk

10 Kilometer Walk

10 Mile Walk

Triathlon

Pentathlon

Standing Long Jump

Standing Triple Jump

Standing High Jump

56 Pound Weight Throw

Two Handed Shot Put

Greek Discus

Two Handed Discus Throw

Freestyle Javelin

Two Handed Javelin Throw

Individual Cross County

Team Cross Country

Record holders in Track And Field Athletics: The track and field athletics has been contested in the major international competitions all over world. Many records have been made in various events included in the track and field athletics program. Many athletes have excelled in their fields in the long history of the track and field athletics.

Some athletes who hold records in various track events are Donovan Bailey, Michael Johnson, Vebjorn Rodal, Noah Ngeny, Said Aouita, Kenenisa Bekele, Xiang Liu, Kevin Young, Julius Kariuki, Florence Griffith Joyner, Marie-Jose Perec, Nadezhda Olizarenko, Paula Ivan, Gabriela Szabo, Derartu Tulu, Joanna Hayes, Fani Halkia, Asafa Powell, Wilson Kipketer, Hicham El Guerrouj, Daniel Komen, Carl Lewis, Marita Koch, Jarmila Kratpchvilova, Svetlana Masterkova, Qu Yunxia, Wang Junxia, Tegla Loroupe, Yordanka Donkova and Yuliya Pechonkina.

In the field events, the record holders are Charles Austin, Bob Beamon, Tim Mack, Kenny Harrison, Ulf Timmermann, Virgilijus Alekna, Sergey Litvinov, Jan Zelezny, Roman Sebrle, Yelana Slesarenko, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Yelena Isinbayeva, Inessa Kravets, Ilona Slupianek, Martina Hellmann, Olga Kuzenkova, Osleidys Menendez, Javier Sotomayor, Sergei Bubka, Mike Powell, Jonathan Edwards, Randy Barnes, Jurgen Schult, Galina Chistyakova, Stefka Kostadinova, Inessa Kravets, Natalya Lisovskaya, Gabriele Reinsch and Heike Drechsler.

Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Austra Skujyte, Irina Belova, Roman Sebrle, Dan O'Brien are the record holders in the combined events.

Carlos Lopes, Naoko Takahashi, Haile Gebrselassie, Robert Korzeniowski, Vyacheslav Ivanenko, Liping Wang, Jefferson Pérez, Maurizio Damilano, Thierry Toutain, Robert Korzeniowski, Tegla Loroupe, Paula Radcliffe, Olimpiada Ivanova and Tatyana Lebedeva are the record holders in the road events, which include the marathon and long distance walking events.

Long Jump

Long jump is also known as "broad jump". The aim of long jumper is to land as far as possible from the takeoff point. The distance covered by the jumper is referred to as the "mark". The athletes generally land in a pit full of sand or ground gravel.

Long jump was actually a sport event included in the ancient Summer Summer Games. In those days, the athletes used to carry a weight in each hand. The weights were used for giving the athlete an extra lift during the jump. The total action in the long jump can be divided in four parts-the approach run, the last two strides, take off and the movement in air and landing. The event is a combination of speed, power and swiftness. As speed is a key factor of success in the long jump competitions, sprinters often excel in the event. Generally, the long jump competitions are held in two rounds, the trial rounds and the final round.

Rules for Long Jump for Men at Olympics: The rules for the track and field athletics events are set by the International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF. The rules which are followed at the international long jump competitions, are-

An athlete is disqualified from the competition, if he touches the ground outside the take-off line and before the landing area.

All jumps taken in the long jump event are measured from the break in the landing area which is nearest to the take-off line. The distance between the take-off line and the end of the landing area has been determined by the IAAF. The distance should be minimum 10 meter. The design and the material of the take-off board has been determined by the IAAF. The width of the landing area varies between 2.75 meter and 3 meter. The landing area should be filled with soft damp sand.

Medal Winners in the Long Jump for Men: The United States of America has been the leading figure in the domain of the long jump. The athletes who have excelled in the long jump event are Dwight Phillips, James Beckford, Kareem Streete-Thompson, Ivan Pedroso, Erick Walder, Larry Myricks, Robert Emmiyan, Carl Lewis, Bob Beamon, Mike Powell, Lutz Dombrowski, Arnie Robinson, Randy Williams, Lynn Davies, Ralph Boston, Greg Bell, Jerome Biffle, Willie Steele, Jesse Owens, Ed Gordon, Ed Hamm, William DeHart Hubbard, William Pettersson, Albert Gutterson, Frank Irons, Myer Prinstein, Alvin Kraenzlein and Ellery Clark .

www.mapsofworld.com/olympics/athletic-events/

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Track and FieldTrack and field is a sport comprising various competitive athletic contests based on running, jumping, and throwing. The name of the sport derives from the competition venue: a stadium with an oval running track around a grass field. The throwing and jumping events generally take place in the central enclosed area.

Track and field

A track and field stadium

Track and field is a sport comprising various competitive athletic contests based on running, jumping, and throwing. The name of the sport derives from the competition venue: a stadium with an oval running track around a grass field. The throwing and jumping events generally take place in the central enclosed area.

Track and field falls under the umbrella sport of athletics, which also includes road running, cross country running, and race walking. The two most prestigious international track and field competitions are held under the banner of athletics: the athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body for track and field.

Track and field events are generally individual sports with athletes challenging each other to decide a single victor. The racing events are won by the athlete with the fastest time, while the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who has achieved the greatest distance or height in the contest. The running events are categorised as sprints, middle and long-distance events, relays, and hurdling. Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also "combined events", such as heptathlon and decathlon, in which athletes compete in a number of the above events.

Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, right down to a personal level. However, if athletes are deemed to have violated the event's rules or regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased.

In North America, the term track and field may be used to refer to athletics in general, rather than specifically track and field events.

The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory. Track and field-style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace.[1] The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions, but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognized today—it comprised a five-event competition of the long jump, javelin throw, discus throw, the stadion foot race, and wrestling.[2][3]

Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC.[4][5] After the period of Classical antiquity (in which the sport was largely Greco-Roman influenced) new track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages. The stone put and weight throw competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modern shot put and hammer throw events. One of the last track and field events to develop was the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century.

An early model of hurdling at the Detroit Athletic Club in 1888.

Discrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were first recorded in the 19th century. These were typically organised by educational institutions, military organisations and sports clubs as competitions between rival establishments.[6] Competitions in the English public schools were conceived as human equivalents of horse racing, fox hunting and hare coursing, influenced by a Classics-rich curriculum. The Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt is the oldest running club in the world, with written records going back to 1831 and evidence that it was established by 1819. [7] The school organised Paper Chase races in which runners followed a trail of paper shreds left by two "foxes";[7] even today RSSH runners are called "hounds" and a race victory is a "kill".[8] The first definite record of Shrewsbury's (cross-country) Annual Steeplechase is in 1834, making it the oldest running race of the modern era.[7] The school also lays claim to the oldest track and field meeting still in existence, originating in the Second Spring Meeting first documented in 1840.[7] This featured a series of throwing and jumping events with mock horse races including the Derby Stakes, the Hurdle Race and the Trial Stakes. Runners were entered by "owners" and named as though they were horses.[7] 13 miles (21 km) away and a decade later, the first Wenlock Olympian Games were held at Much Wenlock racecourse.[9] Events at the 1851 Wenlock Games included a "half-mile foot race" (805 m) and a "leaping in distance" competition.[10]

In 1865, Dr William Penny Brookes of Wenlock helped set up the National Olympian Association, which held their first Olympian Games in 1866 at The Crystal Palace in London.[10] This national event was a great success, attracting a crowd of over ten thousand people.[10] In response, that same year the Amateur Athletic Club was formed and held a championship for "gentlemen amateurs" in an attempt to reclaim the sport for the educated elite. [10] Ultimately the "allcomers" ethos of the NOA won through and the AAC was reconstituted as the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880, the first national body for the sport of athletics. The AAA Championships, the de facto British national championships despite being for England only, have been held annually since 3 July 1880 with breaks only during two world wars and 2006–2008.[11] The AAA was effectively a global governing body in the early years of the sport, codifying its rules for the first time.

Meanwhile, the United States began holding an annual national competition—the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships—first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club.[12] The establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States (the Amateur Athletic Union in 1888) and France (the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889) put the sport on a formal footing and meant that international competitions became possible.

The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high for track and field. The Olympic athletics programme, comprising track and field events plus a marathon race, contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events, both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws. The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades, and track and field contests remained among the Games' most prominent. The Olympics was the elite competition for track and field, and only amateur sportsmen could compete. Track and field continued to be a largely amateur sport, as this rule was strictly enforced: Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was revealed that he had played baseball professionally.[13]

That same year, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was established, becoming the international governing body for track and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport. The National Collegiate Athletic Association held their first Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921, making it one of the most prestigious competitions for students, and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student Games in 1923.[14] The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships, which was followed by the European Athletics Championships in 1934.[15] Up until the early 1920s, track and field had been almost exclusively a male-only pursuit. The women's sports movement led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics and more women's events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of the century that the men's and women's programmes approached parity of events). Furthermore, major track and field competitions for disabled athletes were first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics.

With the rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in Olympic-style multi-sport events (such as the Commonwealth Games and the Pan-American Games), competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread. From the 1960s onwards, the sport gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations. After over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s.[6] As a result, the Amateur Athletic Union was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non-amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics: The Athletics Congress (later USA Track and Field).[16] The IAAF soon followed suit in 1982, abandoning amateurism, and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations.[6] The following year saw the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics—the first ever global competition just for athletics—which, with the Olympics, became one of track and field's most prestigious competitions.

The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 1980s, with a number of athletes becoming household names (such as Carl Lewis, Sergey Bubka, Sebastian Coe, Zola Budd and Florence Griffith-Joyner). Many world records were broken in this period, and the added political element between competitors of the United States, East Germany, and the Soviet Union, in reaction to the Cold War, only served to stoke the sport's popularity. The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science, and there were many changes to coaching methods, athlete's diet regimes, training facilities and sports equipment. This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance-enhancing drugs, and prominent cases, such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and Marion Jones, damaged the public image and marketability of the sport.

From the 1990s onwards, track and field became increasingly more professional and international, as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations. The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997,[6] and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League—an annual series of major track and field meetings in Europe—provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a US$1 million jackpot. In 2010, the series was replaced by the more lucrative IAAF Diamond League, a fourteen-meeting series held in Europe, Asia, North America and the Middle East—the first ever worldwide annual series of track and field meetings.[17]

Track and field events are divided into three broad categories: track events, field events, and combined events. The majority of athletes tend to specialise in just one event (or event type) with the aim of perfecting their performances, although the aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines. Track events involve running on a track over a specified distances and—in the case of the hurdling and steeplechase events—obstacles may be placed on the track. There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a baton to their team member at the end of a certain distance.

There are two types of field events: jumps, and throws. In jumping competitions, athletes are judged on either the length or height of their jumps. The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker, and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled. In the jumps for height, an athlete must clear his or her body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards. The majority of jumping events are unaided, although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose-built sticks in the pole vault.

The throwing events involve hurling an implement (such as a heavy weight, javelin or discus) from a set point, with athletes being judged on the distance that the object is thrown. Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events. Points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end of all events is the winner.

Official world championship track and field events

Track Field

Combined   events

Sprints Middle-distance Long-distance Hurdles Relays Jumps Throws

60 m100 m200 m400 m

800 m1500 m3000 m

5000 m10,000 m

60 m hurdles100 m hurdles110 m hurdles400 m hurdles

3000 m steeplechase

4×100 m relay4×400 m relay

Long jumpTriple jumpHigh jumpPole vault

Shot putDiscus throw

Hammer throwJavelin throw

PentathlonHeptathlonDecathlon

Note: Events in italics are competed at indoor world championships only

Running

Sprints

The finish of a women's 100 m race

Races over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event, the stadion race, which was literally a race from one end of the stadium to the other.[1] Sprinting events are focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed. Three sprinting events are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements that later changed to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100 yard dash,[18] the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile),[19] and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.[20]

At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained.[21] Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events,[20] with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed.[21] All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance.[22] Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so because lactic acid builds up once leg muscles begin suffer oxygen deprivation.[20] Top speed can only be maintained for up to 20 meters.[23]

The 60 metres is a common indoor event and indoor world championship event. Less-common events include the 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are run in some high school and collegiate competitions in the United States. The 150 metres, though rarely competed, has a star-studded history: Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983,[24] Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head-to-head over the distance in 1997,[25] and Usain Bolt improved Mennea's record in 2009.[24]

Middle distance

The most common middle distance track events are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle distance event.[26] The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear of the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s.[27] The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.[28]

Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starter's pistol they head towards the innermost track to follow the quickest route to the finish. In 800 m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 100 m of the race.[29] This rule was introduced to reduce the amount of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race.[27] Physiologically, these middle distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strong speed endurance.[30]

The 1500 m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events. Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other's 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s.[31][32] The prominence of the distances were maintained by Roger Bannister, who (in 1954) was the first to run the long-elusive four-minute mile,[33][34] and Jim Ryun's exploits served to popularise interval training.[28] Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle distance running in 1980s.[35] From the 1990s onwards, North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to dominate the 1500 and mile events.[28]

Beyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athlete's reactions and top speed becomes less important, while qualities such as pace, race tactics and endurance become more so.[27][28]

Long distance

There are three common long distance running events in track and field competitions: 3000 metres, 5000 metres and 10,000 metres. The latter two races are both Olympic and World Championship events outdoors, while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships. The 5000 m and 10,000 m events have their historical roots in the 3-mile and 6-mile races. The 3000 m was historically used as a women's long distance event, entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984, but this was abandoned in favour of a women's 5000 m event in 1995.[36]

In terms of competition rules and physical demands, long distance track races have much in common with middle distance races, except that pacing, stamina, and race tactics become much greater factors in performances.[37][38] However, a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle and long distance events, including Saïd Aouita who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m.[39] The use of pace-setters in long distance events is very common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to win. [38][40]

The long distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the "Flying Finns", such as multiple Olympic champion Paavo Nurmi. The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods, but Ron Clarke's world record-breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even-paced running. The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners in long distance events. Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in these events.[36]

Relays

Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams.[41] Typically, a team is made up of four runners of the same sex. Each runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a leg) before handing over a baton to a team mate, who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton. There is usually a designated area where athletes must exchange the baton. Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the change within the area, or if the baton is dropped during the race. A team may also be disqualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors.

Girls handing over the baton in a relay race in Leipzig in 1950

Relay races emerged in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races between firemen, who would hand a red pennant on to team mates every 300 yards. There are two very common relay events: the 4×100 metres relay and the 4×400 metres relay. Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one-off men's medley relay featured in 1908 Olympics.[42] The 4×100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of the track. Teams in a 4×400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner-most part of the circuit. For the second and third baton change overs, team mates must align themselves in respect of their team position – leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slower teams must await the baton on outer lanes.[41][43]

The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays. As with 4×100 m and 4×400 m events, all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being the 4×200   m , 4×800   m and 4×1500   m relays .[44] Other events include the distance medley relay (comprising legs of 1200 m, 400 m, 800 m, and 1600 m), which is frequently held in the United States, and a sprint relay, known as the Swedish medley relay, which is popular in Scandinavia and held at the World Youth Championships in Athletics programme.[45] Relay events have significant participation in the United States, where a number of large meetings (or relay carnivals) are focused almost exclusively on relay events.[46]

Hurdling

A women's 400 m hurdles race at the 2007 Dutch Championships

Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England.[47] The first known event, held in 1830, was a variation of the 100-yard dash that included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this, holding a 120-yard race (109.72 m) with ten hurdles of 3-foot and 6 inches (1.06 m) in height (each placed 10 yards (9.14 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the start and finish, respectively. French organisers adapted the race into metric (adding 28 cm) and the basics of this race, the men's 110 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged.[48] The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford, where (around 1860) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1.06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics: the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3-foot (91.44 cm) hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish, respectively.[49] Women's hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm for the 100 m event and 76 cm (2 ft 6in) for the 400 m event.[48][49]

By far the most common events are the 100 metres hurdles for women, 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes. The men's 110 m has been featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men's 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games.[48][49] Women's initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event, which entered the Olympic programme in 1932. This was extended to the 100 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics,[48] but it was not until 1984 that a women's 400 m hurdles event took place at the Olympics (having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year).[49]

Men traversing the water jump in a steeplechase competition

Outside of the hurdles events, the steeplechase race is the other track and field event with obstacles. Just as the hurdling events, the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford, England. However, this event was born as a human variation on the original steeplechase competition found in horse racing. A steeplechase event was held on a track for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men's 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races. The event was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the standard event.[50] The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954, and the event is held on a 400 m circuit that includes a water

jump on each lap.[51] Despite the long history of men's steeplechase in track and field, the women's steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005, with its first Olympic appearance coming in 2008.

Jumping

Long jump

Naide Gomes in the jumping phase of the event

Main article: Long jump

The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest. The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumped furthest. [52] Small weights (Halteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end to gain extra momentum and distance.[53] The modern long jump, standardised in England and the United States around 1860, bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. Athletes sprint along a length of track that leads to a jumping board and a sandpit.[54] The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand disturbed by the athlete's body.[55]

The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men's long jump competition and a women's competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics.[54] Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. However, athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed.[55][56] In addition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jump contest exists requires that athletes leap from a static position without a run-up. A men's version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912.[57]

Triple jump

Similar to the long jump, the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit. Originally, athletes would hop on the same leg twice before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current "hop, step and jump" pattern from 1900 onwards. [58] There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece: while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games, [58] others such as Stephen G. Miller believe this is incorrect, suggesting that the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Croton having jumped 55 ancient feet (around 16.3 m).[53][59] The Book of Leinster, a 12th-century Irish manuscript, records the existence of geal-ruith (triple jump) contests at the ancient Tailteann Games.[60]

Phillips Idowu in the phases of the triple jump

The men's triple jump competition has been ever-present at the modern Olympics, but it was not until 1993 that a women's version gained World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later.[58] A men's standing triple jump event featured at the 1900 and 1904 Olympics but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used as a non-competitive exercise drill. [61]

High jump

The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century.[62] Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there.[63] Athletes have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area.[64] The men's high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women's competition followed in 1928.

Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event. High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century, using either the Scissors, Eastern cut-off or Western roll technique. The straddle technique became prominent in the mid-20th century, but Dick Fosbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head-first technique in the late 1960s – the Fosbury Flop – which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics. This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards.[63][65] The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912, but is now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill.

Pole vault

Anna Giordano Bruno releases the pole after clearing the bar

In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe, and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in Germany in the 1770s.[66] One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria, England in 1843.[67] The basic rules and technique of the event originated in the United States. The rules required that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces the bar. Bamboo poles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became standard. Landing mattresses were introduced in the mid-20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.[66]

The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal box, and vault over the horizontal bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing mattress.[68] While earlier versions used wooden, metal or bamboo, modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglass or carbon fibre.[69] The pole vault has been an Olympic event since 1896 for men, but it was over 100 years later that the first women's world championship competition was held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships. The first women's Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000.[66]

Throwing

Shot put

Remigius Machura preparing to throw within the circle

The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre-historic competitions with rocks:[70] in the middle ages the stone put was known in Scotland and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland. In the 17th century, cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport.[71][72] The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and required that competitors take legal throws within a square throwing area of seven feet (2.13 m) on each side. This was amended to a circle area with a seven foot diameter in 1906, and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds (7.26 kg). Throwing technique was also refined over this period, with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side-step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876.[71] Shot Putters are generally the largest and most explosive athletes on a team.[citation needed]

The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women's competition using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) shot was added in 1948. Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post-war era: in the 1950s Parry O'Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the "glide," breaking the world record 17 times along the way, while Aleksandr Baryshnikov and Brian Oldfield introduced the "spin" or rotational technique in 1976.[71][73]

Discus throw

Zoltán Kővágó preparing to spin and throw the discus

As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC. [74] In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics.[75] This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing. By the 1912 Olympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2.5 m squared throwing area became the standard.[76] The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg (4.4 pounds) in weight and 22 cm (8 inches) in diameter in 1907.[75] The women's discus was among the first women's events on the Olympic programme, being introduced in 1928.[77]

Javelin throw

Bregje Crolla beginning to throw the javelin

As an implement of war and hunting, javelin throwing began in prehistoric times.[78] Along with the discus, the javelin was the second throwing event in the ancient Olympic pentathlon. Records from 708 BC show two javelin competition types co-existing: throwing at a target and throwing the javelin for distance. It was the latter type from which the modern event derives.[79] In ancient competitions, athletes would wrap an ankyle (thin leather strip) around the javelin that acted as a sling to facilitate extra distance.[80] The javelin throw gained much popularity in Scandinavia in the late 18th century and athletes from the region are still among the most dominant throwers in men's competitions.[79] The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases the javelin before the foul line.

The first Olympic men's javelin throw contest was held in 1908 and a women's competition was introduced in 1932.[81][82] The first javelins were made of various types of wood, but in the 1950s, former athlete Bud Held introduced a hollow javelin, then a metal javelin, both of which increased throwers performances.[79] Another former athlete, Miklós Németh invented the rough-tailed javelin and throws reached in excess of 100 m – edging towards the limits of stadia.[83] The distances and the increasing number of horizontal landings led the IAAF to redesign the men's javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement's downward pitching moment to allow for easier measurement. Rough-tailed designs were banned in 1991 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed from the record books. The women's javelin underwent a similar redesign in 1999.[79] The current javelin specifications are 2.6 to 2.7 m in length and 800 grams in weight for men, and between 2.2 to 2.3 m and 600 g for women.[84]

Hammer throw

Yury Shayunou spinning with the hammer within the circle

The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann Games around 1800 BC, which featured events such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope, a large rock on a wooden handle, or even a chariot wheel on a wooden axle.[85] Other ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle – the root of the term "hammer throw" due to their resemblance to the tools. [86] In 16th century England, contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith's Sledgehammers were recorded.[85] The hammer implement was standardised in 1887 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event. The weight of the metal ball was set at 16 pounds (7.26 kg) while the attached wire had to measure between 1.175 m and 1.215 m.[86]

The men's hammer throw became an Olympic event in 1900 but the women's event – using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) weight – was not widely competed until much later, finally featuring on the women's Olympic programme a century later.[87] The distance's thrown by male athletes became greater from the 1950s onwards as a result of improved equipment using the denser metals, a switch to concrete throwing areas, and more advanced training techniques.[88] Professional hammer throwers as historically large, strong, sturdy athletes. However, qualities such as refined technique, speed and flexibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legal throwing area has been reduced from 90 to 34.92 degrees and throwing technique involves three to four controlled rotations.[86][89][90]

Combined events

Combined (or multi-discipline) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earning points for their performance in each event, which adds to a total points score. Outdoors, the most common combined events are the men's decathlon and the women's heptathlon. Due to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events, resulting in the men's heptathlon and the women's pentathlon. Athletes are allocated points based on an international-standard points scoring system, such as the decathlon scoring table.

The Ancient Olympic pentathlon (comprising long jump, javelin, discus, the stadion race and wrestling) was a precursor to the track and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics (Intercalated Games). A men's decathlon was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics, albeit contested between five American and two British athletes.

Composition of combined events

Event Track Field

Men's decathlon 100 m 400 m 1500 m 110 m hurdles Long jump High jump Pole vault Shot put Discus throw Javelin throw

Women's heptathlon 200 m 800 m 100 m hurdles Long jump High jump Shot put Javelin throw

Men's heptathlon 60 m 1000 m 60 m hurdles Long jump High jump Pole vault Shot put

Women's pentathlon 800 m 60 m hurdles Long jump High jump Shot put

Stadium

The Panathinaiko Stadium was one of the first modern track and field stadiums

Outdoor

The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums that first hosted such competitions. The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval-shaped running track and an area of turf within this track—the field. In earlier competitions, track lengths varied: the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333.33 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics, while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile (536.45 m) at Francis Field. As the sport developed, the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks must be split into six to eight running lanes. Precise widths for the lanes were established, as were regulations regarding the curvature of the track. Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard in the late 1960s. 3M's Tartan track (an all-weather running track of polyurethane) gained popularity after its use at the 1968 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard for the sport. Many track and field stadiums are multi-purpose stadiums, with the running track surrounding a field built for other sports, such as the various types of football.

A typical layout of an outdoor track and field stadium

The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events. The long jump and triple jump areas comprise a straight, narrow 40-metre running track with a sandpit at one or both ends. Jumps are measured from a take off board—typically a small strip of wood with a plasticine marker attached—which ensures athletes jump from behind the measurement line. The pole vault area is also a 40-metre running track and has an indentation in the ground (the box) where vaulters plant their poles to propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto cushioned landing mats. The high jump is a stripped down version of this, with an open area of track or field that leads to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it.

The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium. The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track. The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently across the Pitch (sports field) in the middle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of causing damage or injury. The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage usually situated in one of the corners of the field. The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field of play and throws travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium. The shot put features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end. The throwing area is a sector. Some stadia also have a water jump area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races.

Indoor

The Aspire Dome during the 2010 World Indoor Championships

Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums, which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events. Full-size indoor arenas (i.e. those fully equipped to host all events for the World Indoor Championships) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents. Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 200-metre oval track with four to eight lanes. The track can be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably. There is also a second running track going straight across the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit. This track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events, which are held almost exclusively indoors. Another common adaptation is a 160 yard track (11 laps to a mile) that fits into a common basketball court sized arena. This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances, which gradually was phased out by different organizations in the 1970s and 1980s. Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden,[91] and the Sunkist Invitational formerly held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena.[92]

All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues. The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts. The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track. Shot put (or weight throw) is the only throwing event held indoors due to size restrictions. The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event, but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier.[93]

Rules

Track rules

The rules of track athletics or of track events in athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009.[94] Key rules of track events are those regarding starting, running and finishing.

Starting

Men assuming the starting position for a sprint race

The start of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide. In all races that are not run in lanes the start line must be curved, so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish.[95] Starting blocks may be used for all races up to and including 400 m (including the first leg of the 4 x 100 m and 4 x 400 m) and may not be used for any other race. No part of the starting block may overlap the start line or extend into another lane. [96] All races must be started by the report of the starter's gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after he or she has ascertained that athletes are steady and in the correct starting position.[97] An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with his or her hands or feet when on his or her marks.[98] At most international competitions the commands of the starter in his or her own language, in English or in French, shall, in races up to and including 400 m, be "On your marks" and "Set". When all athletes are "set", the gun must be fired, or an approved starting apparatus must be activated. [98] However, if the starter is not satisfied that all is ready to proceed, the athletes may be called out of the blocks and the process started over. There are different types of starts for races of different distances. Middle and long distance races mainly use the waterfall start. This is when all athletes begin on a curved line that moves father out at the outer edge of the track. Competitors are allowed to move towards the inside lane right away, as long as it is safe to do so. For some middle distance races, such as 800m, each athlete starts in their own lane. Once the gun fires, they must run in the lane they begun in until markers on the track notify them it is time to move towards the inside lane. For sprint races, athletes begin in start blocks and must stay in their own lane for the entire race.

False start: An athlete, after assuming a final set position, may not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun, or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgment of the starter or recallers, he does so any earlier, it is considered a false start. It is deemed a false start if, in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands "on your marks" or "set" as appropriate after a reasonable time; or an athlete after the command "on your marks" disturbs other athletes in the race through sound or otherwise. If the runner is in the "set" position and moves, then the runner is also disqualified.[99] As of 2010, any athlete making a false start is disqualified.[100]

In International elite competition, electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes. If the athlete reacts in less than 0.1 second, an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start. [97]

Running the race

In all races run in lanes, each athlete must keep within his allocated lane from start to finish. This also applies to any portion of a race run in lanes. If an athlete leaves the track or steps on the line demarking the track, he/she should be disqualified.[101] Also, any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete, in a way that impedes his progress, should be disqualified from that event.[102] However, if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane, and if no material advantage is gained, the athlete should not be disqualified.

There are races that start in lanes and then at a "break" line, the competitors merge. Examples of this are the 800 metres, 4x400 relay and the indoor 400 metres. Variations on this, with alleys made up of multiple lanes on the track, are used to start large fields of distance runners.

The finish

The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide.[103] The finishing position of athletes is determined by the order in which any part of their torso (as distinguished from the head, neck, arms, legs, hands or feet) reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line. [104] Fully automatic timing systems (photo timing) are becoming more and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets, improving the accuracy, while eliminating the need for eagle-eyed officials on the finish line. Fully automatic timing (FAT) is required for high level meets and any time a (sprint) record is set (though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches).

With the accuracy of the timing systems, ties are rare. Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows: In determining whether there has been a tie in any round for a qualifying position for the next round based on time, a judge (called the chief photo finish judge) must consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second. If the judge decides that there has been a tie, the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or, if that is not practicable, lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round. In the case of a tie for first place in any final, the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete again. If he decides it is not, the result stands. Ties in other placings remain.

Field rules

In general, most field events allow a competitor to take their attempt individually, under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition. Each attempt is measured to determine who achieved the longest distance.

Vertical jumps (High Jump and Pole Vault) set a bar at a particular height. The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar (flat). Three failures in a row ends the competitor's participation in the event. The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt, which can be used to strategic advantage (of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses). A pass could be used to save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings. After all competitors have either cleared, passed or failed their attempts at a height, the bar goes up. The amount the bar goes up is predetermined before the competition, though when one competitor remains, that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts. A record is kept of each attempt by each competitor. After all competitors have taken their attempts, the one jumping the highest is the winner, and so on down the other competitors in the event. Ties are broken by first, the number of attempts taken at the highest height (fewest wins), and then if still tied, by the total number of misses in the competition as a whole. The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for first place or a qualifying position. If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers, all tied competitors take a fourth jump at the last height. If they still miss, the bar goes down one increment where they again jump. This process continues until the tie is broken.

Horizontal jumps (Long Jump and Triple Jump) and all throws must be initiated behind a line. In the case of horizontal jumps, that line is a straight line perpendicular to the runway. In the case of throws, that line is an arc or a circle. Crossing the line while initiating the attempt invalidates the attempt—it becomes a foul. All landings must occur in a sector. For the jumps, that is a sand filled pit, for throws it is a defined sector. A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a foul (the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector). Assuming a proper attempt, officials measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line. The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest distance between the point and the line. To accomplish this, the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line in jumps, or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws. The officials at the landing end of the tape have the zero, while the officials at the point of initiation measure and record the length. Whenever a record (or potential record) occurs, that measurement is taken (again) with a steel tape, and observed by at least three officials (plus usually the meet referee). Steel tapes are easily bent and damaged, so are not used to measure everyday competitions. For major competitions, each competitor gets three tries. The top competitors (usually 8 or 9 depending on that competition's rules or the number of lanes on the track) gets three more tries. At that level of competition, the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set—so the competitor in first place at the end of the third round is last, while the last competitor to qualify goes first. Some meets rearrange the competition order again for the final round, so the final attempt is taken by the leader at that point. At other competitions, meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts. Whatever the format, all competitors get an equal number of attempts.

Organizations

The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics organisations. The International Association of Athletics Federations is the global governing body for track and field, and athletics as a whole. The governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies. Some national federations are named after the sport, including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association, but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies.[105][106] These national federations regulate sub-national and local track and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.[107]

Competitions

Olympics, Paralympics and world championships

The 100 m final at the 2008 Summer Olympics

The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics. Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic and Paralympic athletics programmes, which occur every four years. Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympics since its inception in 1896,[108] and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Events such as the 100 metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic or Paralympic sporting event.

The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the IAAF. The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913, but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 – the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon and racewalking competitions. Initially, this worked on a quadrennial basis but, after 1991, it changed to a biennial format. In terms of indoor track and field, the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics has been held every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events.

Other championships

The 2006 European Athletics Championships at the Ullevi Stadium

Similar to the event programmes at the Olympics, Paralympics and World Championships, track and field forms a significant part of continental championships. The South American Championships in Athletics, created in 1919, was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championships became the second championships of this type in 1934. The Asian Athletics Championships and African Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania started its championships in 1990.

There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe (European Athletics Indoor Championships) and Asia (Asian Indoor Athletics Championships). There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America, which may be (in part) due to the success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships. Most countries have a national championship in track and field and, for athletes, these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions. Some countries hold many track and field championships at high school and college-level, which help develop younger athletes. Some of these have gained significant exposure and prestige, such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships.[109] However, the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country to country.

Multi-sport events

The pole vault competition at the 2007 Pan American Games

Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics and Paralympics, the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of many major multi-sport events. Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic-style model were the World University Games in 1923, the Commonwealth Games in 1930, and the Maccabiah Games in 1932.[110] The number of major multi-sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them. Typically, track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games.

After the Olympic and Paralympic Games, the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three IOC-sanctioned continental games: the All-Africa Games, Asian Games, and the Pan American Games. Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade, and World Masters Games have significant participation from track and field athletes. Track and field is also present at the national games level, with competitions such as the Chinese National Games serving as the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes.

Meetings

Runners competing at the 2006 Prefontaine Classic meeting

One-day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport – they are the most basic level of track and field competition. Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club, or by a group or business that serves as the meeting promoter. In the case of the former, athletes are selected to represent their club or institution. In the case of privately run or independent meetings, athletes participate on an invitation-only basis.[111]

The most basic type of meetings are all-comers track meets, which are largely small, local, informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete.[112] As meetings become more organized they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport. [113]

At the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the "Golden Four" competition, comprising meetings in Zürich, Brussels, Berlin and Oslo. This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998,[114] which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour. In 2010, the Golden League idea was expanded globally as the IAAF Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one-day track and field meetings.[115]

References

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External links

International Association of Athletics Federations website USA Track & Field website Track and field at About.com Results & Statistics for Collegiate, High School, Middle School, and Club teams Masters T&F World Rankings

Triple Jump

The triple jump was formerly known as the "hop, step and jump". Three actions are taken by the athletes during the triple jump competition. The first action taken is "hop", a jump which is landed with the takeoff foot. Next is the "step", which is landed on the opposite foot. The last action taken by the athletes is the "jump". Like long jump, here also the final jump is landed in a pit full of sand.

The triple jump event is much demanding on the part of the athletes. Great pace, swiftness, strength and flexibility are the key factors for success in the event. Techniques adapted by the athlete can also lead him to be the winner in the event.

Triple Jump for Men in Summer Olympics: The triple jump was included in the Olympic schedule at the 1896 Athens Summer Games. In the 1896 Games, the triple jump program included two hops and one jump. At present, the event at the Olympics consists of one hop, one step and one jump. After the first modern Olympics, triple jump has become a regular event in the Summer Games.

Rules for Triple Jump for Men at Olympics: The International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF has set rules for the track and field athletics events at the international level. The rules applicable to the triple jump competitions are -

A hop, a step and a jump has to be included in the triple jump program. An athlete is not permitted to touch the ground between the take-off line and the landing area. If he does so, he is disqualified from the competition. The IAAF has determined the distance between the take-off line and the end of the landing area to be minimum 21 meter. The IAAF has the authority to determine over the design and the material of the take-off board used in the event. The pit, where the final jump is landed has to be filled with soft damp sand. Medal Winners in the Triple Jump for Men at Olympics: Many athletes have excelled in the domain of international triple jump competition. Some of the famous triple jumpers of all time are Yoelbi Quesada, Charles Simpkins, Mike Conley, Joao Carlos de Oliveira, Vladimir Inozemtsev, James Beckford, Hristo Markov, Willie Banks, Kenny Harrison, Jonathan Edwards, Christian Olsson, Al Joyner, Jaak Uudmae, Viktor Saneyev, Józef Szmidt, Adhemar da Silva, Arne Ahman, Naoto Tajima, Chuhei Nambu, Mikio Oda, Nick Winter, Vilho Tuulos, Gustaf Lindblom, Tim Ahearne, Peter O'Connor, Myer Prinstein and James Connolly.

Triple Long Jump Take-off System

Distance Indicator Sand Leveller Take-off markers Rake Shoes

High Jump

High jump is a field event included in the track and field athletics discipline. The aim of the athletes competing in high jump event is to jump over a horizontal bar without using any other device. The horizontal bar is generally set at a predetermined height. Since the early days of the event, athletes have been improving the jumping technique again and again. In the event, athletes have to possess good flexibility and speed.

High Jump for Men in Summer Olympics: High jump was an event competed at the ancient Summer Games. The event was included in the modern Olympic schedule at the 1896 Games. Since then, high jump has been contested at every Summer Olympics.

Rules for High Jump for Men at Olympics: The rules followed in all international track and field athletics competitions are set by the International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF. The rules vital for high jump at the international level are-

An athlete is disqualified from the competition if he misses in all the three attempts allowed to clear any height. The height, with which the jump has to be started, is determined by the organizing committee of the competition who are authorized by the IAAF. At every stage the horizontal bar has to be raised at a minimum height of 2 centimeter. The measurements of the jumps taken by the athletes should be taken perpendicularly from the ground. The weight of the crossbar used during the high jump competition is determined by the IAAF. Generally the bar is made of fibre-glass.

An athlete is liable to be disqualified if after his jump the bar is displaced from the supports. The minimum length of the runway has to be 15 meter. However, in some competitions, 20 meter or 25 meter long runway is also used. The IAAF has recommended the length and breadth of the landing area in the high jump event.

Medal Winners in the High Jump for Men: The United States of America and Russia have been leading the international field of high jump since the time of its advent. Javier Sotomayor, Andriy Sokolovskyy, Jacques Freitag, Artur Partyka, Troy Kemp, Dragutin Topic, Sergey Malchenko, Gennadiy Avdeyenko, Hollis Conway, Zhu Jianhua, Vyacheslav Voronin, Charles Austin, Sorin Matei, Rudolf Povarnitsyn, Igor Paklin, Patrik Sjoberg, Yaroslav Rybakov, Matt Hemingway, Steve Smith, Wolf-Hendrik Beyer, Ralf Sonn, Dietmar Mogenburg, Stefan Holm, Carlo Thranhardt, Sergey Klyugin, Dick Fosbury, Valeriy Brumel, Charles Dumas, John Winter, Harry Porter, Irving Baxter and Ellery Clark are some famous athletes who excelled in the domain of high jump.

Trivia: In the 1968 Mexico City Summer Games, Dick Fosbury of the United States of America introduced his signature back-first technique to the high jump program. The technique was named "Fosbury flop".

High Jump Mats and Platforms High Jump Standards, Crossbars

Shot Put

The shot put is a throwing event included in the field athletics events. There is a heavy metal ball used in the shot put event, which is known as the "shot". The event involves the action of throwing the ball at a distance. The shot put event was invented at Scotland. A game called the "stone put" was very popular among the Scottish. In the game, a rounded cube made of metal or stone was thrown from a particular place. In the present event, during the competitions, the athletes have to shot the ball from a circle with the diameter of 7 feet. The distance of the throw is measured from the inside of the circle's boundary to the point of landing of the ball.

Shot Put for Men in Summer Olympics: The shot put was included in the Olympic program at the 1896 Athens Summer Games. After the 1896 Games, the event has been contested regularly at every Summer Games.

Rules for Shot Put for Men at Olympics: There are some rules set by the International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF for the track and field events which are followed at all international competitions. The rules vital for the shot put event are-

At the elite level of international competition, an athlete is generally given six chances of throwing the ball. The weight of the ball used in the shot put event is determined by the IAAF. At the time of throwing the ball, an athlete has to hold the ball tightly between his neck and shoulder. The movements of the athlete during and after the throw are also determined by the IAAF rules. An athlete is allowed to wear a bandage at the wrist for protection. If an athlete fails to leave the rear half of the circle at the time of throwing the ball, his throw is considered to be a "foul throw". An athlete steeping out of the circle before the mark is announced by the judge is liable for disqualification. An athlete is not allowed to shot the ball outside the left or right border of the landing sector.

Medal Winners in the Shot Put for Men at Olympics: The athletes from the United States of America have been dominating the shot put event since its advent. The famous athletes in the event are Yuriy Bilonoh, Christian Cantwell, Arsi Harju, Adam Nelson, John Brenner, Randy Barnes, Mike Stulce, Werner Gunthor, Ulf Timmermann, Alessandro Andrei, Vladimir Kiselyov, Udo Beyer, Wladyslaw Komar, Randy Matson, Dallas Long, Bill Nieder, Parry O'Brien, Wilbur Thompson, Hans Woellke, Brian Oldfield, Leo Sexton, John Kuck, Clarence Houser, Ville Porhola, Patrick McDonald, Ralph Rose, Martin Sheridan, Richard Sheldon, Kevin Toth and Robert Garrett.

The shot put is a sport with little equipment involved, but that means the equipment that is used is even more important. Shots come in several sizes and materials for each weight, which includes turned steel, stainless steel, brass, iron and turned iron. The most popular shots are the turned iron and turned steel because they are not too smooth and have the best grip. The size of the shot has a limit on the circumference for each weight, and many throwers tend to get the largest shot possible because the smaller shot seems to roll off the hand and fingers more in the delivery phase of the throw. The next piece of equipment to cover is footwear.

Discus Throw

The discus throw is a throwing event which is a part of the track and field athletics program in major competitions. Discus throwing was contested in the ancient days. A sculpture of a discus thrower made in the 5 th century B.C. is the evidence of the fact that the sport was quite popular in that time. In the discus throwing competition, the athletes require to throw a lens shaped disc at distance. The disc is generally made from heavy metal. The border of the disc is covered with rubber, plastic, wood or metal. Acquiring the skill of discus throwing is very difficult. The athletes competing in the event have to be very well conditioned and flexible. Experience and practice are the key factor for success in the discus throwing competitions.

Discus Throw for Men in Summer Olympics: Discus throwing competition was held in the 1896 Athens Summer Olympics. Since then, the event has become a regular part of the Summer Games. The United States of America has been dominating this domain of track and field athletics for a long time.

Rules for Discus Throw for Men at Olympics: The International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF has set rules for the track and field athletics events. The rules which are followed at the international discus throw competitions are-

The weight of the disc used in the discus throw event is predetermined by the IAAF. An athlete cannot exit the circle until the disc thrown by him has landed in the landing area. He is also not allowed to leave without the judge's permission. The distance covered by the disc is measured from the border of the circle to the point on the landing area, where the disc touched the ground. The number of throws allowed to every athlete varies from three to eight. The best throw is recorded and evaluated for deciding the winner of the competition. The tie between two athletes is broken by calculating the second best throw of the athletes.

Medal Winners in the Discus Throw for Men: The United States of America has been the leading figure in the discus throwing event. Quiik Musta, Imrich Bugar, Ricky Bruch, John Powell, Ben Plucknett, Lars Riedel, Robert Fazekas, Yuriy Dumchev, Gerd Kanter, Virgilijus Alekna, Jurgen Schult, Virgilijus Alekna, Romas Ubartas, Rolf Danneberg, Viktor Rashchupkin, Mac Wilkins, Ludvik Danek, Al Oerter, Sim Iness, Adolfo Consolini, Ken Carpenter, John Anderson, Clarence Houser, Elmer Niklander, Armas Taipale, Martin Sheridan, Rudolf Bauer and Robert Garrett are some of the leading athletes who have excelled in the discus throwing competition.

Trivia: In the 1964 Tokyo Summer Games, Al Oerter of the United States of America won the Olympic title in the discus throwing event for the third time in his career. He achieved this honor in spite of having serious injury in his cervical disc and rib cartilage.

Hammer Throw

Hammer throw is a throwing event included in the field athletics discipline at the international level. In the hammer throwing event, the athletes are required to throw a heavy ball fixed to a handle with a wire. The ball is generally made from steel. The handle is also known as the "grip". In the earlier days of the game, a real hammer was thrown by the competitors in the event. The competitors throw the hammer from the front part of the circular throwing area. The angle of release and the velocity of the ball are the key factors for success in the hammer throw event. The distance covered by the hammer is measured to decide the winner of the event.

Hammer Throw for Men in Summer Olympics: Hammer throw event for men was introduced to the Olympic program at the 1900 Paris Summer Games. Since that time, the event has always been held in the Olympic athletic competition. The United States of America was the leading figure in the event during the early twentieth century. However, Russia emerged as the dominant nation in the hammer throw event in the later years.

Rules for Hammer Throw for Men at Olympics: The rules followed in the international track and field athletics competitions are set by the International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF. The rules applicable for the hammer throw competitions are-

The weight of the steel ball used in the hammer throw event is fixed by the IAAF. The length of the wire and the material from which it should be made is specified by the IAAF. An athlete is not allowed to leave the throwing area until the hammer thrown by him touches ground in the landing area. Without the permission of the judge, no competitor can exit the field. The body movement of the athletes during and after the throw is specified by the IAAF. A certain number of throws is allowed to each competitor. The best throws of the athletes are compared to determine the winner of the event. The second best throw is measured to break a tie between two athletes.

Medal Winners in the Hammer Throw for Men: Yuriy Sedykh, Koji Murofushi, Szymon Ziolkowski, Balazs Kiss, Andrey Abduvaliyev, Sergey Litvinov, Juha Tiainen, Anatoly Bondarchuck, Gyula Zsivotzky, Romuald Klim, Vasily Rudenkov, Harold Vincent Connolly, Jozsef Csermak, Imre NemethKarl Hein, Pat O'Callaghan, Fred Tootell, Patrick Ryan, Matt McGrath and John Jesus Flanagan are some of the famous names in the domain of the international hammer throwing competitions.

Trivia: At the 1956 Melbourne Summer Games, the American athlete Harold Vincent Connolly won the Olympic hammer throwing title. He won the gold medal in spite of being physically disabled. His left arm was shorter and less developed than his right arm. With this achievement, Connolly made a mark in the history of the Summer Games.

Javelin Throw

The javelin throw is a field athletic event. In the event, a spear-like object is thrown at a distance from the throwing circle. This object is known as "javelin". The javelin is generally made from metal, fiberglass or carbon fiber. The javelin throw event was also held in the ancient time. This was also used as a weapon during war and hunting. Currently, javelin throwing is practiced only as a sport event. The event demands good speed as well as flexibility and power on the part of the athletes competing. The athletes gain speed in the run-up to their throws. After release, the javelin can gain speed of almost 113 kilometer per hour. The javelin throwing event is often excluded from the athletics program during competitions as the event involves certain amount of risk.

Javelin Throw for Men in Summer Olympics: The men's javelin throwing event was included in the Olympic schedule at the 1908 London Summer Games. The event was also contested at the ancient Summer Games. At that time, the javelin was thrown at a fixed target. The javelin throw event has become a regular part of the modern Olympic program since the 1908 Games.

Rules for Javelin Throw for Men at Olympics: The International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF has set the rules which are followed in the track and field athletics competitions at international level. The rules vital for the javelin throw competitions are-

The IAAF determines the weight and the length of the javelin used in the javelin throw event.

An athlete is given three to six chances to throw the javelin during the competition.

The best throw of the athletes are measured to determine the winner of the event.

The point of the javelin has to touch the ground first for a legal throw.

No athlete can exit the run-up area until the javelin thrown by him touches the ground. An athlete is also not allowed to leave the competition area without judge's permission.

The IAAF has specified the body movement of the athletes during and after the throw.

To break a tie at the first position, the second best throw is considered as the determining factor.

Medal Winners in the Javelin Throw for Men: Many athletes have become famous for their achievements in the javelin throwing competition. some of the leading javelin thrower of all time are Jan Zelezny, Eric Lemming, Vadims Vasilevskis, Andrus Varnik, Andreas Thorkildsen, Seppo Raty, Tapio Rautavaara, Tero Pitkamaki, Tom Petranoff, Aki Parviainen, Miklos Nemeth, Jonni Myyra, Sergey Makarov, Janis Lusis, Gergely Kulcsar, Dainis Kula, Tapio Korjus, Matti Jarvinen, Arto Harkonen, Uwe Hohn, Breaux Greer, Egil Danielsen, Steve Backley, Boris Henry, Konstadinos Gatsioudis and Raymond Hecht.

Decathlon

Decathlon is a combined event consisting of ten events-four track and six field events. The events included in the decathlon program are-

100 meter sprint 110 meter hurdles 400 meter event 1500 meter event Long jump

High jump Shot put Discus throw Javelin throw Pole vault

The decathlon competition is held in two days. The events contested in the first day are 100 meter sprint, long jump, shot put, high jump and the 400 meter event. The 110 meter hurdle, discus throw, pole vault, javelin throw and the 1500 meter event are held on the second day.

The event decathlon was originated from "pentathlon", which was held in the ancient Summer Games. The word "decathlon" is from Greek origin. The word can be broken into two parts, "deka" meaning "ten" and "athlon" meaning "contest". The decathlon was contested for the first time in 1911 at Sweden.

In the decathlon competition, the athletes are tested on the ground of their speed, stamina, potency, expertise and individuality. The first day events of the decathlon competition demand excellent speed, power and jumping ability. Technique and stamina are the key to the success in the events contested in the second day. The athletes do not need to finish in top three positions in the events to win the competition. A point table is maintained to score the athletes' performances in the ten events. The total point scored by the individuals is used to determine the winner of the competition.

Decathlon for Men in Summer Olympics: Decathlon competition is exclusively men's event in the Summer Games. The event was introduced to the Olympic schedule in the 1912 Stockholm Summer Games. A scoring table was maintained for keeping the scores of the events. Since then, the decathlon competition has been held in every Olympics.

Rules for Decathlon for Men: The International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF sets rules for the track and field events. The rules set for the decathlon competition at the international level are-

There should an interval between two events. Generally, an interval of 30 minutes is given at the international level. However, the time can be changed. The athletes have to compete in all the ten events to ensure their participation in the decathlon competition. The athlete not participating in any event included in the decathlon, is considered to be out of the competition. In the shot put, discus throw, javelin throw and the high jump events, an athlete is allowed three attempts per event. The Committee is authorized to determine the starting heights in the high jump and the pole vault events.

The 110 meter hurdle event is generally held in adjacent lanes. An athlete is not permitted to foul his competitors. If the offence is committed by some athlete, his points are deducted for that event. In the case of a serious foul, the athlete is disqualified and not allowed to compete in the next events. The timing device used to keep times in the events should be completely automatic. If time is kept manually, then the mean of three time readings or the lower of the two times is considered to be final. Metric measurements are used in the shot put, discus and javelin throw events. Generally a steel tape is used to take the measurements. After each event, the individual and total scores of the athletes are announced. The athlete accumulating the highest point after the completion of all the events is declared the winner. In case of a tie, the athlete with higher points in more events than his opponent is chosen the winner.

Medal Winners in the Decathlon for Men: The athletes of the United States of America have been dominating the domain of the decathlon. Roman Sebrle, Erki Nool, Dan O'Brien, Robert Zmelik, Christian Schenk, Daley Thompson, Bruce Jenner, Nikolai Viktorovich Avilov, Bill Toomey, Willi Holdorf, Rafer Johnson, Milt Campbell, Bob Mathias, Bryan Clay, Glenn Morris, James Bausch, Siegfried Wentz, Paavo Yrjola, Tomas Dvorak, Harold Osborn, Helge Lovland, Jim Thorpe and Hugo Wieslander are some famous athletes who have won medals in the decathlon competitions at the international level.

Trivia: In the 1912 Stockholm Summer Games, Jim Thorpe won gold medal in the decathlon event. However, on the revelation of his professional status, he was striped of his gold medal along with his other Olympic titles in the game.

Bob Mathias of the United States of America became the youngest athlete to win the Olympic decathlon title in the 1948 London Summer Games.

Heptathlon for Women

Heptathlon is a combined event contested by women at international athletics competitions. Heptathlon consists of seven events. Three of the events are track events and four field events. The events included in the Heptathlon program are-

100 meter hurdles High jump Shot put 200 meter event Long jump Javelin throw 800 meter event

The heptathlon events are contested in two days. On the first day, athletes compete in are 100 meter hurdles, high jump shot put and 200 meter event. The events held on the second day are long jump, javelin throw and 800 meter event.

The combined event first contested by women was "pentathlon". Later, the seven event heptathlon replaced pentathlon from women's athletics program in major competitions. The name of the event was chosen "heptathlon", a Greek word. The word consists of two parts- "hepta" meaning "seven" and "athlon" meaning

"contest". The event was authorized by the International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF in 1981. The events contested in the heptathlon competition test all the straits of an athlete's athletic power. Athletes have to be proficient in all the events to succeed in the competition. However, they need not be in the top three positions. The athletes are given points for their performance in the events. The points are tallied to determine the winner of the event.

Heptathlon for Women in Summer Olympics: Heptathlon was included in the women's athletics program in the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Games. The event replaced the old event, pentathlon, which was on schedule since the 1964 Games. Heptathlon has been contested regularly at the Olympics after the 1984 Olympics.

Rules for Heptathlon for Women: The International Association of Athletics Federations or IAAF is responsible for setting rules for the track and field events. The rules followed during the heptathlon competition at the international level are -

Competing in all the seven events is compulsory for the athletes. Otherwise they will not be considered as participants of the heptathlon competition.

Generally a gap of 30 minutes is given between two events. However, the time of interval is flexible. If any athlete is found fouling her competitors during the competition, her points are deducted for that event. The athlete can be disqualified

from the competition for a serious offence. She is not allowed to compete in the next events. A completely automatic timing device should be used to keep times in the events. The mean of three time readings or the lower of the two

times is considered to be final, when time is recorded manually. The individual and total scores of the athletes are declared after the completion of each event. In each of the shot put, javelin throw, high jump and long jump events, three chances are allowed to an athlete. During the high jump event, the organizing committee should determine the initial height, with which the event has to be started. Generally, the 100 meter hurdle event is contested in adjacent lanes. In the shot put, javelin throw, high jump and long jump events, metric system is used for taking measurements. A steel tape is used to take the

measurements. The winner of heptathlon is the athlete with the highest point after the completion of all the events. The tie in the first position is broken by

evaluating the event wise performance of the athletes.

Medal Winners in the Heptathlon for Women: Anke Behmer, Natalya Shubenkova, Eunice Barber, Ramona Neubert, Ghada Shouaa, Sabine Braun, Carolina Kluft, Larisa Turchinskaya, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Denise Lewis, Natallia Sazanovich and Irina Belova are some of the athletes who excelled in the domain of heptathlon competition at international level.

Pole Vault

Pole vaulting is a track and field event in which a person uses a long, flexible pole (which today is usually made either of fiberglass or carbon fiber) as an aid to leap over a bar. Pole jumping competitions were known to the ancient Greeks, Cretans and Celts. It has been a full medal event at the Olympic Games since 1896 for men and 2000 for women.

200 meter Hurdles

The hurdling event involves running over hurdles set on the track. 200 meter hurdle race is a rarely contested hurdling event. Sometimes the long hurdle events are shortened to the distance of 200 meter. The 200 meter hurdle event needs fine technique along with excellent speed on the part of the athletes. The 200 meter hurdle event was held at the US National Championships until 1961.

200 meter Hurdles in Summer Olympics: The 200 meter hurdle event was included in the men's athletics program in the 1900 Paris Summer Games and the 1904 St. Louis Summer Games. After the 1904 St. Louis Games, the event was dropped from the Olympic schedule.

Rules for 200 meter Hurdles at Olympics: The rules relevant for the 200 meter hurdle event at the international competitions were-

The hurdles are usually made from metal and the top bar of the hurdle is made from wood.

The hurdles are made in such a way that they can be adjusted at different height for different events.

The organizing committee has fixed the length and width of each hurdle. The top bar of each hurdle has to be painted with white and black colors.

No runner is permitted to leave or change their respective lanes.

Deliberately knocking down the hurdles can lead to the disqualification of an athlete. However, overturning the hurdles accidentally is not considered to be an offence.

The athlete not finishing the race is not given any credit.

An athlete found to obstruct his competitors' way during the race can be disqualified from the competition.

An athlete stepping out of the track during the race is not allowed to join his competitors.

Only the automatic timing device permitted by the organizing committee can be used for measuring the time during the races.

Medal Winners in the 200 meter Hurdles: Alvin Kraenzlein, Harry Hillman, Norman Pritchard, Frank Castleman, John Tewksbury and George Poage are the athletes who won medals at the Olympic 200 meter hurdle competitions in 1900 and 1904.

Step training hurdles

2500 meter Steeplechase

The steeplechase event resembles to the hurdling event. Steeplechase is an obstacle race like the hurdle events. The event was originated in the British islands from the popular category of horse racing, the steeplechase. The event included into the modern athletics is the changed version of the cross country steeplechase race which was two mile long.

The 2500 meter steeplechase event has become obsolete at the present time. The event was a part of the track and field competitions in the earlier days. Excellent speed and sound technique are the key factors for success in the 2500 meter steeplechase event. In the event, the athletes have to overcome a certain number of barriers set across the track during the race.

2500 meter Steeplechase Event in Summer Olympics: The 2500 meter steeplechase event was contested only once at the 1900 Paris Summer Games. The event was included in the men's athletics program in the Olympics.

Rules for 2500 meter Steeplechase Event at Olympics: The rules vital for the 2500 meter steeplechase event at the Summer Games were-

In each lap of the steeplechase race, a certain number of jumps should be taken by the athlete. One of the jumps would be water jump. The Steeplechases should be adjustable in different events. The length of the water pit is determined by the organizing committee. The athletes have to go through the water jump. No athlete is allowed to jump on one side of the water pit. However, the athletes are permitted to go over the barriers in any possible way. An athlete, who steps out of the track during the race, is considered to be out of competition. Obstructing competitors' way during the race will be considered to be a punishable offence. The athlete found guilty would be disqualified. The timing device, which is used for measuring the time of the race, has to be approved by the organizing committee.

Medal Winners in the 2500 meter Steeplechase Event at Olympics: George Orton, Sidney Robinson and Jacques Chastanie are the athletes who won medals in the Olympic 2500 meter steeplechase competition at the 1900 Paris Summer Games.

3000 Meter Team Race

Now an obsolete track and field event, the 3000 Meter Team Race at Olympics is deeply associated with the legendary athlete Paavo Nurmi of Finland. Along with his team members, he won the gold medal in that event in the 1924 Paris Olympics.

Once in Olympic History

The only time that 3000 Meter Team Race was held in the Summer Games was at Paris in 1924. The qualifying heat for this exciting event took place on 11th July, 1924 and was competed by teams from Great Britain, Poland, Italy, Norway, France, Finland and few other countries.

The finals took place on the13th and Finland, with athletes like Paavo Nurmi, Elias Katz and Ville Ritola, won the gold medal. Great Britain, with George Webber, Harry Johnston and Bertram Macdonald, won the silver while the US team, comprised of Willard Tibbets, Bill Cox and Edward Kirby, clinched the bronze medal.

What is Athletics ?

Athletics is an exclusive collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common types of athletics competitions are track and field, road running, cross country running, and race walking.

History

Organised athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from 776 BC, and most modern events are conducted by the member clubs of the International Association of Athletics Federations. The athletics meeting forms the backbone of the modern Summer Olympics, and other leading

international meetings include the IAAF World Championships and World Indoor Championships, and athletes with a physical disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the IPC Athletics World Championships.

Types of Events

There are three types of events in Athletics:- •Track events A variety of running events are held on the track which fall into three broad distance categories: sprints, middle-distance, and long-distance track events.. Relay races feature teams comprising four runners each, who must pass a baton to their team-mate after a specified distance with the aim of being the first team to finish. Hurdling events and the steeplechase are a variation upon the flat running theme in that athletes must clear obstacles on the track during the race.•Field events The field events come in two types – jumping and throwing competitions. In throwing events, athletes are measured by how far they hurl an implement, with the common events being the shot put,discus, javelin, and hammer throw. There are four common jumping events: the long jump and triple jump are contests measuring the horizontal distance an athlete can jump, while the high jump and pole vault are decided on the height achieved.•Combined events Which include the decathlon (typically competed by men) and heptathlon (typically competed by women), are competitions where athletes compete in a number of different track and field events, with each performance going toward a final points tally.

100 m - Introduction

The shortest race in the outdoor timetable, the 100m sprint offers the purest expression of human speed and has become one of the "blue riband" athletic events.The race was initially run on grass or "cinders" tracks over the British distance of 100 yards (91.44 m) before Continental influence turned it into 100 metres. Sprinters started from a standing position until 1887, when Charles H. Sherrill (USA) dug small foot holes in the track and tried a crouch start, a technique which, with a few variations, is still in use today.

The IAAF officially sanctioned the use of starting blocks in 1937.A year later the IAAF stipulated that no official record shall be ratified without a wind gauge reading. The maximum tailwind permitted has remained 2 metres/second.

Primitive experiments with electrical timing of sprint races date back to the first quarter of the century. This technology improved to such an extent that the IAAF decided to accept, from 1 January 1977, only electronically recorded times as world records.The photo-finish camera (in use at the 1932 Olympic Games) has enabled very close races to be judged fairly. Today's technology permits winning margins of as little as 1 thousandth of a second to be visible on a photofinish print.The introduction of synthetic (all weather) tracks has also helped improve sprint times.

The first world record for 100 yards set on a synthetic track was in 1963 by Bob Hayes (9.1) while Jim Hines recorded a world record 9.9 for 100m at the 1968 Olympics in Mexico.

200 m

This distance is similar to the ancient Greek sprint event the "stadion" (literally length of the stadium), but it derives from a mile-based distance, the furlong, or one-eighth of a mile.In the USA, the 200m was run in a straight line until around 1960. A curve was only included in Europe and at the Olympics, where the distance first appeared in 1900. The 200m with a full bend on a 400m track became universally accepted in 1958, when two distinct sets of records began to be kept.

The 200m specialist must combine the basic speed of the 100m sprinter with a running technique that allows him to cope with centrifugal forces when sprinting around the bend. Times in a 200m straight race were estimated to be around 3 to 4/10ths of a second faster than races including a bend.

400 m

A distance related to the quartermile which is 440 yards or 402.34 metres. This race is probably best described as an endurance-sprint.The 400m has achieved notoriety as a "man killer" because it is physiologically impossible to run at close to top speed for longer than 30 to 35 seconds before oxygen debt sets in and muscles "fill" with lactic acid. 400m runners must have good basic speed, they must be able to judge pace and they must learn to ignore pain!

The 400m has been run in lanes from start to finish, like the shorter sprints, at the Olympic Games since 1912.The great improvements in this event, although partly explained by the introduction of synthetic tracks in the late sixties, is mostly due to the development of highly intensive training programmes which successfully build both speed and strength. Although 400m runners were traditionally divided into 200m/400m and 400m/800m types, it is the "pure" sprinters like Michael Johnson who now dominate the event.

800 m

The 800 metres is the event where the demands of speed and speed-endurance converge. It is related to the half-mile (880 yards or 804.67m) and was first run in Britain by professionals around 1830. For a long time, very fast opening laps were the norm. But in 1932 Tom Hampson (GBR) became the first man to break 1:50 with 1:49.7 which he achieved with even paced laps (54.8 + 54.9).

When Germany's Rudolf Harbig smashed the world record with 1:46.6 in 1939 it was largely due to the "interval training" devised by his coach Waldemar Gerschler. This developed specific endurance through fast training repetitions with short recoveries: i.e. 50 x 100m, 20 x 150m.

In 1959 the IAAF decided to act against the frequent jostling in this event by running the first 300 metres in lanes. Today's rules stipulate that, in certain major competitions, the first 100 metres will be run in lanes.

1500 m

The sister distance to the mile (1609.32 m), the 1500m was born on the 500 metre tracks of Continental Europe. It has become the classic middle distance event - demanding a combination of speed, staying power and tactical acumen.Part of the first modern Olympics in 1896, many 1500m runners also competed at 5000m in this early era. Paavo Nurmi (Finland) became Olympic champion in both events within the space of 50 minutes in 1924.

The rivalry between Sweden's Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson between 1940 and 1944 brought the world record down to 3:43, thanks to Gösta Olander's natural training method of long cross country runs twice a day.

By the mid 1960s, thanks to the marvellous times achieved by the young Jim Ryun (USA), intensive, speed-oriented interval work gained popularity.

Africa, whose athletes have come to epitomise the virtues of talent, hard work and tactical bravery, had their first breakthrough when Kenya's Kip Keino won Olympic gold in 1968. At the 1974 Commonwealth Games, Filbert Bayi (Tanzania) ran a world record 3:32.2 (1:52.2 at 800m).

Just as Roger Bannister achieved immortality by being the first to break four minutes for the mile at Oxford in 1954, fellow Briton Steve Cram was the first under 3:30 for 1500m, in Nice in 1985.

Previously Seb Coe and Steve Ovett had ruled the 1500m/mile scene.Today it is the North Africans who dominate this event. First Algeria's Noureddine Morceli and then his successor Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco, with their punishing training schedules and fearless attitude, represent the ultimate thoroughbred 1500m racer.

Mile

The sister distance to the mile (1609.32 m), the 1500m was born on the 500 metre tracks of Continental Europe. It has become the classic middle distance event - demanding a combination of speed, staying power and tactical acumen.Part of the first modern Olympics in 1896, many 1500m runners also competed at 5000m in this early era. Paavo Nurmi (Finland) became Olympic champion in both events within the space of 50 minutes in 1924.

The rivalry between Sweden's Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson between 1940 and 1944 brought the world record down to 3:43, thanks to Gösta Olander's natural training method of long cross country runs twice a day.

By the mid 1960s, thanks to the marvellous times achieved by the young Jim Ryun (USA), intensive, speed-oriented interval work gained popularity.

Africa, whose athletes have come to epitomise the virtues of talent, hard work and tactical bravery, had their first breakthrough when Kenya's Kip Keino won Olympic gold in 1968. At the 1974 Commonwealth Games, Filbert Bayi (Tanzania) ran a world record 3:32.2 (1:52.2 at 800m).

Just as Roger Bannister achieved immortality by being the first to break four minutes for the mile at Oxford in 1954, fellow Briton Steve Cram was the first under 3:30 for 1500m, in Nice in 1985.

Previously Seb Coe and Steve Ovett had ruled the 1500m/mile scene.Today it is the North Africans who dominate this event. First Algeria's Noureddine Morceli and then his successor Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco, with their punishing training schedules and fearless attitude, represent the ultimate thoroughbred 1500m racer.

5000-10000 m

These races are metric adaptations of the 3 miles (4828m) and the 6 miles (9656 m) and are the track events that most challenge human endurance. Back in the 1920s Finland's Paavo Nurmi revolutionised these events by training twice a day over long distances, skiing in the winter, and carrying out gruelling sprint repetitions. In the 1940s, as a result of Sweden's Gunder Hägg (see 1500m), the "natural training method" including "fartlek" (speed-play) became popular while in the 1950s, thanks to the phenomenal successes of Czechoslovakia's Emil Zátopek, interval training came into vogue again. Zátopek’s training was incredibly intense. He often ran 60 x400m with short recovery times. Each day he covered 40km, 25 of them on the track. His long runs were usually made in army boots.

In the 1960s Ron Clarke (Australia), a disciple of even pace, put natural preparation first and overturned all the received wisdom. Today Africa boasts the greatest distance runners. Haile Gebrselassie of Ethiopia, who has continuously astounded the world with his world records at 5000m and 10,000m, was born at altitude, like his predecessors Kip Keino (KEN), Miruts Yifter (ETH), Henry Rono (KEN) and John Ngugi (KEN). Gebrselassie has succeeded in blending two previously incompatible attributes - speed and endurance.

Women first ran the 3000m distance in Britain in 1953 and official world records have been accepted since 1974. The IAAF held a 3000m race at its inaugural World Championships in 1983 and it made its Olympic debut the following year.

The event was replaced by the 5000m in 1995, although the IAAF had recognised world records at this distance since 1981. The first women's 10,000m races were held in the sixties with IAAF world records recognised since 1981. The event received World Championships status in 1987 and Olympic recognition a year later.

100 m Hurdles

This modern event first appeared in England around 1830 as a variation of the 100 yards using heavy wooden barriers. In 1864, Oxford and Cambridge turned it into a 120 yards (109.72m) race with 10 obstacles three feet six inches (1.06m) high, ten yards (9.14m) apart, with the first and last obstacles 15 yards from the start and finish respectively. In 1888, the French added 28 cm to the distance, to make it the 110m hurdles. It has remained an Olympic classic (in 1896 it was run with only nine hurdles). Early hurdling technique was very rudimentary with athletes making 'bundled' jumps by tucking their legs under their bodies. In 1895, the fixed hurdles were replaced with lighter structures with an inverted T-shaped base, allowing them to be knocked over forwards. Athletes were disqualified if they knocked over more than three hurdles and records were disallowed if one hurdle was knocked over. This rule was retained until 1935.

The first great hurdler was Alvin Kraenzlein (USA), who created a new technique by striding over the hurdles and taking three steps between barriers. This style was further refined in 1920 by the Canadian Earl Thomson who became the first hurdler under 15 seconds.

The L-shaped hurdle was introduced in 1935, using an eight pound (3.63 kg) counterbalance which allowed the hurdle to fall over with pressure so eliminating the risk of injury. The introduction of synthetic tracks in the late 1960s has helped hurdlers rebound faster off the track.

The first women's hurdles races took place in 1926 over a distance of 80 metres. The hurdles were 76cm high. This event gained Olympic status in 1932 with the first IAAF world record dating back to 1934. The 100m distance with 84cm high hurdles was adopted by the IAAF in 1969 and made its appearance on the Olympic stage in 1972.

110 m Hurdles

This modern event first appeared in England around 1830 as a variation of the 100 yards using heavy wooden barriers. In 1864, Oxford and Cambridge turned it into a 120 yards (109.72m) race with 10 obstacles three feet six inches (1.06m) high, ten yards (9.14m) apart, with the first and last obstacles 15 yards from the start and finish respectively. In 1888, the French added 28 cm to the distance, to make it the 110m hurdles. It has remained an Olympic classic (in 1896 it was run with only nine hurdles). Early hurdling technique was very rudimentary with athletes making 'bundled' jumps by tucking their legs under their bodies. In 1895, the fixed hurdles were replaced with lighter structures with an inverted T-shaped base, allowing them to be knocked over forwards. Athletes were disqualified if they knocked over more than three hurdles and records were disallowed if one hurdle was knocked over. This rule was retained until 1935.

The first great hurdler was Alvin Kraenzlein (USA), who created a new technique by striding over the hurdles and taking three steps between barriers. This style was further refined in 1920 by the Canadian Earl Thomson who became the first hurdler under 15 seconds.

The L-shaped hurdle was introduced in 1935, using an eight pound (3.63 kg) counterbalance which allowed the hurdle to fall over with pressure so eliminating the risk of injury. The introduction of synthetic tracks in the late 1960s has helped hurdlers rebound faster off the track.

The first women's hurdles races took place in 1926 over a distance of 80 metres. The hurdles were 76cm high. This event gained Olympic status in 1932 with the first IAAF world record dating back to 1934. The 100m distance with 84cm high hurdles was adopted by the IAAF in 1969 and made its appearance on the Olympic stage in 1972.

400 m Hurdles

This event was introduced in Oxford, England, around 1860 over 440 yards with twelve heavy wooden barriers 1.06m (3ft 6in) high embedded in the ground. In the 1900 Olympics, the distance was modified to 400 metres with ten hurdles of 91.44cm (3ft) in height, separated by 35 metres. The first hurdle was placed 45 metres from the start, the tenth 40 metres from the finish. These metric distances have remained unchanged ever since.

The technical development of this event has mirrored that of the 110m hurdles, with the adoption of mobile hurdles and, later, synthetic tracks.Performance evolution has come as specialists have become faster and stronger, so needing fewer strides between hurdles.

The current world record of 46.78 was set by Kevin Young (USA) - also known as "Spiderman"- who successfully switched from 12 to 13 strides between barriers when most of his rivals were running 13 to 14 strides.

The first women's race at this distance, with 10 flights of 76cm (2ft 6in) high hurdles, took place in 1971. The IAAF officially sanctioned the event in 1974 and it was part of the 1983 IAAF World Championships. The first Olympic gold was won the following year by Nawal El Moutawakel (Morocco), who became the first woman to be elected to the IAAF Council in 1995.

3000 m Steeplechase

This event was born out of a wager among Oxford students in 1850, and initially imitated horse racing. The first events were held over 2 miles (3218 m), with hurdles, other obstacles and streams to cross on a route across open country. Like jockeys, the runners were given weight handicaps!Steeplechasing was brought to the track as part of the English championships in 1879. It entered the Olympic Games programme in 1900, with two events, at 2500m and 4000m, returned in 1904 over 2500m and took place over 2 miles (3200m) in 1908.

In 1954 the IAAF standardised the rules for this speciality, and specified a 400m track, 0.914 m (3 ft) hurdles, plus a water jump (3.66m wide, 0.70 m deep) in each lap, with a distance of 78 metres between each obstacle. For the first time, official steeplechase world records were ratified.

Today the standard steeplechase distances are 2000m and 3000m.Kenya have won every Olympic Games steeplechase final since 1984 with Moses Kiptanui capturing gold in three consecutive World Championships since 1991.

In 1998 the IAAF Council voted to introduce women's steeplechase into the IAAF competition programme after it had been successfully included on the Continental level. This procedure follows the pattern of the introduction of women's pole vault and hammer throw. Therefore, this event, in principle, may become a World Championship event in the year 2003.

The inaugural world record for women's 3000m steeplechase (0.762m hurdles) was the best performance achieved under world record conditions as at 31 December 1999.

Marathon

The marathon race was the invention of Michel Bréal, a friend of Pierre de Coubertin, who proposed adapting the legend of the messenger Pheidippides to form a centre-piece for the first revived Olympic Games in 1896. The race was to follow the legendary route from Marathon to Athens (40 km) that Pheidippides ran back in 490 BC.

One of the colourful highlights in the history of this great event took place during the St. Louis Olympic Games in 1904. Fred Lorz (USA) took a lift in a car before entering the stadium on foot as the winner. He was disqualified in favour of Thomas Hicks (USA), who was injected with strychnine sulphate in the middle of the race!

In 1908 the distance was officially set at 42.195 km (26 miles 385 yards), a curious figure which represented the distance from Windsor Castle to the White City stadium in London, which included the competitors running about two-thirds of a lap on the track.

The great Emil Zátopek de-mystified the marathon with his Olympic victory in 1952. After winning the 10,000m and the 5000m, he ran the first marathon of his career, winning in 2:23:04. Having undertaken no special preparations, Zátopek proved that running talent is the main key to success.

High Jump

This event did not figure in the Ancient Games, but was commonly practised by the Celts. The first competition was organised in England in 1840 and regulated in 1865 when each competitor was allowed three jumps at each height and the crossbar could not be lowered in the event of failure. Taking off with both feet was forbidden and this rule remains in force today.

The height of six feet (1.83m) was first recorded by Marshall Brooks (GBR) in 1876 using a feet first technique. The "Scissors" was first used by William Page (USA) in 1874, and was soon followed by the Eastern Cut-off, developed by Michael Sweeney (USA). George Horine, in 1912, was the first person to jump 2.00m using the Western Roll.

Until 1936 the rules stated that the crossbar had to be jumped feet first. In 1925 the IAAF decided that the crossbar supports should face each other so that simply touching the crossbar would cause it to fall. In 1941 Les Steers (USA), using the Straddle style, cleared 2.11m. Further changes to the rules limited the permitted thickness of the soles of jumpers' shoes.

In 1968 Dick Fosbury (USA) invented the "Flop", a backwards jump following a very fast run up and only possible because of the introduction of a cushioned landing mattress. This style has been used by all top jumpers since 1978.

Javier Sotomayor (Cuba), the current world record holder with 2.45m, is 1.93m tall. He thus jumped 52cm over his own height, but the world's best "differential" is 59cm by the 1.73m tall American, Franklin Jacobs, who cleared 2.32m in 1978.

The first women's high jump contests took place in the USA in 1895. The event made its Olympic debut in 1928 with the first IAAF world record dating back to 1932. Like their male counterparts, women high jumpers have used many styles, from Scissors to Straddle to the Fosbury Flop, in their pursuit of greater heights. The woman to have jumped highest over her own head is Greece's Niki Bakoyanni, 1.71m tall with a best jump of 2.03m.

Long Jump

The long jump has been part of all sporting competitions since ancient times. It figured in the Games of 708 BC as part of the pentathlon: the jumper took his run-up holding a small weight in each hand which gave greater impetus.

The modern event was regulated in England and the USA in 1860: the take-off had to be made from a 20cm wide board into a sand pit. Hand weights were not used.

Until the 1920s, technique was fairly rudimentary, with the legs tucked under the body immediately after take-off, then extended and subsequently drawn up under the body again for landing.

Between 1922 and 1927, the Americans William De Hart Hubbard (co-holder of the world 100 yards record of 9.6) and Robert LeGendre introduced the "hitch kick", a running motion of the legs in mid-air. Variations of this, and the more simple 'hang' technique, remain the norm today.

The first women's long jump contests took place in the USA in 1895. The first IAAF women's world record dates back to 1928 although the event did not make its first Olympic appearance until London in 1948.

Triple Jump

The original triple jump as practised by the Greeks was no more than three long jumps one after another. The Celts invented a style of three jumps in a continuous action and this was regulated at the end of the XIX century, first by the Irish and then by the Americans. Originally a hop-hop-jump, with the first two hops taken from the same foot, the triple jump became the hop-step-jump after 1900.

Records of a women's triple jump contest held indoors in the USA date back to 1899 and, although it had no official recognition, the event was staged regularly, particularly in the USA, the USSR and China. The first IAAF women's world record was ratified in 1990 and the event appeared for the first time in the IAAF World Championships in 1993.

Pole Vault

Pole vaulting was known to the ancient Greeks, and the Cretans used long poles to vault over bulls. The Celts used to pole vault - but for length. This event became a vertical jump in Germany around 1775, during gymnastics competitions. The year 1850 saw the first competition of "running pole leaping". The heavy, rigid poles were made of ash and the athletes climbed them as they jumped.

In 1889, the Americans banned the movement of the hands along the pole and invented the technique of reversing the legs upwards, clearing the crossbar with stomach facing down.

In 1900 lightweight bamboo poles were used for the first time, remaining in use for several decades (the last world record using bamboo was Cornelius Warmerdam's long-standing 4.77m in 1942), and the receiving 'box' for the pole was also introduced. In 1957 another American, Bob Gutowski, used an aluminium pole to set a world record of 4.78m which was broken in 1960 by Don Bragg (USA) who used a steel pole to clear 4.80m. This period also saw the introduction of landing mattresses which meant improved safety for competitors.

The fibreglass pole, which permitted flexion and has revolutionised vaulting technique, saw the light of day in the USA in 1956. The first world record using this material was set in 1961 by George Davies (USA) with 4.83m.

Although women's pole vault performances have been registered since 1911, the event has only been taken seriously - with the Chinese in the vanguard - in the last few years.

The IAAF began ratifying women's world records in 1995 and the first official international championship was staged at the 1996 European Indoor Championships with Vala Flosadottir (17) of Iceland the winner at 4.16m.The event became part of the World Indoor Championships programme for the first time in 1997 and outdoors two years later. The gold medallist was the same at both competitions: Stacy Dragila from the United States.

Shot Put

Homer makes mention of competitions of rock throwing by soldiers during the siege of Troy. In the XVI century King Henry VIII was noted for his prowess in court competitions of weight and hammer throwing and in the XVII century English soldiers organised cannonball throwing competitions.The rules of the competition were first established in 1860, when the throw had to be made from a square with sides of seven feet (2.13m). This was replaced in 1906 by a seven foot diameter circle. The weight of the shot was fixed at 16 pounds (7.257 kg). Bent arm throws were outlawed for being too dangerous and competitors had to hold the shot in the crook of the neck prior to release.

The sidestep action in the circle was invented in the United States in 1876.In 1951 Parry O'Brien (USA) refined a new technique. From a start position facing the back of the circle, O'Brien rotated 180 degrees to move across the circle before making the final release. This helped him become the first to break the 18m (and subsequently the 19m) barrier.

In 1976 Aleksandr Baryshnikov pioneered the rotational technique, similar to that used by discus throwers, which has become increasingly popular.

A women's shot put competition with a 4 kg implement was first held in France in 1917. The inaugural IAAF world record dates back to 1934 with the event making its Olympic debut in 1948. Until 1927 women's contests were also held with shots weighing 8 pounds and 5 kilograms.

Discus Throw

The ancient Greeks have described this event better than any other. They used stone and then bronze disks between two and six kilograms in weight and 21cm to 34cm in diameter. The discus first appeared in the Ancient Games in 708 BC. In 1896 the discus was included in the revived Olympic Games in Athens. Throws were made from a pedestal that measured 60cm by 70cm. At the same time, the Swedes were throwing the discus from a 2.5m square.

In 1897, in the USA, the event took place in a seven foot diameter circle, increased to 2.50m in 1908. The discus itself was standardised in 1907 at 2kg in weight and 22cm in diameter.From the original static throw of 1900, styles evolved through the Nordic swinging throw to the current style, introduced by Clarence Houser (USA) in 1926, of turning and skipping before release. Both hands contests, where aggregates were recorded, were organised until the 1920s, when single hand contests became the norm.

In 1954 the concrete throwing circle was introduced, greatly increasing the possible speed of rotation.The first recorded women's results, with a discus weighing 1.25kg, date back to 1914 (USA) with contests also held around the world using 1.5kg implements. A standard 1kg discus was adopted for the Olympic Games in 1928 while the IAAF ratified its first official world record in 1936.

Javelin Throw

Hercules is reputed to have been one of the earliest javelin throwers. The event was introduced in the Games of 708 BC in two forms: throwing at a target and distance throwing using a sling. The original javelin was made of olive wood, measuring between 2.30m and 2.40m with a weight of 400 grams.The Scandinavians adopted the event around 1780 and the javelin underwent an astounding growth, becoming a symbol of national independence for the Finns. In those days the javelin measured 2.60m, weighed 800 grams (as it does today), and was of birch wood.

The ancient style of throwing whilst on the run replaced freestyle techniques as did the measuring of single hand efforts as opposed to 'both hands' aggregates.

In 1952 the throw line became an arc, as opposed to a straight line, and throws began to be measured from point of impact to the inside edge of the throwing arc.

In 1953 Franklin "Bud" Held (USA) invented a hollow javelin, which increased the surface area of the javelin by 27%, greatly increasing its flight capability and causing the javelin to land horizontally, revolutionising the event. In 1954 Held developed a metal variant, which went further still.

In 1966 the Spaniard Felix Erausquin threw over 100 metres using a rotational technique, which was banned by the IAAF as too dangerous. The 100m barrier was broken again in 1984 by Uwe Hohn. The IAAF then established new rules for the construction of the javelin to ensure shorter flight times and point first landings (safer and easier to measure). In 1991 the rules were changed to disqualify a new type of javelin with a 'rough' or corrugated tail design.

The first women's marks were recorded in Finland as early as 1909. Originally, a javelin weighing 800g was used but this was later standardised at 600g. The first IAAF world record dates back to 1932, the year in which the event made its Olympic debut. A new specification women's javelin, in which the centre of gravity was moved forward by 30cm to obtain a flight similar to the men's implement and to avoid flat landings, was introduced in April 1999, previous records being scrapped.

Hammer Throw

This event, born of ancient traditions, initially took the form of a free style run from which a rigid hammer was thrown (a wooden handle with a cast iron ball on the end). Following this, the current seven foot (2.13m) diameter circle was introduced. In 1887 the weight of the hammer was fixed at 16 pounds (7.26kg) with a wire, of between 1.175m and 1.215m in length attached to a grip, replacing the wooden handle. The throwing style most often used involves three (or four) rotations around the load bearing foot in a heel-toe-heel sequence.

The utilisation of a concrete base for throwing increased the possible speed of rotation and the use of wolfram and tungsten for the head of the hammer - thereby reducing the diameter (minimum today is 110mm) - helped increase the distances thrown from the 1950s.

The first recorded women's marks date back to 1931 in Spain but it was only as recently as 1982 that anyone threw even 40m. The hammer used weighs 4kg (same as the shot) and the IAAF began ratifying women's world records in 1995. The event attained senior World Championship status from 1999 and made its Olympic bow in Sydney.

Decathlon

The Decathlon consists of four track and six field events held on two consecutive days in this sequence: 100m, long jump, shot, high jump, 400m, 110m hurdles, discus, pole vault, javelin and 1500m. The athlete is allowed three trials in the long jump and throwing events and a special rule applicable to the Decathlon (and women's Heptathlon) is that two false starts can be committed in the track events without incurring disqualification. Placings are determined by the total number of points scored per the IAAF scoring tables. Several versions of these have been used over the years, the current version since 1985 (modified recently to take account of single centimetre measurements in the long throws).

The Decathlon entered the Olympic programme in 1912 and right away became the centre of fierce controversy. The event was won easily by Jim Thorpe (USA), who was later branded as a professional and whose name was deleted from the official results. It was not until some 70 years later that his gold medals (he also won the Pentathlon) were restored to his descendants.

Ever since the heyday of Britain's Daley Thompson, who won 12 consecutive Decathlons between 1980 and 1986 including two Olympic golds and one world title, a score of 9000 points has been a possibility. Dan O'Brien (USA) succeeded Thompson as world record holder in 1992 with 8891 points and Tomàs Dvoràk from the Czech Republic came agonisingly close to the target with 8994 in 1999.

Heptathlon

The first combined event for women was the Pentathlon, first held in Germany in 1928. This comprised shot, long jump, 100m, high jump and javelin events held over two days and was judged using a German Scoring Table.These tables were modified in 1933, 1954 and 1971.

The Pentathlon, by then consisting of 80m hurdles, shot, high jump, long jump and 200m, was added to the Olympic Games in 1964.

In 1977 the 200m was replaced by the 800m and from 1981 the IAAF brought in the seven-event Heptathlon in place of the Pentathlon. First day: 100m hurdles, shot, high jump, 200m; second day: long jump, javelin and 800m. The event made its first Olympic appearance in 1984.

4x100 m Relay

The relay race was born in the United States, around 1880, in emulation of the charity races organised by New York firemen who handed on a red pennant every 300 yards. The baton was a wooden cylinder (later metallic) one foot (30.48 cm) long. The relay made its first appearance in the 1908 Olympic Games where it was divided into legs of 200m, 200m, 400m and 800m. It was won by the United States team, with John Taylor becoming the first black athlete ever to win a gold medal.

In 1912 the 4x100m and 4x400m were admitted to the Olympic Games in Stockholm. The former, a European invention, involved handing over the baton in a 20 metre zone, which limited the speed of take-over. This was subsequently modified in 1963 to allow the receiver to wait ten metres behind the limit of the take-over zone.

4x400 m relay

The relay race was born in the United States, around 1880, in emulation of the charity races organised by New York firemen who handed on a red pennant every 300 yards. The baton was a wooden cylinder (later metallic) one foot (30.48 cm) long. The relay made its first appearance in the 1908 Olympic Games where it was divided into legs of 200m, 200m, 400m and 800m. It was won by the United States team, with John Taylor becoming the first black athlete ever to win a gold medal.

In 1912 the 4x100m and 4x400m were admitted to the Olympic Games in Stockholm. The former, a European invention, involved handing over the baton in a 20 metre zone, which limited the speed of take-over. This was subsequently modified in 1963 to allow the receiver to wait ten metres behind the limit of the take-over zone.

http://www.iaaf.net/community/athletics/index.html

What Is Nutrition? Why Is Nutrition Important?

Nutrition, nourishment, or aliment, is the supply of materials - food - required by organisms and cells to stay alive. In science and human medicine, nutrition is the science or practice of consuming and utilizing foods.

In hospitals, nutrition may refer to the food requirements of patients, including nutritional solutions delivered via an IV (intravenous) or IG (intragastric) tube.

Nutritional science studies how the body breaks food down (catabolism) and repairs and creates cells and tissue (anabolism) - catabolism and anabolism = metabolism. Nutritional science also examines how the body responds to food. In other words, "nutritional science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet".

As molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics advance, nutrition has become more focused on the steps of biochemical sequences through which substances inside us and other living organisms are transformed from one form to another - metabolism and metabolic pathways.

Nutrition also focuses on how diseases, conditions and problems can be prevented or lessened with a healthy diet.

Nutrition also involves identifying how certain diseases, conditions or problems may be caused by dietary factors, such as poor diet (malnutrition), food allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.

Five fruit and veggies a day helps you live longer - researchers from the Karolinska Institute, Sweden found that people who ate their "five-a-day" portions of fruit-and-veggies tended to live longer than those who did not. Their findings were published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (July 2013 issue).

The researchers said that for those who went a step further and had more than five portions per day, there appeared to be no additional benefits in terms of longer lifespans.

A large breakfast promotes weight loss - scientists from Tel Aviv University, Israel, wrote in the journal Obesity that a large breakfast - containing 700 calories - promotes weight loss and lowers the person's risk of developing heart disease, high cholesterol and diabetes.

Prof. Daniela Jakubowicz and colleagues emphasized that when we eat our food has a considerable impact on how our bodies process food.

What is the difference between a dietician and a nutritionist?

A dietician studied dietetics, while a nutritionist studied nutrition. The two terms are often interchangeable, however they are not 100% identical.

Dietetics: the interpretation and communication of the science of nutrition so that people can make informed and practical choices about food and lifestyle, in both health and disease. Part of a dietician's course includes both hospital and community settings. The majority of dieticians work in health care, education and research, while a much smaller proportion also work in the food industry. A dietician must have a recognized degree (B.Sc. or M.Sc), or postgraduate degree in nutrition and dietetics to work as a dietician.

Nutrition: the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses nutrients, and the relationship between diet, health and disease. Major food manufacturers employ nutritionists and food scientists. Nutritionists may also work in journalism, education and research. Many nutritionists work in the field of food science and technology.

There is a lot of overlap between what nutritionists and dieticians do and studied. Some nutritionists work in health care, some dieticians work in the food industry, but a higher percentage of nutritionists work in the food industry and food science and technology, and a higher percentage of dieticians work in health care.

One could very loosely generalize and say that a nutritionist focuses firstly on a food, and then looks at its effects on people, while a dietician looks at the human, and then how that human's health is influenced by food.

If I discovered a new fruit and wanted to find out what it consisted of I would go to a nutritionist. If I found out I had a long-term disease and wanted to know whether I needed to adjust my food intake because of the disease, I would go to a dietician. Please bear in mind that this very loose comparison is both subjective and possibly too geographically bound on my part (British, National Health Service), and is simply aimed at exaggerating the differences so that lay people may see some gap between the two - differences and disagreements in my interpretation will exist in different countries, within regions of a countries, and also from college to college - and many in those areas will disagree with each other.

From what I can glean from hundreds of studies and texts that I read as an editor of a medical journal, in the USA, Australia, and to a lesser extent in the UK and the Republic of Ireland, people who call themselves dieticians are more likely to have full university bachelor's or postgraduate qualifications, while nutritionists mostly do as well, but a higher proportion may not.

In the US, dietitians are registered or licensed with the Commission for Dietetic Registration and the American Dietetic Association, and are only able to use the title dietitian as described by the business and professions codes of each respective state, when they have met specific educational and work experience requirements and passed a national registration or licensure examination, respectively.

Everyone in medicine is involved in nutrition

If you ask any health care professional, be it a doctor, nurse, psychologist, or dentist to identify a part of medicine that is not at all related to nutrition, there will be a long silence as they scratch their heads.

Nutrition is present in all processes of life. Right from the very moment the sperm fertilizes an egg, through fetal development in the uterus, to the birth, human growth, maturity, old age, and eventual death. Even after death the human body serves as nutrition for other organisms. Anything that involves life and chemical or biochemical movement has nutrition at its core.

Anything that lives is dependent on energy, which results from the combustion of food.

The human body requires seven major types of nutrients

A nutrient is a source of nourishment, an ingredient in a food, e.g. protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamin, mineral, fiber and water. Macronutrients are nutrients we need in relatively large quantities. Micronutrients are nutrients we need in relatively small quantities.

Energy macronutrients - these provide energy, which is measured either in kilocalories (kcal) or Joules. 1 kcal = 4185.8 joules.

Carbohydrates - 4 kcal per gram

Molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, glactose), sisaccharides, and polysaccharides (starch).

Nutritionally, polysaccharides are more favored for humans because they are more complex molecular sugar chains and take longer to break down - the more complex a sugar molecule is the longer it takes to break down and absorb into the bloodstream, and the less it spikes blood sugar levels. Spikes in blood sugar levels are linked to heart and vascular diseases.

Proteins - 4 kcal per gram

Molecules contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Simple proteins, called monomers, are used to create complicated proteins, called polymers, which build and repair tissue. When used as a fuel the protein needs to break down, as it breaks down it gets rid of nitrogen, which has to be eliminated by the kidneys.

Fats - 9 kcal per gram

Molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Fats are triglycerides - three molecules of fatty acid combined with a molecule of the alcohol glycerol. Fatty acids are simple compounds (monomers) while triglycerides are complex molecules (polymers). For more details on dietary fat, go to What is fat? How much fat should I eat?

Other macronutrients. These do not provide energy

Fiber

Fiber consists mostly of carbohydrates. However because of its limited absorption by the body, not much of the sugars and starches get into the blood stream. Fiber is a crucial part of essential human nutrition. For more details go to What is fiber? What is dietary fiber?

Water

About 70% of the non-fat mass of the human body is water. Nobody is completely sure how much water the human body needs - claims vary from between one to seven liters per day to avoid dehydration. We do know that water requirements are very closely linked to body size, age, environmental temperatures, physical activity, different states of health, and dietary habits. Somebody who consumes a lot of salt will require more water than another person of the same height, age and weight, exposed to the same levels of outside temperatures, and similar levels of physical exertion who consumes less salt. Most blanket claims that 'the more water you drink the healthier your are' are not backed with scientific evidence. The variables that influence water requirements are so vast that accurate advice on water intake would only be valid after evaluating each person individually.

Micronutrients

Minerals

Dietary minerals are the other chemical elements our bodies need, apart from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The term "minerals" is misleading, and would be more relevant if called "ions" or "dietary ions" (it is a pity they are not called so). People whose intake of foods is

varied and well thought out - those with a well balanced diet - will in most cases obtain all their minerals from what they eat. Minerals are often artificially added to some foods to make up for potential dietary shortages and subsequent health problems. The best example of this is iodized salt - iodine is added to prevent iodine deficiency, which even today affects about two billion people and causes mental retardation and thyroid gland problems. Iodine deficiency remains a serious public health problem in over half the planet.

Experts say that 16 key minerals are essential for human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles, as well as electrolytes:

o Potassium

What it does - a systemic (affects entire body) electrolyte, essential in co-regulating ATP (an important carrier of energy in cells in the body, also key in making RNA) with sodium. Deficiency - hypokalemia (can profoundly affect the nervous system and heart). Excess - hyperkalemia (can also profoundly affect the nervous system and heart).

o Chloride

What it does - key for hydrochloric acid production in the stomach, also important for cellular pump functions. Deficiency - hypochleremia (low salt levels, which if severe can be very dangerous for health). Excess - hyperchloremia (usually no symptoms, linked to excessive fluid loss).

o Sodium

What it does - a systemic electrolyte, and essential in regulating ATP with potassium. Deficiency - hyponatremia (cause cells to malfunction; extremely low sodium can be fatal). Excess - hypernatremia (can also cause cells to malfunction, extremely high levels can be fatal).

The American Heart Association (AHA) announced on November 5, 2012 that sodium consumption should be limited to 1,500 milligrams per day, and that includes everybody, even healthy people without high blood pressure, diabetes or cardiovascular diseases. AHA's chief executive officer, Nancy Brown said "Our recommendation is simple in the sense that it applies to the entire U.S population, not just at-risk groups. Americans of all ages, regardless of individual risk factors, can improve the heart health and reduce their risk of cardiovascular disease by restricting their daily consumption of sodium to less that 1,500 milligrams."

o Calcium

What it does - important for muscle, heart and digestive health. Builds bone, assists in the synthesis and function of blood cells. Deficiency - hypocalcaemia (muscle cramps, abdominal cramps, spasms, and hyperactive deep tendon reflexes). Excess - hypercalcaemia (muscle weakness, constipation, undermined conduction of electrical impulses in the heart, calcium stones in urinary tract, impaired kidney function, and impaired absorption of iron leading to iron deficiency).

o Phosphorus

What it does - component of bones and energy processing. Deficiency - hypophosphatemia, an example is rickets. Excess - hyperphosphatemia, often a result of kidney failure.

o Magnesium

What it does - processes ATP and required for good bones. Deficiency - hypomagnesemia (irritability of the nervous system with spasms of the hands and feet, muscular twitching and cramps, and larynx spasms). Excess - hypermagnesemia (nausea, vomiting, impaired breathing, low blood pressure). Very rare, and may occur if patient has renal problems.

o Zinc

What it does - required by several enzymes. Deficiency - short stature, anemia, increased pigmentation of skin, enlarged liver and spleen, impaired gonadal function, impaired wound healing, and immune deficiency. Excess - suppresses copper and iron absorption.

o Iron

What it does - required for proteins and enzymes, especially hemoglobin. Deficiency - anemia. Excess - iron overload disorder; iron deposits can form in organs, particularly the heart.

o Manganese

What it does - a cofactor in enzyme functions. Deficiency - wobbliness, fainting, hearing loss, weak tendons and ligaments. Less commonly, can be cause of diabetes. Excess - interferes with the absorption of dietary iron.

o Copper

What it does - component of many redox (reduction and oxidation) enzymes. Deficiency - anemia or pancytopenia (reduction in the number of red and white blood cells, as well as platelets) and a neurodegeneration. Excess - can interfere with body's formation of blood cellular components; in severe cases convulsions, palsy, and insensibility and eventually death (similar to arsenic poisoning).

o Iodine

What it does - required for the biosynthesis of thyroxine (a form of thyroid hormone). Deficiency - developmental delays, among other problems. Excess - can affect functioning of thyroid gland.

o Selenium

What it does - cofactor essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes. Deficiency - Keshan disease (myocardial necrosis leading to weakening of the heart), Kashing-Beck disease (atrophy degeneration and necrosis of cartilage tissue). Excess - garlic-smelling breath, gastrointestinal disorders, hair loss, sloughing of nails, fatigue, irritability, and neurological damage.

o Molybdenum

What it does - vital part of three important enzyme systems, xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase. It has a vital role in uric acid formation and iron utilization, in carbohydrate metabolism, and sulfite detoxification. Deficiency - may affect metabolism and blood counts, but as this deficiency is often alongside other mineral deficiencies, such as copper, it is hard to say which one was the cause of the health problem. Excess - there is very little data on toxicity, therefore excess is probably not an issue.

Vitamins

These are organic compounds we require in tiny amounts. An organic compound is any molecule that contains carbon. It is called a vitamin when our bodies cannot synthesize (produce) enough or any of it. So we have to obtain it from our food. Vitamins are classified by what they do biologically - their biological and chemical activity - and not their structure.

Vitamins are classified as water soluble (they can dissolve in water) or fat soluble (they can dissolve in fat). For humans there are 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C) vitamins - a total of 13.

Water soluble vitamins need to be consumed more regularly because they are eliminated faster and are not readily stored. Urinary output is a good predictor of water soluble vitamin consumption. Several water-soluble vitamins are manufactured by bacteria.

Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestines with the help of fats (lipids). They are more likely to accumulate in the body because they are harder to eliminate quickly. Excess levels of fat soluble vitamins are more likely than with water-soluble vitamins - this condition is called hypervitaminosis. Patients with cystic fibrosis need to have their levels of fat-soluble vitamins closely monitored.

We know that most vitamins have many different reactions, which means they have several different functions. Below is a list of vitamins, and some details we know about them:

o Vitamin A

chemical names - retinol, retinoids and carotenoids. Solubility - fat. Deficiency disease - Night-blindness. Overdose disease - Keratomalacia (degeneration of the cornea).

o Vitamin B1

chemical name - thiamine. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Overdose disease - rare hypersensitive reactions resembling anaphylactic shock when overdose is due to injection. Drowsiness.

o Vitamin B2

chemical name - riboflavinSolubility - waterDeficiency disease - ariboflanisosis (mouth lesions, seborrhea, and vascularization of the cornea). Overdose disease - no known complications. Excess is excreted in urine.

o Vitamin B3

chemical name - niacin. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - pellagra. Overdose disease - liver damage, skin problems, and gastrointestinal complaints, plus other problems.

o Vitamin B5

chemical name -pantothenic acid. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - paresthesia (tingling, pricking, or numbness of the skin with no apparent long-term physical effect). Overdose disease - none reported.

o Vitamin B6

chemical name - pyridoxamine, pyridoxal. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - anemia, peripheral neuropathy. Overdose disease - nerve damage, proprioception is impaired (ability to sense stimuli within your own body is undermined).

o Vitamin B7

chemical name - biotin. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - dermatitis, enteritis. Overdose disease - none reported.

o Vitamin B9

chemical name - folinic acid. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - birth defects during pregnancy, such as neural tube. Overdose disease - seizure threshold possibly diminished.

o Vitamin B12

chemical name - cyanocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin, methylcobalamin. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - megaloblastic anemia (red blood cells without nucleus). Overdose disease - none reported.

o Vitamin C

chemical name - ascorbic acid. Solubility - water. Deficiency disease - scurvy, which can lead to a large number of complications. Overdose disease - vitamin C megadosage - diarrhea, nausea, skin irritation, burning upon urination, depletion of the mineral copper, and higher risk of kidney stones.

o Vitamin D

chemical name - ergocalciferol, cholecalciferol. Solubility - fat. Deficiency disease - rickets, osteomalacia (softening of bone), recent studies indicate higher risk of some cancers. Overdose disease - hypervitaminosis D (headache, weakness, disturbed digestion, increased blood pressure, and tissue calcification).

o Vitamin E

chemical name - tocotrienols. Solubility - fat. Deficiency disease - very rare, may include hemolytic anemia in newborn babies. Overdose disease - one study reported higher risk of congestive heart failure.

o Vitamin K

chemical name - phylloquinone, menaquinones. Solubility - fat. Deficiency disease - greater tendency to bleed. Overdose disease - may undermine effects of warfarin.

Most foods contain a combination of some, or all of the seven nutrient classes. We require some nutrients regularly, and others less frequently. Poor health may be the result of either not enough or too much of a nutrient, or some nutrients - an imbalance.

Foods that protect against cancer

Researchers at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston explained that many "fall foods" (autumn foods) can help reduce the risk of cancer. They are:

Apples Berries - especially cranberries Colorful vegetables - the richer and brighter the pigment, the better Dark leafy vegetables - kale, cabbage, brussels sprouts, and broccoli Everything orange - squash, carrots, pumpkins, and sweet potatoes

Nuts reduce cancer and cardiovascular disease risk - a Spanish study published in BMC Medicine (July 2013 issue) reported that eating nuts three times a week reduced the risk of death from cardiovascular disease by 55% and from cancer by 40%. The authors added that one portion of nuts should weigh about 1 ounce (28 grams).

How salty foods may increase sugar intake

Researchers from Deakin University, Burwood, Australia, found that children who eat salty foods tend to seek out an accompanying sugary drink. They reported their findings in the journal Pediatrics (December 2012 issue).

This combination - salty foods and sugar-sweetened beverages - has the potential of making a child be overweight or obese.

If salt consumption were curbed, the authors explained, perhaps their cravings for sugary drinks would go down, resulting in easier body weight control.

The scientists also found that fluid intake was associated with salt consumption - the more salt children ate, the more fluids they drank. Sweetened drinks also tend to increase overall fluid intake.

Children in the USA consume as much salt as adults do, the CDC reported in September 2012. The CDC added that high salt consumption raises the risk of childhood hypertension.

A brief history of nutrition

The Bible, Book of Daniel - Daniel was captured by the King of Babylon and had to serve in the King's court. Daniel objected to being fed fine foods and wine, saying he preferred vegetables, pulses and water. The chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial, comparing Daniel's dietary preference to those of the court of the King of Babylon. For ten days Daniel and his men had their vegetarian diet, while the King's men had theirs. The trial revealed that Daniel and his men were healthier and fitter, so they were allowed to carry on with their diet.

Hippocrates (Greece, ca460BC - ca370BC), one nutrient theory - according to Hippocrates everybody is the same, no matter what they have been eating, or where they have lived. He concluded that every food must contain one nutrient which makes us the way we are. This one-nutrient myth continued for thousands of years. Hippocrates is also famous for having said "Let thy food be thy medicine and thy medicine be thy food."

Antoine Lavoisier (France, 1743-1794) - became known as the father of chemistry and also the father of nutrition. He became famous for the statement "Life is a chemical process". He also designed the "calorimeter", a device which measured heat produced by the body from work and consumption from different amounts and types of foods. At the age of 24 he became a member of the French Academy of Science. In 1794, during the French Revolution, he was beheaded.

Christiaan Eijkman (Holland, 1858-1930) - a famous physician and pathologist (doctor who identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a microscope). He noticed that some of the people in Java developed Beriberi, a disease which leads to heart problems and paralysis. When he fed chickens a diet consisting mainly of white rice they also developed Beriberi type symptoms, but the chickens fed unprocessed brown rice did not. White rice has the outer bran removed, while brown rice does not. When he fed brown rice to patients with Beriberi they were cured. Many years later it was found that the outer husks (outer bran) in rice contain thiamine, or vitamin B1. Together with Sir Frederick Hopkins, he received the Nobel Prize for Physiology/Medicine.

Dr. James Lind (Scotland, 1716-1794) - a pioneer on hygiene in the Scottish and Royal (British) navies. He stressed the importance of good ventilation, cleanliness of sailor's bodies, clean bedding, below deck fumigation, fresh water by distilling sea water, and the consumption of citrus fruits to prevent and cure scurvy. He is well respected today for his work in improving practices in preventive medicine and improved nutrition. He published his Treatise on Scurvy. Many decades later British sailors were known as Limeys because they regularly consumed lime juice and enjoyed better health and vigor than sailors in most other navies.

Dr. William Beaumont (USA, 1785-1853) - a surgeon in the US Army. He became known as the Father of gastric physiology for his research on human digestion. Beaumont met Alexio St. Martin, a French trapper who was shot in the stomach. Beaumont treated him but was unable to close the hole in his stomach, which healed with an opening to the outside (a fistula). St. Martin allowed Beaumont to make observations periodically, even allowing him to fiddle around with his innards, which must have been painful. This allowed Beaumont to conduct several experiments and make some important discoveries and conclusions, including:

o The stomach is not a grinder.

o There is no internal "spirit" selecting good purpose foods one way and discarding bad purpose foods to waste.

o Digestion occurs because of digestive juices which are secreted from the stomach.

o Foods are not digested separately and sequentially, but rather all the time and at different rates.

o Stomach rumblings are caused by stomach contractions, and nothing else.

o Fat is digested slowly.

Dr. Stephen Babcock (USA, 1843-1931) - an agricultural chemist. He is known for his Babcock test which determines dairy butterfat in milk and cheese processing. He is also known for the single-grain experiment that eventually led to the development of nutrition as a science.

Babcock had the idea of feeding dairy cattle with just one food source, either all corn plant or all wheat plant. He placed two heifers on either diet. However, when one of his animals died they were all taken away and he was not allowed to continue researching.

Eventually, Babcock's associates, Hart, Humphrey, McCollum, and Steenbock conducted the experiments again. Four five-month-old heifers were each fed either exclusively feed from corn plant, wheat plant, oat plant, or all three mixed together. They all put on weight at approximately the same rate during the first 12 months. However, the corn-fed cows went on to have normal calves, while the wheat-fed cows gave birth to either dead calves or calves that died soon after birth. They also noted that the corn-fed cows produced three times as much milk as the wheat-fed ones. They concluded that:

either

o the wheat contained something that was bad for the cows

or

o the corn had an essential nutrient that wheat did not have

A succession of discoveries eventually found that something in the fat soluble portion of the corn affected reproduction. The scientists called this factor A - What we know today as Vitamin A.

Kazimierz Funk (Poland,1884- 1967) - a biochemist. Funk mistakenly thought these new things being discovered, such as factor A contained animes. As these animes were vital, he coined the term vitamins (vital animes).

As research evolved and further active properties were found, the water soluble ones were labeled B. It became obvious that more than one thing was involved in the water soluble substance, leading to the labels B1, B2, B3, etc. Some turned out not to be vitamins, while others were found to be the same as others - this explains why B vitamin numbers suddenly jump from 9 to 12, or 7 to 9. Vitamin B12 was discovered in 1948 by Karl A. Folkers (USA) and Alexander R. Todd (UK) and reported in 1949. They isolated the active ingredient, a cobalamin. It could also be injected straight into muscle as a treatment for pernicious (potentially fatal) anemia.

Vitamin C was clarified thanks to research carried out with guinea pigs. Very few animals, including humans, guinea pigs, primates, some bats, some birds, and some reptiles require vitamin C from food - all other animals are able to synthesize it internally (produce it themselves).

The era of discovering disease-preventing essential nutrients ended in 1948/49 with the discovery of Vitamin B12. Some other substances have since been discovered outside this "era" of great discoveries.

Some other famous people in the history of nutrition:

1925 - Edwin B. Hart discovered that trace amounts of copper are essential for iron absorption. 1927 - Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesized Vitamin D, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. 1928 - Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated ascorbic acid (Vitamin C). In 1932 he proved that it was Vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1937 he

synthesized Vitamin C and won the Nobel Prize. 1930s - William Cumming Rose identified essential amino acids which the body cannot synthesize, but which are necessary protein

components. 1935 - Eric John Underwood and Hedley Marston discovered the necessity of cobalt. They were not working together - the discoveries were

made independently. 1936 - Eugene Floyd Dubois demonstrated that school and work performance are linked to caloric intake. 1938 - Erhard Ferhnholz discovered the structure of Vitamin E, which was later synthesized by Paul Karrer. 1940 - Elsie Widdowson drew up the nutritional principles for rationing which took place in the United Kingdom during and after World War II.

Widdowson also oversaw the government mandated addition of vitamins to food during World War II and some post-war years. Widdowson and Robert McCance coauthored The Chemical Composition of Foods in 1940, which became the basis for modern nutritional thinking.

1941 - The National Research Council (USA) set up the first RDAs (Recommended Dietary Allowances). 1968 - Linus Pauling coined the term orthomolecular nutrition. He proposed that by giving the body the right molecules in the right

concentration - optimum nutrition - these nutrients would be better utilized and provide superior health and contribute towards longer lives. Pauling's work was the basis for future research which eventually led to large intravenous doses of Vitamin C for improving survival times and quality of life of some terminal cancer patients. Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

1992 - the Department of Agriculture (USA) set up the Food Guide Pyramid, which was to be subsequently criticized by nutritionists throughout the world for different reasons.

2002 - a link between violent behavior and nutrition was revealed in a Natural Justice study (USA). 2005 - researchers found that the adenovirus is a cause of obesity, as well as bad nutrition.

Nutrition in medical education

Historically, experts in medical education - people who decide what medical students should learn - have all agreed that some aspects of nutrition should be included in courses. However, the greatest obstacle for a very long time was agreeing about what to teach. In 1989 the American Society for Clinical Nutrition Committee on Medical/Dental School and Residency Nutrition Education published a list of 26 high-priority topics that should form part of the medical curriculum. Those given the highest priority were:

Obesity Diet Hypelipidemias and atherosclerosis Diet and diabetes Pregnancy and lactation

Roland L Weinsier et al"Priorities for nutrition content in a medical school curriculum: a national consensus of medical educators13"(Am J Clin Nutr 1989; Vol 50, 707-712).

In 1996 the Nutrition and Preventative Medicine Task Force of the American Medical Student Association formed the Nutrition Curriculum Project, and developed a list of 92 topics deemed essential for developing physicians' competency in nutrition.

"Essentials of nutrition education in medical schools: a national consensus. American Medical Student Association's Nutrition Curriculum Project"(Academic Medicine. 71(9):969-71, September 1996).

Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet.

The diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the perceived palatability of foods. Dietitians are health professionals who specialize in human nutrition, meal planning, economics, and preparation. They are trained to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice and management to individuals (in health and disease), as well as to institutions. Clinical nutritionists are health professionals who focus more specifically on the role of nutrition in chronic disease, including possible prevention or remediation by addressing nutritional deficiencies before resorting to drugs. While government regulation of the use of this professional title is less universal than for "dietician", the field is supported by many high-level academic programs, up to and including the Doctoral level, and has its own voluntary certification board,[1] professional associations, and peer-reviewed journals, e.g. the American Society for Nutrition, Nutrition Society of India, Food Scientists and Nutritionists Association India, Indian Dietetic Association and the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

A poor diet may have an injurious impact on health, causing deficiency diseases such as scurvy [2] and kwashiorkor;[3] health-threatening conditions like obesity [4] [5] and metabolic syndrome;[6] and such common chronic systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease,[7][8] diabetes,[9][10] and osteoporosis.[11][12][13]

Overview

Nutritional science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet. With advances in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, nutritional immunology, molecular medicine and genetics, the study of nutrition is increasingly concerned with metabolism and metabolic pathways: the sequences of biochemical steps through which substances in living things change from one form to another.

Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions being at varying levels in particular foods. Carnivores consume more nitrogen than carbon[citation needed] while herbivores consume less nitrogen than carbon, when an equal quantity[which?] is measured.

The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in the plant and animal organisms that humans eat.

The human body consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream to feed the cells of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, the digestive system is the first system involved[vague]. In a typical adult, about seven liters of digestive juices enter the digestive tract.[citation needed][clarification needed] These digestive juices break chemical bonds in ingested molecules, and modify their conformations and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of metabolism, is eliminated from the body in the feces.

Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving.

In particular, the consumption of whole-plant foods slows digestion and allows better absorption, and a more favorable balance of essential nutrients per Calorie, resulting in better management of cell growth, maintenance, and mitosis (cell division), as well as better regulation of appetite and blood sugar[citation needed]. Regularly scheduled meals (every few hours) have also proven more wholesome than infrequent or haphazard ones,[14] although a recent study has also linked more frequent meals with a higher risk of colon cancer in men.[15]

NutrientsMain article: Nutrient

There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, minerals, protein, vitamins, and water.

These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients include carbohydrates (including fiber), fats, protein, and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram.,[16] though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), is also required,[citation needed] for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear.

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production, just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals, which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances, such as toxins of various sorts. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely required) will cause illness or even death in excessive amounts.[17][18]

Carbohydrates

Main article: Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and

polysaccharides contain one, two, and three or more sugar units, respectively. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long, multiple branched chains of sugar units.

Traditionally, simple carbohydrates were believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore to raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate.[19][20][21][22] Some simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g. fructolysis) which result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while many complex carbohydrates may be digested at essentially the same rate as simple carbohydrates.[23] Glucose stimulates the production of insulin through food entering the bloodstream, which is grasped by the beta cells in the pancreas.

FiberMain article: Dietary fiber

Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible because humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel which slows the movement of food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer is still uncertain. [24]

Fat

Main article: Fat

A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, represent potent immune modulatory molecules.

Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.[citation needed]

Essential fatty acidsMain article: Essential fatty acids

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids—omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids—seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g. weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which is one reason why a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 (made from DGLA). Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). The amount and type of carbohydrates consumed, along with some types of amino acid, can influence processes involving insulin, glucagon, and other hormones; therefore the ratio of omega-3 versus omega-6 has wide effects on general health, and specific effects on immune function and inflammation, and mitosis (i.e. cell division).

Protein

Proteins are chains of amino acids found in most nutritional foods.

Main article: Protein in nutrition

Proteins are structural materials in much of the animal body (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids, which are characterized by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential and, therefore, must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

It is possible to combine two incomplete protein sources (e.g. rice and beans) to make a complete protein source, and characteristic combinations are the basis of distinct cultural cooking traditions. However, complementary sources of protein don't need to be eaten at the same meal to be used together by the body.[25] Sources of dietary protein include meats, tofu and other soy-products, eggs, legumes, and dairy products such as milk and cheese. Excess amino acids from protein can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a process called gluconeogenesis. The amino acids remaining after such conversion are discarded.

Minerals

Main articles: Dietary mineral and Composition of the human body

Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned, including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some minerals are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.

Macrominerals

Many elements are essential in relative quantity; they are usually called "bulk minerals". Some are structural, but many play a role as electrolytes.[26] Elements with recommended dietary allowance (RDA) greater than 200 mg/day are, in alphabetical order (with informal or folk-medicine perspectives in parentheses):

Calcium , a common electrolyte, but also needed structurally (for muscle and digestive system health, bone strength, some forms neutralize acidity, may help clear toxins, provides signaling ions for nerve and membrane functions)

Chlorine as chloride ions; very common electrolyte; see sodium, below Magnesium , required for processing ATP and related reactions (builds bone, causes strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases

alkalinity) Phosphorus , required component of bones; essential for energy processing[27]

Potassium , a very common electrolyte (heart and nerve health)

Sodium , a very common electrolyte; not generally found in dietary supplements, despite being needed in large quantities, because the ion is very common in food: typically as sodium chloride, or common salt. Excessive sodium consumption can deplete calcium and magnesium,[verification needed] leading to high blood pressure and osteoporosis.

Sulfur , for three essential amino acids and therefore many proteins (skin, hair, nails, liver, and pancreas). Sulfur is not consumed alone, but in the form of sulfur-containing amino acids

Trace minerals

Many elements are required in trace amounts, usually because they play a catalytic role in enzymes.[28] Some trace mineral elements (RDA < 200 mg/day) are, in alphabetical order:

Cobalt required for biosynthesis of vitamin B12 family of coenzymes. Animals cannot biosynthesize B12, and must obtain this cobalt-containing vitamin in the diet

Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase

Main article: Copper in health

Chromium required for sugar metabolism Iodine required not only for the biosynthesis of thyroxine, but probably, for other important organs as breast, stomach, salivary glands, thymus

etc. (see Extrathyroidal iodine); for this reason iodine is needed in larger quantities than others in this list, and sometimes classified with the macrominerals

Iron required for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other proteins Manganese (processing of oxygen) Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases Nickel present in urease Selenium required for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins) Vanadium (Speculative: there is no established RDA for vanadium. No specific biochemical function has been identified for it in humans,

although vanadium is required for some lower organisms.) Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase

Vitamins

Main article: Vitamin

As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

Vitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions, including goitre, scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others.[29] Excess levels of some vitamins are also dangerous to health (notably vitamin A), and for at least one vitamin, B6, toxicity begins at levels not far above the required amount. Deficient or excess levels of minerals can also have serious health consequences.

Water

Main article: Drinking water

A manual water pump in China

Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids.

Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that 6–8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.[30] However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source.[31] The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." [32] More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. [33] Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). [34] These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with “desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed.”[34] For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food.[35] Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example.[36] These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.[36] Other guidelines for nutrition also have implications for the beverages we consume for healthy hydration- for example, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.[37]

The EFSA panel also determined intakes for different populations. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for adults as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. [34] Pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional fluids to stay hydrated. The EFSA panel proposes that pregnant women should consume the same volume of water as non-pregnant women, plus an increase in proportion to the higher energy requirement, equal to 300 mL/day. [34] To compensate for additional fluid output, breastfeeding women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake values for non-lactating women. [34]

For those who have healthy kidneys, it is somewhat difficult to drink too much water,[34] but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. While overhydration is much less common than dehydration, it is also possible to drink far more water than necessary which can result in water intoxication, a serious and potentially fatal condition.[38] In particular, large amounts of de-ionized water are dangerous.[34]

Other nutrients

Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals. These substances are generally more recent discoveries that have not yet been recognized as vitamins or as required. Phytochemicals may act as antioxidants, but not all phytochemicals are antioxidants.[citation needed]

AntioxidantsMain article: Antioxidant

Colorful fruits are important components of a healthy diet.

As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e.g. mutation causing) compounds known as free radicals can form. Most of these are oxidizers (i.e. acceptors of electrons) and some react very strongly. For the continued normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds. Recently, some researchers suggested an interesting theory of evolution of dietary antioxidants. Some are produced by the human body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C), and those the body cannot produce may only be obtained in the diet via direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). Phytochemicals (Section Below) and their subgroup, polyphenols, make up the majority of antioxidants; about 4,000 are known. Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network. For example, Vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or Vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself. Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water soluble and protects those areas). When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect.

Although initial studies suggested that antioxidant supplements might promote health, later large clinical trials did not detect any benefit and suggested instead that excess supplementation may be harmful.[39][40]

Phytochemicals

Blackberries are a source of polyphenol antioxidants

Main article: Phytochemical

A growing area of interest is the effect upon human health of trace chemicals, collectively called phytochemicals. These nutrients are typically found in edible plants, especially colorful fruits and vegetables, but also other organisms including seafood, algae, and fungi. One of the principal classes of phytochemicals are polyphenol antioxidants, chemicals that are known to provide certain health benefits to the cardiovascular system and immune system. These chemicals are known to down-regulate the formation of reactive oxygen species, key chemicals in cardiovascular disease.

Perhaps the most rigorously tested phytochemical is zeaxanthin, a yellow-pigmented carotenoid present in many yellow and orange fruits and vegetables. Repeated studies have shown a strong correlation between ingestion of zeaxanthin and the prevention and treatment of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).[41][better source needed] Less rigorous studies have proposed a correlation between zeaxanthin intake and cataracts.[42]

[better source needed] A second carotenoid, lutein, has also been shown to lower the risk of contracting AMD. Both compounds have been observed to collect in the retina when ingested orally, and they serve to protect the rods and cones against the destructive effects of light.

Another carotenoid, beta-cryptoxanthin, appears to protect against chronic joint inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis. While the association between serum blood levels of beta-cryptoxanthin and substantially decreased joint disease has been established,[43] neither a convincing mechanism for such protection nor a cause-and-effect have been rigorously studied. Similarly, a red phytochemical, lycopene, has substantial credible evidence of negative association with development of prostate cancer.

As indicated above, some of the correlations between the ingestion of certain phytochemicals and the prevention of disease are, in some cases, enormous in magnitude. Yet, even when the evidence is obtained, translating it to practical dietary advice can be difficult and counter-intuitive. Lutein, for example, occurs in many yellow and orange fruits and vegetables and protects the eyes against various diseases. However, it does not protect the eye nearly as well as zeaxanthin, and the presence of lutein in the retina will prevent zeaxanthin uptake. Additionally, evidence has shown that the lutein present in egg yolk is more readily absorbed than the lutein from vegetable sources, possibly because of fat solubility. [44] At the most basic level, the question "should you eat eggs?" is complex to the point of dismay, including misperceptions about the health effects of cholesterol in egg yolk, and its saturated fat content.

As another example, lycopene is prevalent in tomatoes (and actually is the chemical that gives tomatoes their red color). It is more highly concentrated, however, in processed tomato products such as commercial pasta sauce, or tomato soup, than in fresh "healthy" tomatoes. Yet, such sauces tend to have high amounts of salt, sugar, other substances a person may wish or even need to avoid.

The following table presents phytochemical groups and common sources, arranged by family:

Family Sources Possible benefits

Flavonoids Berries, herbs, vegetables, wine, grapes, teaGeneral antioxidant, oxidation of LDLs, prevention of arteriosclerosis and heart disease

Isoflavones (phytoestrogens)

Soy, red clover, kudzu rootGeneral antioxidant, prevention of arteriosclerosis and heart disease, easing symptoms of menopause, cancer prevention [45]

Isothiocyanates Cruciferous vegetables cancer prevention

MonoterpenesCitrus peels, essential oils, herbs, spices, green plants, atmosphere [46]

Cancer prevention, treating gallstones

Organosulfur compounds

Chives, garlic, onions cancer prevention, lowered LDLs, assistance to the immune system

Saponins Beans, cereals, herbsHypercholesterolemia, Hyperglycemia, Antioxidant, cancer prevention, Anti-inflammatory

Capsaicinoids Chili peppers Topical pain relief, cancer prevention, cancer cell apoptosis

Intestinal bacterial flora

Main article: Gut flora

It is now also known that animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, these include species such as Bacteroides, L. acidophilus and E. coli, among many others. They are essential to digestion, and are also affected by the food we eat. Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B12, and defending against some infectious diseases[citation needed].

Advice and guidance

U.S. Government policies

The updated USDA food pyramid, published in 2005, is a general nutrition guide for recommended food consumption for humans.

In the US, dietitians are registered (RD) or licensed (LD) with the Commission for Dietetic Registration and the American Dietetic Association, and are only able to use the title "dietitian," as described by the business and professions codes of each respective state, when they have met specific educational and experiential prerequisites and passed a national registration or licensure examination, respectively. In California, registered dietitians must abide by the "Business and Professions Code of Section 2585-2586.8".Anyone may call themselves a nutritionist, including unqualified dietitians, as this term is unregulated. Some states, such as the State of Florida, have begun to include the title "nutritionist" in state licensure requirements. Most governments provide guidance on nutrition, and some also impose mandatory disclosure/labeling requirements for processed food manufacturers and restaurants to assist consumers in complying with such guidance.

In the US, nutritional standards and recommendations are established jointly by the US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary and physical activity guidelines from the USDA are presented in the concept of myPlate, which superseded food pyramid, which superseded the Four Food Groups. The Senate committee currently responsible for oversight of the USDA is the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee. Committee hearings are often televised on C-SPAN as seen here.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services provides a sample week-long menu which fulfills the nutritional recommendations of the government.[47] Canada's Food Guide is another governmental recommendation.

Government programs

Federal and state governmental organizations have been working on nutrition literacy interventions in non-primary health care settings to address the nutrition information problem in the U.S. Some programs include:

The Family Nutrition Program (FNP) is a free nutrition education program serving low-income adults around the U.S. This program is funded by the Food Nutrition Service’s (FNS) branch of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) usually through a local state academic institution which runs the

program. The FNP has developed a series of tools to help families participating in the Food Stamp Program stretch their food dollar and form healthful eating habits including nutrition education.

Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (ENFEP) is a unique program that currently operates in all 50 states and in American Samoa, Guam, Micronesia, Northern Marianas, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. It is designed to assist limited-resource audiences in acquiring the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and changed behavior necessary for nutritionally sound diets, and to contribute to their personal development and the improvement of the total family diet and nutritional well-being.

An example of a state initiative to promote nutrition literacy is Smart Bodies, a public-private partnership between the state’s largest university system and largest health insurer, Louisiana State Agricultural Center and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana Foundation. Launched in 2005, this program promotes lifelong healthful eating patterns and physically active lifestyles for children and their families. It is an interactive educational program designed to help prevent childhood obesity through classroom activities that teach children healthful eating habits and physical exercise.

Teaching

Nutrition is taught in schools in many countries. In England and Wales the Personal and Social Education and Food Technology curricula include nutrition, stressing the importance of a balanced diet and teaching how to read nutrition labels on packaging. In many schools a Nutrition class will fall within the Family and Consumer Science or Health departments. In some American schools, students are required to take a certain number of FCS or Health related classes. Nutrition is offered at many schools, and if it is not a class of its own, nutrition is included in other FCS or Health classes such as: Life Skills, Independent Living, Single Survival, Freshmen Connection, Health etc. In many Nutrition classes, students learn about the food groups, the food pyramid, Daily Recommended Allowances, calories, vitamins, minerals, malnutrition, physical activity, healthful food choices and how to live a healthy life.

A 1985 US National Research Council report entitled Nutrition Education in US Medical Schools concluded that nutrition education in medical schools was inadequate.[48] Only 20% of the schools surveyed taught nutrition as a separate, required course. A 2006 survey found that this number had risen to 30%.[49]

Healthy dietsMain article: Healthy diet

Whole plant food diet

Heart disease, cancer, obesity, and diabetes are commonly called "Western" diseases because these maladies were once rarely seen in developing countries. An international study in China found some regions had essentially no cancer or heart disease, while in other areas they reflected "up to a 100-fold increase" coincident with shifts from diets that were found to be entirely plant-based to heavily animal-based, respectively. [50] In contrast, diseases of affluence like cancer and heart disease are common throughout the developed world, including the United States. Adjusted for age and exercise, large regional clusters of people in China rarely suffered from these "Western" diseases possibly because their diets are rich in vegetables, fruits and whole grains, and have little dairy and meat products.[50] Some studies show these to be, in high quantities, possible causes of some cancers. There are arguments for and against this controversial issue.

The United Healthcare/Pacificare nutrition guideline recommends a whole plant food diet, and recommends using protein only as a condiment with meals. A National Geographic cover article from November 2005, entitled The Secrets of Living Longer, also recommends a whole plant food diet. The article is a lifestyle survey of three populations, Sardinians, Okinawans, and Adventists, who generally display longevity and "suffer a fraction of the diseases that commonly kill people in other parts of the developed world, and enjoy more healthy years of life." In sum, they offer three sets of 'best practices' to emulate. The rest is up to you. In common with all three groups is to "Eat fruits, vegetables, and whole grains."

The National Geographic article noted that an NIH funded study of 34,000 Seventh-day Adventists between 1976 and 1988 "...found that the Adventists' habit of consuming beans, soy milk, tomatoes, and other fruits lowered their risk of developing certain cancers. It also suggested that eating whole grain bread, drinking five glasses of water a day, and, most surprisingly, consuming four servings of nuts a week reduced their risk of heart disease."

The French "paradox"

Main article: French paradox

The French paradox is the observation that the French suffer a relatively low incidence of coronary heart disease, despite having a diet relatively rich in saturated fats. A number of explanations have been suggested:

Saturated fat consumption does not cause heart disease[51]

Reduced consumption of processed carbohydrate and other junk foods.[citation needed]

Regular consumption of red wine.[citation needed]

More active lifestyles involving plenty of daily exercise, especially walking; the French are much less dependent on cars than Americans are.[citation needed]

Higher consumption of artificially produced trans-fats by Americans, which has been shown to have greater lipoprotein effects per gram than saturated fat.[52]

However, statistics collected by the World Health Organization from 1990–2000 show that the incidence of heart disease in France may have been underestimated and, in fact, may be similar to that of neighboring countries.[53]

Sports nutrition

It has been suggested that this article be merged with Human nutrition#Sports nutrition. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2012.

Main article: Sports nutrition

Protein

Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common bodybuilding supplement.

Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Hair and nails are mostly made of protein. The body uses protein to build and repair tissues. In addition, protein is used to make hormones and other chemicals in the body. Protein is also an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.

The protein requirement for each individual differs, as do opinions about whether and to what extent physically active people require more protein. The 2005 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), aimed at the general healthy adult population, provide for an intake of 0.8 – 1 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight (according to the BMI formula), with the review panel stating that "no additional dietary protein is suggested for healthy adults undertaking resistance or endurance exercise".[54] Conversely, Di Pasquale (2008), citing recent studies, recommends a minimum protein intake of 2.2 g/kg "for anyone involved in competitive or intense recreational sports who wants to maximize lean body mass but does not wish to gain weight". [55]

Water and salts

Water is one of the most important nutrients in the sports diet. It helps eliminate food waste products in the body, regulates body temperature during activity and helps with digestion. Maintaining hydration during periods of physical exertion is key to peak performance. While drinking too much water during activities can lead to physical discomfort, dehydration in excess of 2% of body mass (by weight) markedly hinders athletic performance. [56] Additional carbohydrates and protein before, during, and after exercise increase time to exhaustion as well as speed recovery. The amount of water needed is based on work performed, lean body mass, and environmental factors, especially ambient temperature and humidity. Maintaining the right amount is key.[vague]

Carbohydrates

The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which are stored in muscle as glycogen—a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min.[citation needed] Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes to replace glycogen by consuming a diet high in carbohydrates. Meeting energy needs can help improve performance during the sport, as well as improve overall strength and endurance.

Nutrition literacy

At the time of this entry, we were not able to identify any specific nutrition literacy studies in the U.S. at a national level. However, the findings of the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) provide a basis upon which to frame the nutrition literacy problem in the U.S. NAAL introduced the first ever measure of “the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions,” – an objective of Healthy People 2010 [57] and of which nutrition literacy might be considered an important subset. On a scale of below basic, basic, intermediate and proficient, NAAL found 13 percent of adult Americans have proficient health literacy, 44% have intermediate literacy, 29 percent have basic literacy and 14 percent have below basic health literacy. The study found that health literacy increases with education and people living below the level of poverty have lower health literacy then those above it.

Another study examining the health and nutrition literacy status of residents of the lower Mississippi Delta found that 52 percent of participants had a high likelihood of limited literacy skills.[58] While a precise comparison between the NAAL and Delta studies is difficult, primarily because of methodological differences, Zoellner et al. suggest that health literacy rates in the Mississippi Delta region are different from the U.S. general population

and that they help establish the scope of the problem of health literacy among adults in the Delta region. For example, only 12 percent of study participants identified the My Pyramid graphic two years after it had been launched by the USDA. The study also found significant relationships between nutrition literacy and income level and nutrition literacy and educational attainment[58] further delineating priorities for the region.

These statistics point to the complexities surrounding the lack of health/nutrition literacy and reveal the degree to which they are embedded in the social structure and interconnected with other problems. Among these problems are the lack of information about food choices, the lack of understanding nutritional information and its application to individual circumstances, limited or difficult access to healthful foods, and a range of cultural influences and socioeconomic constraints such as low levels of education and high levels of poverty that decrease opportunities for healthful eating and living.

The links between low health literacy and poor health outcomes has been widely documented[59] and there is evidence that some interventions to improve health literacy have produced successful results in the primary care setting. More must be done to further our understanding of nutrition literacy specific interventions in non-primary care settings[58] in order to achieve better health outcomes.

Malnutrition

Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients by an organism. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption.

Although there are more organisms in the world who are malnourished due to insufficient consumption, increasingly more organisms suffer from excessive over-nutrition; a problem caused by an over abundance of sustenance coupled with the instinctual desire (by animals in particular) to consume all that it can.

Nutritionism is the view that excessive reliance on food science and the study of nutrition can, paradoxically, lead to poor nutrition and to ill health. It was originally credited to Gyorgy Scrinis,[60] and was popularized by Michael Pollan. Since nutrients are invisible, policy makers rely on nutrition experts to advise on food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, nutritionism can be blamed for many of the health problems relating to diet in the Western World today.[61][62]

Insufficient

Under consumption generally refers to the long-term consumption of insufficient sustenance in relation to the energy that an organism expends or expels, leading to poor health.

Excessive

Over consumption generally refers to the long-term consumption of excess sustenance in relation to the energy that an organism expends or expels, leading to poor health and, in animals, obesity. It can cause excessive hair loss, brittle nails, and irregular premenstrual cycles for females.

Unbalanced

When too much of one or more nutrients is present in the diet to the exclusion of the proper amount of other nutrients, the diet is said to be unbalanced.

Illnesses caused by improper nutrient consumption

Nutrients Deficiency Excess

Macronutrients

Calories Starvation, marasmus Obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease

Simple carbohydrates

Low energy levels. Obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease

Complex carbohydrates

Micronutrient deficiency Obesity, cardiovascular disease (high glycemic index foods)

Protein Kwashiorkor Rabbit starvation, ketoacidosis (in diabetics)

Saturated fat Low testosterone levels, vitamin deficiencies. Obesity, cardiovascular disease

Trans fat None Obesity, cardiovascular disease

Unsaturated fat Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency Obesity, cardiovascular disease

Micronutrients

Vitamin A Xerophthalmia and night blindness Hypervitaminosis A (cirrhosis, hair loss)

Vitamin B1 Beri-Beri  ?

Vitamin B2 Skin and corneal lesions  ?

Niacin Pellagra Dyspepsia, cardiac arrhythmias, birth defects

Vitamin B12 Pernicious anemia  ?

Vitamin C Scurvy Diarrhea causing dehydration

Vitamin D Rickets Hypervitaminosis D (dehydration, vomiting, constipation)

Vitamin E Neurological disease Hypervitaminosis E (anticoagulant: excessive bleeding)

Vitamin K Hemorrhage Liver damage

Omega-3 fats Cardiovascular DiseaseBleeding, Hemorrhages, Hemorrhagic stroke, reduced glycemic control among diabetics

Omega-6 fats None Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer

Cholesterol None Cardiovascular Disease

Macrominerals

CalciumOsteoporosis, tetany, carpopedal spasm, laryngospasm, cardiac arrhythmias

Fatigue, depression, confusion, nausea, vomiting, constipation, pancreatitis, increased urination, kidney stones

Magnesium Hypertension Weakness, nausea, vomiting, impaired breathing, and hypotension

Potassium Hypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmias Hyperkalemia, palpitations

Sodium Hyponatremia Hypernatremia, hypertension

Trace minerals

Iron Anemia Cirrhosis, Hereditary hemochromatosis, heart disease

Iodine Goiter, hypothyroidism Iodine toxicity (goiter, hypothyroidism)

Mental agility

Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing long-term habits of healthful eating have a positive effect on cognitive and spatial memory capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic information.

Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed foodservice contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success.[63] Currently, less than 10% of American college students report that they eat the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables daily.[64] Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests.[65] In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those who consumed caffeine free diet soda or confections.[66] Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.[67]

"Better learning performance is associated with diet induced effects on learning and memory ability".[68]

The "nutrition-learning nexus" demonstrates the correlation between diet and learning and has application in a higher education setting.

"We find that better nourished children perform significantly better in school, partly because they enter school earlier and thus have more time to learn but mostly because of greater learning productivity per year of schooling."[69]

91% of college students feel that they are in good health while only 7% eat their recommended daily allowance of fruits and vegetables. [64]

Nutritional education is an effective and workable model in a higher education setting.[70][71]

More "engaged" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up steam at all levels of the learning cycle. [72]

There is limited research available that directly links a student's Grade Point Average (G.P.A.) to their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove that overall intellectual health is closely linked to a person's diet, rather than just another correlation fallacy.

Mental disorders

Nutritional supplement treatment may be appropriate for major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive compulsive disorder, the four most common mental disorders in developed countries.[73] Supplements that have been studied most for mood elevation and stabilization include eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (each of which are an omega-3 fatty acid contained in fish oil, but not in flaxseed oil), vitamin B12, folic acid, and inositol.

Cancer

Cancer is now common in developing countries. According to a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs." Lung cancer rates are rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries "tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' — cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate — that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."[74]

Metabolic syndrome

Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i.e. insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i.e. heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e. cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.

The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between overweight and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. Importantly, it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those who have type 2 diabetes).

Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores. In addition, reduced leptin signalling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.

There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may potentially overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of high glycemic index and processed foods into the human diet may potentially overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).

Hyponatremia

Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. A well-publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-drinking contest.[75] More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache, drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death. The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood salinity decreases. Effective fluid replacement techniques include water aid stations during running/cycling races, trainers providing water during team games, such as soccer, and devices such as Camel Baks, which can provide water for a person without making it too hard to drink the water.

Antinutrient

Main article: Antinutrient

Antinutrients are natural or synthetic compounds that interfere with the absorption of nutrients. Nutrition studies focus on antinutrients commonly found in food sources and beverages.

Processed foods

Main article: Food processing

Since the Industrial Revolution some two hundred years ago, the food processing industry has invented many technologies that both help keep foods fresh longer and alter the fresh state of food as they appear in nature. Cooling is the primary technology used to maintain freshness, whereas many more technologies have been invented to allow foods to last longer without becoming spoiled. These latter technologies include pasteurisation, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, all of which appear to alter the original nutritional contents of food. Pasteurisation and autoclavation (heating techniques) have no doubt improved the safety of many common foods, preventing epidemics of bacterial infection. But some of the (new) food processing technologies undoubtedly have downfalls as well.

Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and pressing have enabled concentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Inevitably, such large scale concentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce food's content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet to be discovered substances.[76] Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fiber, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. In addition, processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.

A dramatic example of the effect of food processing on a population's health is the history of epidemics of beri-beri in people subsisting on polished rice. Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it the essential vitamin thiamine, causing beri-beri. Another example is the development of scurvy among infants in the late 19th century in the United States. It turned out that the vast majority of sufferers were being fed milk that had been heat-treated (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial disease. Pasteurisation was effective against bacteria, but it destroyed the vitamin C.

As mentioned, lifestyle- and obesity-related diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent all around the world. There is little doubt that the increasingly widespread application of some modern food processing technologies has contributed to this development. The food processing industry is a major part of modern economy, and as such it is influential in political decisions (e.g. nutritional recommendations, agricultural subsidising). In any known profit-driven economy, health considerations are hardly a priority; effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life is more the trend. In general, whole, fresh foods have a relatively short shelf-life and are less profitable to produce and sell than are more processed foods. Thus, the consumer is left with the choice between more expensive, but nutritionally superior, whole, fresh foods, and cheap, usually nutritionally inferior, processed foods. Because processed foods are often cheaper, more convenient (in both purchasing, storage, and preparation), and more available, the consumption of nutritionally inferior foods has been increasing throughout the world along with many nutrition-related health complications.

History

Humans have evolved as omnivorous hunter-gatherers over the past 250,000 years. The diet of early modern humans varied significantly depending on location and climate. The diet in the tropics tended to be based more heavily on plant foods, while the diet at higher latitudes tended more towards animal products. Analysis of postcranial and cranial remains of humans and animals from the Neolithic, along with detailed bone modification studies have shown that cannibalism was also prevalent among prehistoric humans.[77]

Agriculture developed about 10,000 years ago in multiple locations throughout the world, providing grains such as wheat, rice, potatoes, and maize, with staples such as bread, pasta, and tortillas. Farming also provided milk and dairy products, and sharply increased the availability of meats and the diversity of vegetables. The importance of food purity was recognized when bulk storage led to infestation and contamination risks. Cooking developed as an often ritualistic activity, due to efficiency and reliability concerns requiring adherence to strict recipes and procedures, and in response to demands for food purity and consistency.[78]

From antiquity to 1900

Anaxagoras

Around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore contained "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients.[78] Around 400 BC, Hippocrates said, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food."[79]

In the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle. In 1747, Dr. James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment, discovering that lime juice saved sailors who had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as "limeys." The essential vitamin C within lime juice would not be identified by scientists until the 1930s.

Around 1770, Antoine Lavoisier, the "Father of Nutrition and Chemistry" discovered the details of metabolism, demonstrating that the oxidation of food is the source of body heat. In 1790, George Fordyce recognized calcium as necessary for fowl survival. In the early 19th century, the elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen were recognized as the primary components of food, and methods to measure their proportions were developed.

In 1816, François Magendie discovered that dogs fed only carbohydrates and fat lost their body protein and died in a few weeks, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an essential dietary component.[citation needed] In 1840, Justus Liebig discovered the chemical makeup of carbohydrates (sugars), fats (fatty acids) and proteins (amino acids.) In the 1860s, Claude Bernard discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.

In the early 1880s, Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost entirely of white rice) developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis), but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease.

In 1896, Eugen Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands. In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who also suffered from beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi, but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, also known as thiamine.

From 1900 to the present

Frederick Hopkins, discoverer of vitamins and Nobel Laureate

In the early 20th century, Carl Von Voit and Max Rubner independently measured caloric energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906, Wilcock and Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan was necessary for the survival of rats. He fed them a special mixture of food containing all the nutrients he believed were essential for survival, but the rats died. A second group of rats were fed an amount of milk containing vitamins. Sir Frederick Hopkins recognized "accessory food factors" other than calories, protein and minerals, as organic materials essential to health, but which the body cannot synthesize. In 1907, Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart conducted the single-grain experiment, which took nearly four years to complete.

In 1912, Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin, a vital factor in the diet, from the words "vital" and "amine," because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra, were thought then to be derived from ammonia. The vitamins were studied in the first half of the 20th century.

In 1913, Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat soluble vitamin A, and water soluble vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil.[80] In 1922, Elmer McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.

In 1925, Hart discovered that trace amounts of copper are necessary for iron absorption. In 1927, Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesized vitamin D, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928. In 1928, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated ascorbic acid, and in 1932 proved that it is vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1935 he synthesized it, and in 1937, he won a Nobel Prize for his efforts. Szent-Györgyi concurrently elucidated much of the citric acid cycle.

In the 1930s, William Cumming Rose identified essential amino acids, necessary protein components which the body cannot synthesize. In 1935, Underwood and Marston independently discovered the necessity of cobalt. In 1936, Eugene Floyd Dubois showed that work and school performance are related to caloric intake. In 1938, Erhard Fernholz discovered the chemical structure of vitamin E. It was synthesised by Paul Karrer.

In 1940, rationing in the United Kingdom during and after World War II took place according to nutritional principles drawn up by Elsie Widdowson and others. In 1941, the first Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were established by the National Research Council.

In 1992, The U.S. Department of Agriculture introduced the Food Guide Pyramid. In 2002, a Natural Justice study showed a relation between nutrition and violent behavior[citation needed]. In 2005, a study found that obesity may be caused by adenovirus in addition to bad nutrition.[81][82]

World leaders are looking at alternatives like genetically modified foods to tackle the problem of world hunger and food shortages. [83]

Plant nutritionMain article: Plant nutrition

Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth. There are several principles that apply to plant nutrition. Some elements are directly involved in plant metabolism. However, this principle does not account for the so-called beneficial elements, whose presence, while not required, has clear positive effects on plant growth.

A nutrient that is able to limit plant growth according to Liebig's law of the minimum, is considered an essential plant nutrient if the plant cannot complete its full life cycle without it. There are 17 essential plant nutrients.

Macronutrients:

N = Nitrogen P = Phosphorus K = Potassium Ca = Calcium Mg = Magnesium S = Sulfur Si = Silicon

Micronutrients (trace levels) include:

Cl = Chlorine Fe = Iron B = Boron Mn = Manganese Na = Sodium Zn = Zinc Cu = Copper Ni= Nickel Mo = Molybdenum

Macronutrients

Calcium

Calcium regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the activation of certain plant enzymes. Calcium deficiency results in stunting.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is an essential component of all proteins. Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunted growth.

Phosphorus

Phosphorus is important in plant bioenergetics. As a component of ATP, phosphorus is needed for the conversion of light energy to chemical energy (ATP) during photosynthesis. Phosphorus can also be used to modify the activity of various enzymes by phosphorylation, and can be used for cell signaling. Since ATP can be used for the biosynthesis of many plant biomolecules, phosphorus is important for plant growth and flower/seed formation.

Potassium

Potassium regulates the opening and closing of the stoma by a potassium ion pump. Since stomata are important in water regulation, potassium reduces water loss from the leaves and increases drought tolerance. Potassium deficiency may cause necrosis or interveinal chlorosis.

Silicon

Silicon is deposited in cell walls and contributes to its mechanical properties including rigidity and elasticity

Micronutrients

Boron

Boron is important in sugar transport, cell division, and synthesizing certain enzymes. Boron deficiency causes necrosis in young leaves and stunting.

Copper

Copper is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis. Involved in many enzyme processes. Necessary for proper photosynthesis. Involved in the manufacture of lignin (cell walls). Involved in grain production.

Chlorine

Chlorine is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role in photosynthesis.

Iron

Iron is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme cofactor in plants. Iron deficiency can result in interveinal chlorosis and necrosis.

Manganese

Manganese is necessary for building the chloroplasts. Manganese deficiency may result in coloration abnormalities, such as discolored spots on the foliage.

Molybdenum

Molybdenum is a cofactor to enzymes important in building amino acids.

Nickel

In higher plants, Nickel is essential for activation of urease, an enzyme involved with nitrogen metabolism that is required to process urea. Without Nickel, toxic levels of urea accumulate, leading to the formation of necrotic lesions. In lower plants, Nickel activates several enzymes involved in a variety of processes, and can substitute for Zinc and Iron as a cofactor in some enzymes.[citation needed]

Sodium

Sodium is involved in the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in CAM and C4 plants. It can also substitute for potassium in some circumstances.

Zinc

Zinc is required in a large number of enzymes and plays an essential role in DNA transcription. A typical symptom of zinc deficiency is the stunted growth of leaves, commonly known as "little leaf" and is caused by the oxidative degradation of the growth hormone auxin.

Processes

Plants uptake essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (mainly consisting of nitrogen and oxygen) through their leaves. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis.Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air, while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. .Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.

Although nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, very few plants can use this directly. Most plants therefore require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow. This is made possible by largely inert atmospheric nitrogen being changed in a nitrogen fixation process to biologically usable forms in the soil by bacteria.[84]

Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation between different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. Elements present at low levels may cause deficiency symptoms, and toxicity is possible at levels that are too high. Furthermore, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of toxicity from another element, and vice-versa.

See also

Food portal

Main article: Outline of nutrition

Balanced Eating:

Food Balance Wheel

Biology:

Digestion Enzyme

Dangers of poor nutrition

Deficiency o Avitaminosis is a deficiency

of vitamins.o Boron deficiency (medicine)

o Chromium deficiency

o Iron deficiency (medicine)

o Iodine deficiency

o Magnesium deficiency (medicine)

Diabetes Eating disorders Illnesses related to poor nutrition Malnutrition Obesity

o Childhood obesity

Starvation

Food:

Food (portal)

5 A Day Canada's Food Guide Fast food Food group Food guide pyramid Food supplement Fruits Functional food Grains Junk food Meat Vegetables

Healthy diet:

Dieting Eating Healthy eating pyramid Nutritional rating systems Physicians Committee for Responsible

Medicine (PCRM) The China Study

Lists:

Diets (list) List of food additives List of illnesses related to poor nutrition List of life extension related topics List of publications in nutrition List of unrefined sweeteners List of antioxidants List of phytochemicals

Nutrients:

Carbohydrates Dietary minerals

o Essential minerals

Dietary supplements Evolution of dietary antioxidants Essential nutrients Fat

o Essential fatty acids

Macronutrients Micronutrients Nootropics Nutraceuticals Food fortification

Phytochemicals Protein

o Complete protein

o Essential amino acids

o Incomplete protein

o Protein combining

o Protein in nutrition

Vitamins o Megavitamin therapy

o Vitamin C megadosage

Profession:

Dietitian Nutritionist Food Studies

Tools:

Nutrition scale

Organizations:

American Dietetic Association American Society for Nutrition British Dietetic Association Society for Nutrition Education

Related topics

Main article: Health

Auxology Exercise General Fitness Training Health (portal) Life extension Orthomolecular medicine Palatability Physical fitness

References

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