QUEST, 1985, 37, 176-185

Values Development Through Physical Education and Athletics

Thomas Wandzilak

The development of values through physical activity has been a longstanding objec- tive of physical educators and coaches. Unfortunately, there is little evidence about values education through physical activity. This paper discusses the problems educators - .

have encountered in values development in a sports setting and presents a model through which a more productive approach to teaching can be taken. The model suggests that educators must make a stronger commitment to values education by being better role models and that they actually teach toward learning through the affective domain. It also utilizes a structural-developmental approach from Kohlberg's concept of moral reasoning as its base.

One of the major tasks confronting educators is to help the learner establish a values system which will serve as a guide in making morally sound decisions. Those who are committed to values education in physical education and athletics have attempted to use physical activity as the medium through which such learning can take place. Numerous coaches, physical educators, and athletes have expressed their belief that sportsmanship, fair play, honesty, and many other values are developed through movement. Unfortunate- ly, there is little conclusive evidence to demonstrate that values development can be at- tributed to physical education (Kenyon, 1964) or athletics (Loy, McPherson, & Kenyon, 1978). Literature reviews completed in athletics (Coakley, 1982; Kroll, 1975; Stevenson, 1975) concluded that a negative correlation exists between the length of one's playing career and values development. Investigators (Allison, 1981; Bovyer, 1968; Kistler, 1957; Lakie, 1964; Richardson, 1962) have also concluded that athletes were less sportsmanlike than their nonathlete counterparts.

These studies raise numerous questions as to what actually occurs on our playing fields and in our gymnasiums. This paper will analyze the difficulties that confront values education through physical activity and, based upon current research, a model for values development will be presented.

Identifying the Problem

There are many reasons why data are not available to support affective learning through sport participation. A general lack of understanding exists on the part of re- searchers and teachers as to what values are, and there is little agreement in defining specific values. Raths, Merrill, and Simons (1978) state, "the meaning of the term value is by

About the Author: Thomas Wandzilak is with the School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588.

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no means clear .... There is no consensus of definition. About the only agreement that emerges is that a value represents something important in human existence" (p. 8). Kroll (1975) and Siedentop (1976, pp. 43-44) recognize the difficulty encountered in trying to define a value in a universal sense. In regard to sportsmanship, Kroll points out, "we feel we have an understanding of sportsmanship but seem incapable of coming up with a clear and concise definition" (1975, p. 3).

Values are exceedingly complex in terms of their composition. Rokeach (1969) states,

Values. ..have to do with modes of conduct and end-states of existence. To say a per- son has a value is to say that he has an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or an end-state of existence is personally and socially preferable to alternative modes of conduct or end-states of existence. (pp. 159-160)

He believes there are two types of values: instrumental and terminal. The former consists of process values which relate to modes of conduct while the latter deals with product or end-states. Behavior problems are encountered because values, either terminal or in- strumental, may conflict with each other and force the individual to make a choice. For example, playing by the rules (instrumental value) often conflicts with winning (terminal value). This system suggests a rank ordering of values along a continuum of importance upon which decisions are made. The implication for education is that values are not necessarily changed but their relative importance to each other is modified.

Besides definitional problems, it is difficult to determine how effective physical activity has been as a learning vehicle in values development. Sheehan and Alsop (1972) suggest that sport has not been used as a medium for teaching and learning values but as a pathway,

to display previously developed personality characteristics. In other terms, the par- ticipant enters a sport activity with an expectancy to exhibit behavior and not to learn to modify his existent behavior. For this reason sport, as sport, does not contain struc- tured and pre-planned processes where by social norms be communicated, assimilated and internalized by consumers. (p. 42)

Difficulties in teaching in the affective domain are further compounded by limited time for structured physical activity during the school day, lack of understanding and support from the community at large concerning values development, and inefficient instruments for assessing values. The greatest problem confronting our classes is that there is no orga- nized process to effective values development. In order to become a more productive lear- ning tool for values, the ways in which physical activity is utilized must be modified on the basis of current knowledge and theory.

Theoretical Considerations for Values Development

Two theoretical processes have been incorporated most frequently for attaining values education through physical activity. Shields and Bredemeier (in press) believe that social learning theory has received the greatest attention in the past, but perhaps the structural-developmental theory offers the most hope for the future. Theorists who sup- port social learning believe that society has a great impact on how values are internalized. Norms are established through observing and imitating role models as well as from the

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guidance these people provide. Unfortunately, application of this theory to values develop- ment in sport raises many concerns. For example, sportsmanship can be considered a socially derived concept based upon what is learned from significant others and society. However, its failure to be a product of athletics and physical education can be attributed to the same difficulties encountered when values are examined in general.

Inadequate definition has complicated how fair play, strategy, and cheating are viewed. This has resulted in a great deal of variety in the normative, value related behavior of athletes (Allison, 1981). Support for a strong sportsmanship concept is lacking and role models have not emphasized its relevance to play. Little curricular work through social learning is available, indicating that we do not really teach from this perspective. Its true effectiveness is therefore unknown.

In response to the problems encountered in social learning theory, support has been generated for the structural development theory through the work of Piaget (1954, 1965), Kohlberg (1969, 1971), and Haan (1983) and has recently been applied to sport. Kohlberg's concept of moral reasoning states that an individual progresses through a series of six stages which affects how one views right and wrong. These include (a) following rules to avoid punishment, (b) following rules only when it is advantageous to do so, (c) conforming to receive support from significant others, (d) following laws because it is essential to the existence of society, (e) following laws because of a social obligation to do so but at the same time recognizing that there may be legal and moral conflicts which must be dealt with, (f) recognizing the existence of a universal set of moral principles which represent the highest form of law and must therefore be followed.

The rationale behind each decision is based upon the developmental level the learner has attained. Advancement to a higher level of reasoning is a slow process but the rate at which one develops can be modified through structured learning experiences. Kohlberg and Haan use different structural schemes to characterize each stage, but both emphasize guiding the learner to higher levels of development. The product is values deci- sions which are predicated on morals as opposed to social convention.

Data collected on the structural-developmental scheme in sport settings are limited, but there have been some interesting findings. Bredemeier and Shields (1983) and Hall (1981) note that athletes appear to use lower stage reasoning in sport situations when com- pared with real-life predicaments. The resulting implication is that sport involvement may have a negative effect on moral development (Bredemeier & Shields, 1983; Shields & Bredemeier, in press). It appears that athletes use two distinct systems or at least different rationales for sport-related and general life predicaments.

Work completed by Nucci (1982) is consistent with these findings. He believes a distinction exists between one's moral reasoning and one's concepts about social con- vention. Evidence has been collected supporting "the hypothesis that judgments about acts within the moral domain are based on their intrinsic features (justice, harm, etc.) while judgments about social conventional acts depend upon their status as regulations within a social context" (Nucci, 1982, p. 97). Values-related decisions and learning are based on two distinct developmental patterns, depending on whether the issue is one of main- taining social norms or is a matter of justice and morality.

Traditionally, values related to sport participation have been learned through social convention (i.e., in order for the game to exist, rules must be followed). Unfortunately, moral reasoning concepts have not been used to justify the need for values. Learners are therefore limited to applying social convention reasoning as the only explanation for why values are essential in physical activity, thus restricting higher stage development and ap-

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plication in Kohlbergian terms. For moral growth to occur in a sport context, moral reason- ing strategies that go beyond social convention must be implemented.

Work completed by Weiss, Bredemeier, Shields, and Shewchuk (1984) and Romance (1984) offer some hope for applying such a process. Their findings indicate that the cognitive-developmental levels of students are improved through the use of a structured intervention system utilizing either moral development or social learning strategies. These studies indicate that an organized program using either theoretical perspective has poten- tial in values education. In summary, the literature reveals that a variety of directions have been initiated in values development, but no organized pattern of continuity has evolved. Only recently has there been practical application of theoretical concepts to physical educationlsport.

The model suggested here (see Figure 1) expands upon these recent studies by integrating Kohlberg's moral development scheme with complimentary concepts ftom other theoretical constructs. It emphasizes the use of strategies promoting moral growth. At the same time it considers the potential of the teacherlcoach as a role model and the impor- tance of social support from significant others. The model offers an organized approach for teachers and coaches for values education through physical activity.

Prerequisites to Model Construction

In order for a values model to be successful, a number of prerequisites must be met. First and most important, the teacher must be committed to values development. This can be demonstrated by the use of a role model concept and by the effort expended in achieving goals related to the affective domain. Brown (1974) suggests that physical educators can be more effective leaders by concentrating on setting a proper example. The availability of role models is essential in social learning and may also contribute to effectiveness of other theoretical constructs. Teachers have followed this concept in a broad sense but have not been fully committed to its use. The willingness to become a role model when combined with a commitment to actually teach in this area are the essential ingre- dients to productive values education.

Construction of a Model

The model suggested here is based upon a number of sources which make physical activity a more effective medium for values growth. It consists of the following five steps:

1. Identify and define the values to be developed. Since values are so complex and diverse, it is essential that the teacherlcoach concentrate on one or two specific areas. Past efforts to work with a term such as sportsmanship have not been fruitful. Kroll sug- gests that sportsmanship "is a multivariate, and not a univariate entity" (1975, p. 9), in- dicating that it must be divided into smaller components that will facilitate curriculum design and assessment. For example, honesty, trust, decision-making, and fair play are all part of sportsmanship and each may be dealt with separately. Other values worth con- sidering are hard work (effort) and cooperation. Once variables are identified, they must be defined in behavioral terms. This allows for the use of more objective techniques in assessing student learning. The definition should be designed for the group to be taught (i.e., class, team) and should not be considered a universal interpretation. Work com- pleted by OrIick and Bolterill (1977) on cooperation, Austin and Brown (1978) on nine

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different components comprising sportsmanship, and Hellison (1982) on cooperation and social growth are examples that can be followed.

2. Establish a curriculum. In order to construct a plan for values development, the teacherlcoach must identify specific objectives to be attained (Marsh, 1984). Then the activity that can best serve as the medium through which to learn the identified values must be selected. For example, it can be hypothesized that different sports are more effec- tive tools in developing certain values. The martial arts appear to have great potential for learning self-discipline. Team sports and group activities such as initiatives (i.e., problem- solving activities that are physical in nature) have potential for developing trust, respon- sibility to others, and cooperation. All sports are capable of creating opportunities for decision-making .

At this stage, Kohlberg's concepts can be integrated with the activities selected. As a part of his moral development process, dilemmas are used to assess the individual's stage of development and provide a medium through which further moral reasoning can occur. Horrocks (1977, 1979, 1980) has applied this concept to physical education by designing sport dilemmas. Student responses to these situations "reflect a developmental sequence similar to the specific stages of moral reasoning" (1980, p. 209). However, the potential for using sport dilemmas should not be limited to discussion only. Physical education and athletic settings provide experiences in a controlled environment which can bring dilemmas to life. Examples of such experiences include the following:

A football participant is placed in a situation in which an opponent is intention- ally holding but the referee fails to see the infraction. An opponent keeps calling balls out that appear to be inbounds during a tennis match. A physical education class is divided into two unequal teams to play a game in which one team dominates.

When confronted with similar problem-solving predicaments under game conditions, par- ticipants have gone beyond moral judgment and have now entered the realm of moral ac- tion (Kohlberg & Candee, 1981). The action dilemma becomes a proactive learning ex- perience that is then integrated with a follow-up discussion among participants. How the predicament was managed (action), the implications of the act, and what alternatives exist in dealing with it (judgment) are discussed. The experience can provide important feed- back which may help the learner deal with future conflicts. Construction of action dilem- mas differs from the reactive response learning usually followed by the coach or teacher in which a situation occurs naturally and the educator responds to the resulting sequence of events. This procedure is haphazard, and for each predicament to which the teacher1 coach reacts, many others go unnoticed.

At this point, a series of progressions in values development should be constructed. Although progressions are used effectively in every aspect of education, they have all but been ignored in values development. By starting with simple tasks of short duration and building to more difficult problems of greater meaning and importance, the learner will encounter situations that call for greater responsibility and higher levels of reasoning. For example, if the value to be dealt with is decision-making, a list of tasks for players on a team might be (a) establish goals, (b) construct team rules, (c) establish a system to deal with rules violators, (d) select captains, (e) contribute to team problem-solving on performance, and (f) select the starting lineup for each game. This list is not all-inclusive

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and varies greatly in terms of difficulty in each item. The coach should exercise discretion in selecting the items and presenting them in a certain order. Davis (Amdur, 1972) found that most athletes do not like to select the starting lineup. If players are allowed to make easier decisions first, they will approach this task differently than if it were their first assignment.

3. Use superordinate goals. In order to further enhance the potential for values development, some reward system such as the use of superordinate goals can be used. In his somewhat restricted application, McIntosh (1974) believes these are goals that are established in competitive settings and which have greater importance than winning. In- creasing the scope of this concept leads to many other possibilities. For example, a number of youth sport studies (Potter & Wandzilak, 1981; Thomas, 1978; Wandzilak, Ansorge, & Potter, in press) indicate that participants see playing time as their most important con- cern. Assuming that athletes at other levels will have similar concerns, playing time or a starting position can be used as a reward.

The intent here is to add credibility to the importance of process values over the terminal value of winning. The superordinate goal of playing time is an effective means to reward those who play the hardest or put the greatest effort into practice. It can also be used to demonstrate support for those who are willing to use higher stages of moral reasoning in the many decisions confronting the participant. Support in this form adds credence to the importance placed on values development.

Superordinate goals can also be established in physical education. Brown (Austin &Brown, 1978) used a rotating sportsmanship trophy which was awarded to those students who best exemplified the school concept of sportsmanlike behavior. Horrocks (1977) re- quired students to attain a minimal score on a behaviorally based sportsmanship rating scale before their team could participate in interclass play and intramurals.

4. Evaluate the system. Defining values-related terms has been the major obstacle in measuring and evaluating the affective domain. Once definitions and behavioral objec- tives are established, then objective evaluation becomes possible. In certain instances, preestablished inventories for terms such as sportsmanship may be utilized, provided the objectives are consistent with the way the term has been interpreted in the validation of the instrument. Effective instruments must still be developed.

If the evaluator is interested in analyzing actions, it is possible to apply various observational techniques (Anderson, 1980; Siedentop, 1976, pp. 27-36) such as event recording as a means of assessment. Anderson (1980, pp. 102-103) demonstrates this pro- cess by using data collected to provide feedback on the effectiveness of developing self- responsibility in students. This procedure is feasible if the value to be dealt with is defined in behavioral terms as suggested earlier. It can also be hypothesized that this model can contribute to the more general concept of moral reasoning. Colby and Kohlberg (1983) have developed an interview scoring system which indicates alterations in one's level of moral development. Since the technique is complicated and time-consuming, a number of shorter instruments might be applied such as the Sociomoral Reflection Measure (Gibbs & Widaman, 1982), the Defining Issues Test (Rest, 1979), the Sociomoral Reflection Ob- jective Measure (Gibbs et al., 1984) or the Ethical Reasoning Inventory (Page & Bode, 1980). The plan for evaluation is an important part of the model and should be carefully designed, regardless of the method used.

5. Use the evaluation data. The data collection have a number of purposes. First, the results should be applied in the form of a feedback loop. Assessment should demonstrate the success of the model in developing a specific value in either a judgment or action sense.

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The ways it contributed to changing one's moral reasoning can also be considered. Data can indicate if there are sufficient experiences, whether additional or different dilemmas are called for, or whether some other variable such as age of the group, type of physical activity, or test period length needs to be modified. Since so little is known about values development in sport, data collected can contribute to the limited body of knowledge that exists in this area.

Conclusions

The need for curriculum building, theory development, and research to collect data on values development in physical education and athletics is longstanding. With accoun- tability and program cuts being major concerns for many educational programs, it is im- portant to establish what it is that physical education and athletics are capable of doing. Proper application of this model and some basic concepts presently used in education will provide for a more effective process in the use of physical activity as a medium for learning.

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