F 33

ATOMIC ENERGY AND SPACE RESEARCH

A PROFILE FOR THE DECADE 1970-80

ATOMIC ENERGY COMMiSSfONGOVERNMENT OF !NDIA

1970

F O R E W O R D

PART I. ATOMIC ENERGY

The Programme .. .. .. 3

Milestone Charts .. .. .. 16

Annexures .. .. .. .. 18

PART II. SPACE RESEARCH

The Programme .. .. .. 27

Milestone Charts .. .. .. .. 38

Annexures .. .. . . .. 40

F O R E W O R D

r "When nuclear energy has been successfully applied forpower production, in say, a couple of decades from now,India will not have to iook abroad for its experts, but will findthem ready at hand " H. J. Bhabha— March 1944.

J "India should be able to produce all the basic materialsrequired for the utilisation of atomic energy and build a series ofatomic power stations, which will contribute increasingly to theproduction of electric power in the country. These developmentscall for an organisation with full authority to plan and implementthe various measures on sound technical and economic principlesand free from al! non-essential restrictions or needlessly inelasticrules. The special requirements of atomic energy, the newnessof the field, the strategic nature of its activities and its internationaland political significance have to be borne in mind in devisingsuch an organisation".—From Preamble to Resolutionof the Government of India creating the Atomic EnergyCommission, 1958.

Q "If you have the picture of the future of India that you aretrying to build up, of the power that you require... you willcome to the conclusion of the inevitability of our building upatomic power for peaceful purposes from now onwards'...Jawaharial Nehru—January 1961.

• "This moment marks a new phase in our technical history.With the commissioning of the Tarapur Power Station, we jointhe select band of nations which use atomic power for theadvancement of human welfare....

"To thobe who made wry remarks about a cow-dungeconomy wishing to go in for nuclear energy, Dr. Bhabhaconvincingly explained the 'technological fall-out' which resultsfrom atomic energy, and the impact it has on other fields ofeconomic and scientific activity, in the last 20 years, we have beenengaged in building our infrastructure. The developing countriesare in the advantageous position of stepping over severalintermediate and not-so-essential stages. If the building of theinfrastructure itself incorporates higher technology, futureprogress will be further accelerated. It is this point of view whichgives significance to the work of the Atomic Energy Department"—Indira Gandhi—January 1970.

iii

• "The key to national prosperity, apart from the spirit ofthe people, lies in the modern age, in the effective combinationof three factors—technology, raw materials and capital—of whichthe first is perhaps the most important, since the creation andadoption of new scientific techniques, can, in fact, make up fora deficiency in natural resources, and reduce the demands oncapital. But technology can only grow out of the study of scienceand its applications—

" . . . It is an inherent obligation of a great country like India, withits traditions of scholarship and original thinking and its greatcultural heritage, to participate fully in the march of science,which is probably mankind's greatest enterprise today"—The Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958 of the Governmentof India.

The progress of science and technology is transforming society inpeace and in war. Tne release of the energy of the atom and the conquestof outer space are two most significant landmarks in this progress. Largelydue to the consistent national support which the programmes of theAtomic Energy Commission have received since Independence, India isamongst the nations of the world advanced in atomic energy, and isstriving for a similar position in space technology and research. There arethose who preach that developing nations must proceed step by stepfollowing the same process by which the advanced nations themselvesprogressed. One is often told that such and such a thing is too sophisticatedto be applied. This approach disregards what should perhaps be obvious,that when a problem is great, one requires the most effective meansavailable to deal with it.

The seeming disadvantage of a developing nation such as India,which has only a limited existing technological infrastructure no buiid on,can be an asset rather than a liability. 1 suggest that it is necessary for us todevelop competence in all advanced technologies useful for our develop-ment and for defence, and to deploy them for the solution of our ownparticular problems, not for prestige, but based on sound technical andeconomic ©valuation as well as political decision-making for a commitmentof real resources. The traditional approach of planning to provide thingslike electric power OF telecommunication services for a nationaS infrastructure,basad on projections of growth from past experience is inadequate. Analternative approach lies in creating consumption centres alongsidefacilities for supply, as for instance an agro-industrial complex served by alarge nuclsar power station or a programme for television to the entirecountryside using a direct broadcast synchronous communications satellite.

iv

Indeed there is a totality about the process of development which involvesnot only advanced technology and hardware but imaginative planning ofsupply and consumption centres, of social organisation and management,to leapfrog from a state of backwardness and poverty.

Nuclear power is today essential for economically supplying energyin large parts of the country, and is moreover the only major supply onwhich we will need to fall back in perhaps less than 59 years' time. Wetherefore need to commit ourselves to an appropriate programme of atomicpower stations. We cannot hope to gain all the great economic advantagesof nuclear power unless we develop a mix of thermal and advanced fastbreeder reactors. It is my firm belief that the problems of poverty andregional imbalances in our country cannot be effectively tackled without it.

Several uses of outer space can be of immense benefit to us asstrive to advance economically and socially. Indeed without them it isdifficult to see how we can hold our own in a shrinking world. The greatestcost/effectiveness of the uses of outer space occur through large scaleapplications rather than those of limited scope. A communication satellitecan most effectively serve communities dispersed over large areas. Meteoro-logical applications of satellites are likewise most relevant for a globalsystem like the World Weather Watch.

It is possible to develop atomic energy and space research throughbasic, applied and developmental research in islands largely isolated ftvmtha rest of the country, but large scale applications of either for the bene-fit of the nation cannot be undertaken in isolation. We cannot havs20th century atomic energy or space research with 19th century industryor antiquated systems of management and organisation. There is a totalityabout modernisation, and in order to gain confidence, we must experimentwith our resources even at the risk of failure. We have to rise from an in-builtculture within which a major departure from an existing well-provensystem and anything which is innovative in character is automaticallyregarded with suspicion.

There might be many opinions concerning what would be anadvantageous course to follow in the short run, but 10 or 20 years fromnow, when the population of India would be somewhere between 750and 1000 millions, it can hardiy be controversial that we would need avery strong base of sconce and technology, of industry and agriculture,not only for our economic well being but for our national integration andfor ensuring our security in the world. The profiSe of development, duFingthe present decade, of atomic energy1 and space research carrying with itadvances in fields ssich as metallurgy* electronics and instrumentation aswell as computer sci©ncss has been fashioned to provide a visb!© future.Advances in science and technology are accompanied by rapid obsolescence

v

of existing systems. Recognising that we do not wish to acquire bisckboxes from abroad but to grow a national capability, we shouid note thatour plans have to be continually updated and even the strategy altered aswe proceed, in many innovative tasks, forward planning and cost estimatescan only be ad hoc and this has inherent limitations. Even so, the presentdocument has been brought cut in conscious recognition of the need tohave national backing for the major objectives of our programme. Thereare many details, some technical in character, and others at a stagerequiring further definition, which have been largely excluded in order thatwe can convey the broad outlines in terms of commitment of economicand human resources.

It is hardly necessary to emphasise that for projects which take fiveto seven years to complete, we have to look at least ten years in advanceif our progress is not to be halting and results mediocre. The programmethat we envisage is ambitious, but achievable. Without a deep commitmentto it we shall certainly fritter away our resources.

Vikram A. Sarabhai

Bombay, Chairman

July 22, 1970. Atomic Energy Commission

VI

IT I

PART

f. The Programme

1.1 Atomic Power

1 -1 -1 From the early days of the Atomic Energy Commission, considerablethought has been given to the role that atomic energy has to play in the contextof power development in India having regard to the availability of various typesof energy resources and the capital as well as generating c'osts of nuclear poweras compared with power from other sources. Moreover, taking intj considerationthe abundance of thorium deposits as compared with uranium reserves inIndia, an integrated programme of nuclear power was also worked out.The targets contemplated in 1954 by the Atomic Energy Commission, theforecasts made in 1965 by the Energy Survey of India Committee and the revisedproposals made by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1968 are as under:

Installed Power in fVlegawatts—Electrical

Year

1970-71

1975-76

1980-81

As suggestedby AEC in

1954

600

3000

8000

As forecastby Energy Survey

Committee in1965

600

2000

5000

As proposedby AEC in

1968

400

1000

2700(by 1978-79)

The programme has slipped badly in relation to targets that were contemplatedin the early 1980s. Many factors have contributed to this. The time frame ofonly five years within which development has so far been planned in the countrysince Independence coupled with the absence of adequate national commitmentto a long range programme; and difficulties in achieving effective coordinationof training and personnel needs, R & D facilities and projects, and the complexindustrial infrastructure to back up the programme, are clearly the most important.The early projects at Tarapur and Rana Pratap Sagar have all been with foreigncollaboration and the inherent need for external financing and agreement on

international safeguards have involved protracted negotiations leading to majortime delays in the past. A revised time table for achieving the target of 2,700 MWeby the end of the decade is indicated in the milestone chart included in thisdocument. Realisation of this is, of course, dependent on a national commitmentwhich extends not only till the end of the Fourth Plan, but at least till the endof the decade as we begin the Seventies.

1 -1 -2 There is h remarkable correlation between the per capita gross nationalproduct and the per capita energy consumption for the nations of the world.Developing nations and particularly India are at the bottom of the ladder and theindustrially advanced countries at the top. A correlation does not necessarilysignify a direct cause and effect relationship but in this case it is an expressionof the fundamental necessity of energy to Increase human productivity inagriculture, as in industry.

The Planning Commission's estimate of the growth of power by the endof the Fourth Five Year Plan, i.e. 1974, leads to a total of 23,000 MWe. Thegrowth rate of consumption of electricity in India during the first three Planperiods has been 12-6%. It is well-known that the economic penalty involvedin pessimistic planning of electrical capacity is many times greater than thepenalty arising from optimistic planning. Even assuming for the future a conser-vative growth rate of 12%, the country will need by 1980 about 45,000 MWe ofinstalled capacity.

In the year 1968-89, 42 per cent of commercial energy consumed inIndia was based on coal and lignite, 49 per cent on oil and 9 per cent onelectricity. By 1973-74, the proportion of these three forms is anticipated to be35 per cent, 55 per cent and 10 per cent respectively*. If this trend is accepted,the consumption of oil wili go up from 84 million tonnes of coal replacementto 152 million tonnes of coal replacement, in the context of our dependence onforeign imports of crude, inspite of development on a high priority of domesticsources which are as yet limited, this will result in major import of petroleum feedstock Involving a substantial drain of foreign exchange. The only way of avoidingthis situation is to increase the dependence on electricity as a source of energy.While in areas close to coal mines the generation of energy can and shouldfor the time being be based on coal, large regions of the country are removedfrom deposits of coal by more than 800 km. These regions constitute 35% of thscountry by area and 30% by population. With the exception of the eastern zone,they Include the principal communities engaged in activities needing energyin rapidly increasing quantities for industry as well as for agriculture. The transportof coal to these areas involves major investments on the transport system, forwhich the requirements of capital ars large and ths recurring economic penalty

• From the Banning Commission's Paper entitled "A Plan fer Energy Development in India"—February 1070.

4

is substantial. Atomic power clearly provides the most advantageous solutioneven with single units of 230 MWe, a size small compared with units of 600 to1000 MWe currently being installed in major atomic power producing countries.

There are several advantages in going in for nuclear power reactorsto optimise a grid with hydro and thermal generating units. This arises from thespecial characteristics of hydel power which is best for peak loads and nuclearpower which is best for base loads. Nuclear energy is practically independent ofgeographical factors, the only requirement being that there should be a reasonablygood water supply. No combustion products are created by nuclear plantsand consequently it is a clean source of power which does not contributeto air pollution. Fuel transportation networks and large storage facilities are notneeded for a nuclear project. And finally, if low cost power units are imaginativelyplanned, a power consuming complex built round them couid provide muchneeded inputs to the country. Annex. 1 (P. 18) gives the major implications ofone such complex which has been considered for Western Uttar Pradesh.

It is worthwhile comparing the role of nuclear power in India accordingto the revised proposals of the Atomic Energy Commission with the positionanticipated in some of the developed countries.

AlucSear Powar as Percentage of TotaS Installed Capacity

Country

United Kingdom

United States of America ..

West Germany

Japan

India

1975

15

21

15

5

1980

27

29

25

22

6

Even if the revised Indian target is implemented by 1980, we shall bs truly behindother countries advanced in atomic energy.

1 '2 The three stages of the Indian Atomic Power Programme

1 -2-1 8n 1S60, the Atomic Energy Commission submitted its first concreteproposals to the Planning Commission for setting yp atomic power stations inIndia. The Atomic Energy Commission made the modest claim that it was"fairly soundly established that the cost of electricity from nuclear power stations"even at tfiat time was "roughly equal to the cost of slssteicity from conventionalthermal stations reoiota from the coalfields". The Energy Survey Cooimitts©appointed by the Government in 1965 clearly expressed the view that nuciearpower was already competitive with conventional thermal stations situatedmore than 600 mites from a coaffield.

1-2-2 In 1960, the Planning Commission endorsed the proposal of theAtomic Energy Commission to launch an atomic power programme and itsrecommendation was accepted by Government. Amongst the factors thatencouraged Government to launch the programme were: firstly, the availabilityof a group of talented, trained and devoted scientists and engineers at Trombay,who had acquired familiarity with the new technology through the constructionon their own unaided effort of two research reactors, APSARA and ZERLINA,and in collaboration with Canada, the Canada-India Reactor (CIRUS);secondly,the location of resources of uranium in Bihar and thorium in the monazite sandsof Kerala; thirdly, the success of Indian scientists in establishing the technologyof fabrication of uranium fuel elements required for CIRUS; fourthly, theinadequacy of hydel resources and coal and oil resources in the context of India'slong term requirements; fifthly, the limited geographical distribution of coalresources in India; sixthly, the significantly lower fuelling cost of nuclear powerstations, particularly if the total cost of fuel including the effect of investmenton rail transportation were taken into account; seventhly, the possibility of nuclearpower stations operating at high load factor in certain grid systems in India,which would contribute significantly to the economics of nuclear power; andfast, but not the least, the importance of avoiding obsolescence involved indeveloping the technology too tardily. In his note to the Planning Commission,Dr. Bhabha, the then Chairman of the Atomic Enerpy Commission, emphasisedthe rationale of the Indian programme in ths following words:

"Although the initial capital investment needed for nuclear powerstations is higher today than that for thermal power stations of the same size,this additional capital investment must be considered necessary for largerpurposes than power production. The major fraction of the nuclear powercapacity will be installed in natural uranium power stations which are dualpurpose stations producing power on the one hand, and piutonium on the other.This piutonium is a concentrated fuel, which is not available from outside asa commercial commodity, and its production is essential in order to enable thecountry to set up breeder power stations using thorium or depleted uraniumfor the second stage of its nuciear power programme, which will have to betaken up about five years from now. Such power stations will also be muchcheaper in capital cost than the present one, and the indications are that powerfrom these may even be competitive with power from conventional thermalpower stations near the coal-fields. It will not be possible for India to takeadvantage of these new developments five years hence, unless steps are takennow to set up dual purpose power stations for producing piutonium".

1 *2 -3 The significance of the production of piutonium for the ultimate powerprogramme of India was thus one of the major considerations for launchinga power programme based on the use of natural uranium. This was explainedin the following terms by the late Dr. Bhabha in his lecture "On the Economicsof Atomic Power Development inIndia and the Indian Atomic Energy Programme",delivered on September 6, 1957, in Dublin:

• ;

' , - - . • 6 - • - • • : • • • • • . ' " • - . - " • • • • • - ' • • ' • / / • > ; . . V - • • ; : •

"It has been mentioned that the total reserves of thorium in India amountto over 500,000 tons in a readiiy extractable form, while the total known reservesof uranium are less than a tenth of this. The aim of a long range atomic powerprogramme in India, must, therefore, be to base the nuclear power generationas soon as possible on thorium rather than uranium. Once concentrated fuel inthe form of uranium-235, or uranium-233, or plutonium, is available, it shouldbe pGssibie to generate power in breeder reactors which b*eed more fissionablematerial, uranium-233 or plutonium, in the source materials thorium and naturaluranium than they burn. Since ail power reactors intended for breeding appearto require the use of enriched or pure fissionable material, a self-sufficientprogramme must provide for the production of such material. As far as India isconcerned, we consider isotope separation plants for the production of uranium-235 by the presently known methods out of the question, due to their high costand even more because of their enormous consumption of electric power. Thebest way of obtaining fissionable material appears to be to produce plutoniumas a by-product in atomic powe~ stations working on natural uranium".

It is necessary to have roughly 2700 megawatts installed capacityof CANDU type reactors working at 75% load factor to produce S00 kilo-grams of plutonium per year. This would be sufficient to support a programmeof one new 40G-500WSWe fast breeder reactor every other year during ths 1980's.

1 -2 -4 In selecting in 1963 a natural uranium fuelled thermal resctor, the choicefell on the CANDU type, then under development in Canada, which uses heavywater as moderator and as coolant. This reactor provides maximum economyin the utilisation of neutrons produced through fission. Sn consequence, froma given supply of uranium, maximum amount of useful energy as weli aspiutonium can be obtained. The CAMDU type reactor with its inventory of heavywater now costing about Rs. 500/- per kg., has a higher initial capital cost ofconstruction, as compared with other types of reactors. The cost of constructionof CANDU reactors (of 200 MWe size) under conditions obtaining in Westerncountries has been approximately US $ 3"*5 per KWe installed, while that ofenriched uranium fuelled light water reactors has been about US § 250 per KWeInstalled. However, In view of its substantially Sower fuelling costs, ths cost ofpower generated in CANDU type reactors is more or less the same as powerproduced in light water reactors using costlier enriched uranium ruef.

The Tarapur Atomic Power Station which was tfie first to be taken upfor the Indian atomic power programme was an exception to the norma! patterndecided upon In the early 1950's. There was then in the country, as thsr© Is ©vennow In some quarters, considerable argument about the relevance of nuclearpower fn India on tconomic considerations. Global tenders were Invited for theconstruction of the Tarap«r reactor to demonstrate the point that was-held by theAtomic Energy Commissiion that ort cost considerations atone, nuclear powercould-be fully eampetitiva with pomst from fossil fuel stations in Western India,

Tarapur was approved with the full knowledge that being based on enricheduranium for fuel and with a domestic programme which at that time did notcontemplate the establishment of enrichment facilities, fuel would have to beimported from abroad throughout the life of the station, unless, of course,Plutonium from subsequent natural uranium fuelled CANDU reactors wasdiverted to fuel Tarapur. Operations since the commissioning of Tarapur inOctober 1969 hove fully borne out the economic viability of atomic powerin Western India.

1 -2 -5 The diagram in Annexure 2 (P. 19) explains a strategy which could leadus to sustained growth of power based on nuclear energy on a self-reliant basis.The three stages are:

Stage 1 involves the establishment during the present decade of naturaluranium fuelled and heavy water moderated thermal reactors which could provideadequate annual production of plutonium to fuel commercial fast breeder reactorscontemplated in the next decade. Simultaneously, prototype advanced thermalreactors as weil as fast breeder test and prototype reactors would be constructedto gain practical experience of a new technology.

Stage 2 from 1930 to 19S5 would involve the breeding of U-233 fromthorium in thermal and fast breeder reactors so as to have an inventory of U-233to go over to a thorium breeder cycle in the third stage. Simultaneously, thermaland fast breeder concepts based exclusively on the thorium cycle would haveto be developed to a prototype stage.

In the third stage beyond 1985, there coyid be four types of reactorssimultaneously in operation, namely, natural uranium fuelled thermal reactors,advanced thermal reactors, plutonium fuelled fast breeders and breeders usingthe thorium cycle.

1 -2 -6 The comparative costs (under Western conditions) of different types ofnuclear power reactors are as follows:

CostNature and size of reactor per kw Remarks(size in SVIWe) installed

(in US I)

CANDU 200 (Douglas Point) .. 375 Equivalent toRs. 28Q0/kw(RAPP-1 costRs. 3150/kw)

CANDU §00 .. 250

Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactor(SGHWR) 450 .. 225

Advanced Thermal Reactor (ATR) 500 .. 210—230Ught Water Reactor (LWR) 500 200

In contrast, the cost per installed kw of new thermal piants based on coal underIndian conditions hss now been assessed by the Ministry of irrigation and Poweras Rs. 1900. While CANDU reactors of the 200 (viWe size are expected to becompetitive with fossil stations at places removed from coal fields by more than800 km., it should be possible to effect economies in nuclear power generationby the following means:

(a)

(/>)

{c)

1 -3

A substantial reduction of about 33% in capital cost can be achievedby increasing unit sizes from 200 to 500 MWe.

The switch over to a reactor concept involving the use of boiling tightwater in the coolant circuit while still using heavy water as moderatorcan also result in substantial economy in the capital cost as well as inregard to heavy water inventory. Plutonium recycling or low enrichmenturanium is likely to be used in the fuel.

The fuel economy in CANDU reactors can be improved by usingPlutonium in booster rods as against the use of cobalt in absorber rods.

gpeeiaS technology for the atemiematerials andp@w@r programme

1 -3 -1 The programme for building atomic power stations outlined inSection 1 -2 can only be executed if it is supported by other industrialestablishments which would need to be set up during the present decade. Withinthe direct responsibility of the Atomic Energy Commission are establishmentsfor uranium mining, milling and extraction of yellow cake; preparation of fuelelements; production of heavy water; fuel reprocessing for extracting plutoniumout of spent f'*el; manufacture of zircaloy components starting from mineralsands; electronic and nuclear instrumentation, and control elements.

1 -3-2 MaturaS Uranium Fuel Fabrication.

The manufacture of fuel elements requires a chain of operations asindicated diagrarnatically below:

MINIMS ©P

OF

UBASBUM

PRODUCTION OF U0£

FROM UBABiUM

CONCENTRATES

PRQDUCTKHJ OF

NUCLEAR CRASS

mammmmz

t—t- Z^OtXH FUSU

CCS«»CKS8TS

3 E C?

V&ffiBt 9KS0E

FUEt. WUSt&iftS

WITH ZlftU&O?

SKEATK1HG

We would need to open a new uranium mine at Marvvapahar to augment thesupply from the Jaciuguds Mine close to it. Moreover, additional capacity formilling the ore and for preparation of uranium concentrates would be required.A combined operation of this kind typically takes from five to seven years tobring to full production, and work would therefore have to start fairly soon.Simultaneously, the capacity at the Nuclear Fuel Complex at Hyderabad wouldhave to be augmented to prepare more zircaloy components and fuel elements.

1 -3 -3 Haavy Water

Heavy water moderated /cooled reactors to be set up by 1980 wouldrequire a capacity for the production of about 400 tonnes of heavy water per year.The average lead time in setting up a heavy water plant is 4 to 5 years. It istherefore necessary to start construction of two additional heavy water plantssimultaneously with the commencement of work on new power plants asindicated in the milestone chart (p. 16).

1 -3 -4 Fuel Reprocessing

Fuel reprocessing plants and waste treatment plants to deal withirradiated material from the nuclear power stations and to recover from themby-products essential for the next stage of the programme are required. It isestimated that two fuel reprocessing plants would have to be built during thedecade, in addition to t i n one under construction at Tarapur.

1 -3 -5 Enrichment of Uranium

The use of slightly enriched uranium in thermal reactor wiSI result insavings both in capital and fuelling costs. The capital costs per insti led kw of theSteam Generating Heavy Water Reactor would be about Rs. 2000/- as againstRs. 2500/- for the 500 MW size CANDU reactor.

!n 1960 plants for the enrichment of U-235 were considered out of thequestion for India due to their high costs as well as their enormous consumptionof eleGtric power. This analysis was based on the use of the gaseous diffusionprocesSc Since then, there has been marked progress of the gas centrifuge processwhich is less expensive to establish and in consequence plants based on thenew technology are to ha set up in a number of countries.

India 5s late in interesting itself with serious developmental work forenrichment of uranium-235. This lacuna must be made good in view of thepresent evaluation of gas centrifuge technology which appears to bs of economicsignificance and within national resources. Substantial Research and Developmenteffort must therefore be devoted to master the sophisticated chemistry andmachine technology as welf as production of materials which are strong andcorrosion resistant, such as carbon filaments, which would be needed forthis programme.

1 -4

A broad asses^r.ent of the manpower needs of the Ten Year programmehas been attempted (Annex. 3, p. 20). One factor has been clearly establishedfrom past experience, namely, that from the stage at which a trained gradU3tsengineer or postgraduate scientist 5s available from the uni 'ersities to the stageat which he can be an active contributor in a Research and Development projector construction effort involved in the atomic energy programme, he requires on4he-job training for a period of three to five years. For the creation of an adequatelytrained manpower resource, it is imperative to plan, at least ten years in advancethe national programme in atomic energy. The requirement of an additionalthree thousand trained engineers and scientists, about twice that number oftechnicians and about an equal number of other supporting staff can only be metthrough utilising fully the available resources of universities, institutes oftechnology and polytechnics supplemented by specialists programmes providedby the Atomic Energy Commission's establishments, particularly the BhabhaAtomic Research Centre, which conducts the Training School.

1 -5 industr ial and other infrastructure

1 -5 -1 The atomic energy programme is dependent on several factors externalto the Atomic Energy Commission's establishments. Repeatedly, Atomic EnergyCommission projects have been faced with a situation where the absence ofa long term estimate of the demands likely to be made by the atomic powerprogramme has made it impossible for major public sector undertakings or privateunits to plan their own production and create fresh facilities. For example.Hindustan Steel Limited is being increasingly called upon to supply various typesof special steels and alloys for our programme. To the extent that we are unableto commit the requirement for a sufficiently long period, it becomes neitherfeasible nor economical for Hindustan Steel to plan for our needs. Similarly,Heavy Electricals, Bhopai, will not be in a position to make a long termcommitment for the production of large sized turbo generators or to effecteconomies involved in their manufacture unless it is possible for the Companyto know in advance the demand that is likely to arise for equipping such largepower stations. It §s pertinent to note in this connection that some of the designsand knowhow being acquired by Bhopai for a 235 SviWe turbine for ivlAPP canalso be used with suitable modifications for a 500 MWe nuclear or fossil fuelstation. A number of other similar examples can be quoted in respect of supplyof complicated and costiy raw materials and fabricated parts by public andprivate sector units.

1 -5 -2 Unless the industrial establishments which would bs called upon tosupply annually aboyt Rs. 800 crores of equipment for ail typss of power stationsduring the decade commencing 1S75, prepare titems©lves dyring the next threeor four years with design capability and trained personnel on the shop floor wewould either have no development or go out for external assistance ©f a magnitude

which is in any case unlikely to be forthcoming. Moreover, the types of equipmentrequired in the late 70's in terms of technology and size should be chosen fordevelopment now if we are not to fail. What applies to power in general appliesequally to nuclear power which should expand at the rale of three times everyfive years if, by 1985 it is to reach a figure of about 8500 MW, constituting about12 to 13 per cent of the total generating capacity in the country. Business insupplying components for nuclear power plants alone should be about Rs. 100crores annually during the latter half of the present decade.

The completion of the Madras Atomic Power Station has been delayedby two to three years on account of the failure to mobilise in time al! the nationalresources required to undertake the project with a maximum o* indigenous content.A consortium of undertakings fully committed to the task of backing up thePower Projects Engineering Division of the Department of Atomic Energy for thecompletion of future atomic power stations in a period no longer than five years,wouid significantly reduce the heavy incidence of interest during constructionand the consequent increase of capital cost of the projects. Economic productionof atomic power is crucially dependent on this factor. In our country with scarceresources, it is understandable if every investment is examined in terms of thereturns it can bring. It is moreover a good discipline for all of us to have an eyeon the capital costs of our first nuclear power stations and the price at whichelectricity can be sold. But in examining the direct financial aspects, particularlyfor a project such as the Madras Atomic Power Station which we are for the firsttime undertaking entirely on our own, Set us note that we are not merely buildingpower stations but also creating new national capability of great economicsignificance in the long run.

1 -5 '3 A major difficulty that has been experienced in the establishment ofnuclear power stations relates to the inadequacy of the existing road and railsystem to handle over-dimensioned equipment. A 200 MWe station involvesthe transport of single pieces of nuclear components having maximum dimensionsupto 27'x 24'x 20' and other equipment weighing upto 170 tonnes, Theseinclude shield tanks, calandria, end shields, boilers, transformers and turbo-generator components. Over-dimensioned components and parts have to betransported from source locations like Shahabad, Powai, Walchandnagar,Bhopal, etc. The end shields for a 500 MWe CANDU type reactor will weighabout 220 tonnes. Experience so far has shown that unless steps are taken inadvance for the creation of the infrastructure of road and rail transpo^, it willnot bs possible to handle such large sized equipment. The widening of roadsand culverts, strengthening of bridges, etc., involve a considerable amountof work.

1-6 Economic implications

1 -6 «1 Nuclear power has been established in Western countries based entirelyon economic considerations. A 200 MWe unit would be considered a prototype

reactor for gaining experience for the construction of larger reactors, but underIndian conditions it has now been proved at Tarapur that power from two unitsof 200 MWe each is fully competitive with that from existing fossil fuel stationsin the western region. The Energy Survey Committee recognised this positionand has identified regions in the north, west and south of the country as areaswhere nuclear power is more economic than power from coal fired stations.!n al! considerations relating to the optimum rrethod of satisfying the country'spower needs, the integrated use of coal and nuclear stations providing the base-load and hydel stations providing peaking power must be recognised. Such anintegrated study of the optimum mix for serving the power needs of the NorthernElectricity Region has been carried out as a sample study and has confirmed thatthe least cost solution for this region would include nuclear generating capacity.A broad summary of the conclusions reached is found in Annexure 4 (p. 21).

1 -6 -2 The projected cost estimates for the ten year period for implsmentingthe programme for atomic energy are given in Annex. 5 (p. 23). In the case ofseveral items which involve research and development in new fields, +he estimatesare ad hoc. It is however important to recognise that out of the Rs. 1250 crores thatare visualised for the ten year period, fully 915 crores are for projects of directeconomic significance contributing to national development. The net value of theproducts from investments on these projects would annually bs approximatelyRs. 170 crores. The net additional investment initially in nuclear rather than Goalfired stations approximately averages to Rs. 10 crores per year through the decade.But the discounted casn flow analysis over the life time of a nuclear powerstation in many parts of India shows that the costs compare favourably with coalfired stations, even though the latter require less initial capital per kilowattinstalled. The additional initial investment may be regarded as the price we payat the present time to reach the second and third stages of our atomic powerdevelopment, when atomic power stations are expected to be competitive bothin regard to capital as well as operating costs.

The Research and Development expenditure over the ten year periodis likely to be about Rs. 335 crores.

The funds required during the first half and the second half of thepresent decade are separately indicated in Annexure 5. Note that as againsta total of Rs. 365 crores envisaged upto March 1975, th© Fourth Five Year Planwhich has been recently approved provides for an expenditure of Rs. 254 croresup to the end of March 1974. The provisions in the present Fourth Five Year Flanare indicated in Annexur© 6 (p. 24).

Application of radio isotopes can be of very great practical benefitin medicine, in agriculture, in industry. In food, preservation and .in research. Cmatomic power p"ogranune-.would mak© available a.plentiful supply:of the basicradioisotopes needed -for these 'diverse applications. However, much effort will hQ

..required-during;the;ctecadeto jeallss-tiiss® .benefits-.The -expenditure.Is relatively

modest compared to that required for the rest of the programme of atomic energy.However, the operations are complex and involve sophisticated technologiesand industrial establishments. A profile of developments in this field is currentlyunder preparation and should be separately available shortly.

1 -7 Summary Conclusions

The starting point has to be a commitment to a firm programme toinclude:

(a) 2700 MW of nuclear power to be commissioned before 1980. This meansapproval for four new power stations of 1700 W1W for which constructionshould start during the Fourth Plan.

(b) Design and construction of advanced thermal reactors of about 500 MWunit size which would lower the capital cost of power stations while stillproducing plutonium for our future needs in fast breeder reactors.

(c) Completion of fast breeder test reactor and experience with technologyof plutonium enriched fuel, its fabrication and reprocessing, sodiumcoolant technology and experience with thorium bred U-233 fuel.

(</) Augmentation of heavy water production to about 400 tons per year toback up the programme for the use of natural uranium in our powerreactors.

(e) Design and construction of a large 500 MW prototype fast breedertest reactor.

(/) Development of gas centrifuge technology for U-235 isotope enrichment.Development of special materials including carbon filament structures.

(g) Development of the Narwapahar Uranium Mines and facilities forextraction from low grade ore.

(/?) Early completion of the Nuclear Fuel Complex to manufacture specialmaterials and fue! elements for our programme.

(/) Creation of adequate facilities for the reprocessing of irradiated fuel andrecovery of essential by-products.

(/) Widespread application of isotopes in industrial processing, foodpreservation, sterilisation of medical products, medicine and research.

All these wiii not only require creation, during the Fourth Plan, of onemajor new atomic energy research establishment namely the Reactor ResearchCentre at Kalpakkam, which should have a complement of about 3000 to 4000by the end of ths decade; bat also personnel for manning tft© new projects ofindustrial Importance. On© of the most importsrsi aspects for the success of the

atomic energy projects would be the development of a new integrated organisationinvolving the Interests of public and private sector organisations in industrywhich would be involved in fully backing up the programme in ail its phasesfrom the production of raw materials to the fabrication of specialised equipmentand the erection and commissioning of major plants within a stipulatedtime frame.

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ANNEXURE 1

AGRO-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX

A good example of the role that nuclear power can play can be seenfrom our most recent study on the feasibility of an agro-industrial complex inthree divisions of western Uttar Pradesh, having collectively a population ofabout 24 million. We can derive a return of 54 per cent on the incrementalinvestment of approximately Rs. 1100 crores with 1200 MWe nuclear powerenergising 25,800 additional tubewelis, producing phosphatic fertiliser usingan electro-thermic process (206,000 Te of P205/annum), nitrogenous fertilizersusing an electrolytic process 370,000 Te/annum of N and 50,000 Te/annum offabricated aluminium. Almost half the investment is on what might be termedthe infrastructure, involving capital expenditure on augmenting roads and railwaytransportation, new warehouses, agricultural implements and for providingcredit to farmers. The programme would generate all the year round directemploymant on farms for 1 -4 million persons, resulting in additional agriculturalproduction of 9 -4 million tonnes of foodgrains, 1 -8 million tonnes of potatoesand 11-2 million tonnes of sugarcane. The increase in gross national productamounts to about Rs. 1000 crores annually. Ths profit to the agriculturist is likelyto be about Rs. 3300 per hectare after paying full wages for all labour employed.These figures, dramatic and almost incredible can be understood if we recognisethat what we have in fact done here is to use nuclear power as a catalyst, throughthe water that it pumps up, and the fertilizer that it produces, for harnessingthrough photo synthesis the vast solar energy falling on the plains of India.The example provides a striking demonstration of the impact that the supply ofenergy can produce in our countryside where the largest number of under-privileged persons of India reside. To realise the potentialities for the accelerateddevelopment of our country we need to clearly understand the role of energyand of water and adopt appropriate policies with determination and commitment.

18

ANNEXTURE 2

UP TO 1980

MATURAl

mmiuuHEAVY WATER

REACTORS

NUCLEAR POWER STRATEGY 8N JND5A

1980-85

DEVELOP FAST BREEDER

DEVELOP ADVANCED THERMAL REACTORS

HEAVY WATER

REACTORS

ADVANCED

THERMAL

CJEACTORS

(•'AST BREEDER

REACTORS

THORIUM

DEVELOP THORIUM BREEDER REACTORS

BEYOND 1985

ADDITIONAL

ADVANCED

THERMAL

REACTORS

PLUTONIUM

ADDITIONAL

FAST BREEDER

REACTORS

i tU-233 TH

THORIUM

BREEDERS

ANNEXURE 3

REQUIREMENTS OF GRADUATE SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERSFOR THE ATOMIC ENERGY PROGRAMME (1970 S

Year

1S71 . .

1972 ..

1973 ..

1974 ..

1975 ..

1976 ..

1977 . .

1978 . .

1979 . .

1980 ..

Total ..

PowerStations

170

220

120

40

50

—

—

—

—

—

60Q

ReactorResearch

Centre

B0

80

80

100

120

120

100

60

—

—

710

FuelManu-facture

20

20

50

40

—

—

—

—

—

—

130

OtherProjects

—

—

25

105

—

—

35

—

—

40

205

Replenish-ments

fo? loss

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

1000

Total

340

420

375

385

270

220

235

160

100

140

2645

20

AMNEXURE 4

@F THE CONCLUSIONS ©F T&fE STUDY @F THE©FfifVlUIVI Mm ©F NEW TOWER PLANTS T@ SiRVE THE KEEPS

©F THE ^ORTHEESN ELECTftiCITY

The study was made for the year 1978-79 for the Northern Region,assuming a system peak demand of 7700 MWe. In order to determine the optimummix of generation of the various types, thermal, nuclear and hydel, the followingalternative schemes of generation with regard to proposed plants were studied:—

Station

Tharma!

Satpura ExtensionPalana 8- Sawaimadhopur

Obra Extension I! ..

Western U.PBhatinda!Bhatinda SIJagadhri

Rajpura ..

Delhi (new)

Western U.PPunjab/Haryana . .

I8yd©§

Maneri Bhali 1!Yamuna IVDehar l i . .

TheinLakhwar ..

BiyasiKhareMahi

I

—

260

550700200

—

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400400

10527

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250—

550

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—

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400400

105

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——

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5501100

200200400200

——

—

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242——

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—

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600600

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242

350150

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—

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—

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400400

10527

242350

—

—m m

System Costs 147.9 149.2 152.3 152.2 146.3 143.4(Rs. Crores per year)Investment 8S8 891.2 771 7/2 888.8 863.4(Rs. Crores)

St can be seen from the above table that Alternative VI, which includestwo nuclear stations of 400 MWe each in Western U, P. and Punjab/Haryana andthe somewhat uncertain Thein project in addition to other thermal and hydelstations, is the most economical. If, however, Thein does not materialise by1978-79, Alternative I is the most economical. This also has 2 nuclear stationsof 400 MWe in Western U.P. and Punjab/Haryana, buttheThein project has beenreplaced by additional thermal generation in Western U.P. ( + 75 MWe) andJagadhri ( + 200 MWs).

DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW ANALYSES OF ALTERNATIVESCONSIDERED FOR NORTHER®) GRID

(NUCLEAR REACTORS—CABS DU)

Alternative invest- Annual Present value (for Present valiss ofmerit System 25 veers) ©f annual total ©spessditssra

Costs system costs a t ( for 25 years)(1) + (3)

8% 10% 12% 3% 10% 12%

1 2 3 4

(Rupee in crores)

1579 1342 1160 2447 2210 2028

1530 1352 1168 2481 2243 2059

1622 1379 1192 2393 2150 1963

1622 1379 1192 2394 2151 1964

1558 1324 1145 2447 2213 2034

1526 1297 1121 2389 2160 1984

Not*: Each of the six alternatives meets the peak damand as well as supplies tha total require-ments of energy. However, the capital costs and tha annual operating costs are differentfor each of the alternatives. In comparing the economics of these alternatives, one oughtto select that alternative which is the least expensive one. Yet since different amountsnave to be spent at different times, for a proper comparison one should calculate presentdiscounted values of the costs of these alternatives. In this procedure we assume that itis possible to put away money in a bank and earn a fixed interest at say 10%. Thus Rs. 110spent next year is equivalent to putting Rs. 100 this year in the bank, earning an intetest ofR*. 10 for a year, and then spending Rs. 110 next year. Similarly, Rs. 121 spent two yaarsfrom now is equivalent to having spant Rs. 100 thfe year. Thus expenditure incurred indifferent years can be reduced to equivalent expenditures incurred this year. W© canreduco the different streams of expenditures of the different alternates to comparableequivalent expenditures to be incurred now. Obviously, the alternative which involvesthe least amount of expenditure today is the most economical cSismative available.

22

I

II

Ml

IV

V

VI

868

891

771

772

889

863

148

149

152

152

146

143

AMNEXURE S

COST EST8WIAYES @§= THE ATOMIC ENERGY PROGR.

FundsS. No. Item

'-76 1075-2

1. 2700 MWs

a) 1000 MWe constructed or under constructionb) 1700 MWe new

3 x 235 MWe2 x 500 MWe

2. Design of 500 MWe advanced thermal reactors ..

3. Fast Breeder Test Reactor & Reactor ResearchCentre

a) Fast Breeder Test Reactorb) Sodium Coolant Technologyc) Thorium Bred U233 fueld) Reprocessing

4. Heavy Water 400 T/year including 167 underconstruction and 233 additional

5. S00 MWe Fast Breeder Reactor

6. Development of gas centrifuge technology andspecial materials (carbon filament)

7. Development of Narwapahar Uranium Mines

8. Nuclear Fuel Complex

9. Fuel Reprocessing Plants for Plutonium

10. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ..

11. Isotope Applications

Total

(Figures in Rs. erores)

130.00

230.00275.00

5.00*

50,00*

5.00

95.00

125.00

110.00*

18.00

13.00

23.00

165.006.00*

101.00

44.005.00

5.00

29.00

3.00

75.00

10.00

4.GO

13.00

9.00

65.002.00

29.00

186.00270.00

21.00

2.00

20.00125.00

100.0014.00

14.00100.00

4.0C

1250.00 365.00 835.00

f> Ad hoc estimates.

Anticipated Revenue from Industrial Projects in a Fuii Year

Rs. Crcres

1. Sale of power .. 126.00

2. Heavy Water 20.00

3. Fuel Production 20.00

4. Plutonium 4.00

Total 170.00

ANNEXURE 6

PROVISIONS INCLUDED IN THE FOURTH PLAR9 (1969-74)FOR ATOMIC

S. No. Item

1. Nuclear Power Stations ..

2. Fast Breeder Test Reactor and Reactor Research Centre

3. Heavy Water Projects

4. Nuclear Fuel Complex

5. Fuel Reprocessing Plants

6. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ..

7. Variable Energy Cyclotron..

8. Radio Telescope Station

S. Atomic Minerals Division

10. Aided Institutions ..

11. Public Sector Undertakings (ECtL & UCIL)*

12. Housing „

13. Other Miscellaneous items

Fourth Plan provision

(Rs. in crores)

135.00

15.00

32.88

18.18

7.64

17.32

5.18

0.24

3.00

5.67

4.64

6.95

2.21

• > -. . '253.91

* EG!L—Electronics Corporation of India Ltd!UCIL—Uranium Corporation of India Ltd.

24

PART SI

1. Space Research Programme

1.1 About 15 years after the first steps taken for the establishment of anatomic energy programme in India, the subject of exploration of outer spacewas allocated in 1961 to the Department of Atomic Energy. There was at that timeconsiderable interest amongst the many Indian scientists and institutionsresearching in equatorial aeronomy (including meteorology), cosmic rays,astronomy and geodesy. Quite early it was decided to establish the ThumbaEquatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), a sounding rocket range on thegeomagnetic equator at Thumba, near Trivandrum in South India. It consciouslylaid emphasis on creating facilities which would permit a study of problems inaeronomy in the region upto 200 km. which is below the operational level ofsatellites. It was felt that this would be particularly appropriate, since the pro-gramme could be conducted wiin small sounding rockets involving a modestbudget. Moreover, the scientific results would have a direct bearing on a betterunderstanding of meteorology which is of great practical significance to theIndian economy.

1.2 It was clear at the outset that space research could not progress withoutthe simultaneous development of advanced space technology. As a beginning,an arrangement was concluded in 1964 to manufacture in India, under licencefrom a French firm, a two-stage rocket capable of reaching an altitude of about150 km. with a payload of approximately 30 kg. The manufacture of these rocketswas established provisionally at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre pendingthe setting up of a special Rocket Fabrication Facility (RFF) at Thumba. A RocketPropellant Plant (RPP) was also set up at Thumba to make solid propellantblocks under licence from France.

Space technology was acquired under licence from abroad only as ameans to buy time, and simultaneously a major R & D establishment was createdto advance developments in the years to come. In 1S65, the Atomic EnergyCommission approved the setting up of the Space Science & Technology Centre(SSTC) on Veli Hill by the side of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket LaunchingStation. The principal responsibility of the Centre is

(i) to conduct research and development (R & D ) on systems and theircomponents required in Space Research, and

27

(ii) to carry out prototype design and pilot production of equipment resultingfrom its R & D activities.

The systems and their components include the rocket vehicle, scientific payloadsand back up experiments, instrumentation, telemetry for both communicationand command, and ground support systems. The Centre also undertakes prototypeproduction.

The diversity of scientific and technical disciplines involved in theconduct of the work at the Centre necessitates that its personnel are drawnfrom diverse fields of specialisation. In order to build effective teams of workersto carry out technologically complex and mostly target-oriented projects, anappropriate organisational structure has been devised.

The most important task of the Space Science & Technology Centreis to develop indigenously a satellite launch capability. This is of relevance notonly for scientific exploration, but also for many applications of outer spacein the fields of communications, meteorology and remote sensing, The firstlaunch that would be attempted in 1974 would be to place in a near circularorbit at about 400 km. a satellite of about 30 kg. The launcher which is beingdesigned, designated SLV-3, would have four stages and would weigh approxi-mately 20 tons. The length of the vehicle would be about 21 meters. The vehiclewould be powered by solid propeSiants and the diameter of the first stage wouldbe 1 meter. The vehicle would need control and guidance using inertia! systems.Special materials and methods of construction involved in advanced aero-spaceengineering are being developed for use in the rocket motors.

Propeiiants of high performance are now produced and these havebeen flight tested in smaller rockets. Electronics and instrumentation, which canstand extreme environmental conditions such as acceleration many tens of timesthe force of gravity, needed for the SLV-3 mission, are flight tested in the currentprogramme with sounding rockets. Moreover, extremely rigorous procedures areinvolved for quality assurance at all stages of procurement and construction andalso for testing the components and subsystems under flight simulated conditions.

SLV-3 would be followed in the period 1975-79 by satellite launchvehicles using more powerful motors and it is the objective of the Space Science& Technology Centre to develop by the end of the 1970's a launch vehiclecapable of putting a 12Q0 kg. satellite into synchronous orbit at 40,000 km.This Ss the type of capability which is needed to fully exploit, on our own, thevast potential arising from the practical applications of space science andtechnology.

The development of systems as complex as a satellite launch vehicleand a satellite nesds understanding in depth and complete mastery of thetechnology of each subsystem which Is involved. The thrust of the programme

28

at the Space Science & I echnology Centre during the past three years has beento grow this capability through a number of individual projects, each by itselfmodest in character, but progressively involving increasing technological comple-xity and sophistication. RH-75, RH-125 and its multistage conbination as well asIndia-made Centaure rockets have all beers successfully completed; RH-iOOalong with its Dart combination in the configuration designated 'Menaka'useful for meteorological observations, is nearing completion. RH-300 wouldbe flight tested within the next few months from the new SHAR range atShdharikota in Andhra Pradesh near Madras.

Space research has steadily gained momentum and today not onlyare complete two-stage rockets made entirely in India but also sophisticatedpaylos*fe for investigation of ths upper atmosphere and for the study of X-RayAstronomy. While a total of 205 sounding rockets were launched from TERLSduring the past six years, almost 75 are expected to be launched during the currentyear.

1-3 A most important practical application of space research is the use ofsatellites for telecommunications. When a satellite is in a circular equatorialorbit at a height of about 35,900 km., the earth appears stationary to it and alarge part of a hemisphere is visible to it. Two widely separated points in the areaof visibility can establish high quality reliable telecommunication links throughthe "synchronous" satellite. A communication satellite can also be used for thedissemination of television pictures over a wide network of T. V. receivingstations, thus providing an effective medium of mass communications to isolatedcommunities.

To enable India to gain competence in global satellite communications,the Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station has been establishedat Ahmedabad by ISSJCOSPAR with assistance from the U.N. Special Fund.

At the present time the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)is deeply interested and involved in an evaluation of the benefits that a synchro-nous satellite can provide for national needs of point to point communications,for mass communications through direct broadcast television to promote nationalintegration as well as the economic development of isolated communities, formeteorological observations covering ths vast Indian Ocean and for assistingnavigation. Just for one application, namely, the provision of broadband comni!'-nications for reaching through television half a million villages of India, it can beshown that using satellites the investment would be much less than what wouldbe required with conventional technologies. Where capital fynds and foreignexchange are crucial bottlenecks, the deployment of a satellite communicationsystem based on a largely Indigenous effort in electronics can rusks ell thedifference to a national decision for adopting the most effective and persuasivemeans as yet available for mass communications. Indeed it ts estimated that withan annual investment equivalent to about Rs. 35 crores one ean provids community

29

television to all the 560,000 villages in India over a five-year period. This wouldincidentally generate a strong industrial base in electronics providing employmentto about 120,000 qualified scientists, engineers, technicians, managers and otheradministrative personnel.

1.4 Weather is by its very nature world-wide. This means that, in order tohave an adequate picture of today's weather, it is necessary to have observationsfrom all over the world from an adequate network of stations uniformly distributedover the earth's surface. Without such observations it is only possible to have apartial picture., and this places limitations on our ability to understand the globalbehaviour of the atmosphere, to test new theories about its behaviour and toforecast the future weather. The limitations become more and more serious as theperiod of time for which the forecast is required becomes extended; for a forecastfor more than a day or two ahead it is in fact necessary to have observationsfrom a whole hemisphere, if not from the whoS© globe.

The satellite is ideally suited to serve as an observation platform formeteorology. It is situated high above the atmosphere, and as the earth rotatesbeneath it, the satellite sensors can view every area on the globe, including thosethat are inaccessible to man and those where weather stations cannot be installedon a practical basis. Satellites orbiting at low altitude can view the earth withgreater detail while those further out can view larger areas of the earth, thoughoften with lesser clarity. Over dense conventional networks their surveillance issupplementary, over the oceans they cast sparse data into a meaningful framework,of broad-scale motion. While surveying the atmosphere with their own camerasand sensors they can collect data by interrogation of horizontal sounding balloons,ocean buoys and remote land-stations, and can communicate these data toprocessing centres. They have varied utility—apart from their capability ofdisseminating weather analyses and forecasts over the world, there is no reasonwhy more sophisticated and direct sensing devices, for example to sound thevertical distribution of temperature and humidity, cannot be part of these observ-ing platforms.

1.5 A most significant development in space research has been in the fieldof remote sensing of earth resources from orbiting satellites. This is of greatinterest to geologists, geographers, agriculturists/ hydrologists and oceanographers.In the Indian programme this has particular relevance to the detection of thesnow cover over the Himalayas and the surface temperature of the Indian Ocean,two factors which appear to be viteUy connected with the precipitation of rainfallover India during the monsoon. Moreover, detection of diseased trees and cropsover large areas is potentially of great practical significance to agriculture andforestry.

The milestone chart (page 38) of * e programme of space researchindicates the special initiatives to be taken and facilities as well as competencewhich will have to be created.

/ • ' : ; • : , : - : . : • ' • • • : . : ' : : . •. " 3 0 . . . - • • ; • • • • • •

2. Space Teef8i8©I©fgy

2.1 iVluch has been established at the Space Science & Technology Centreduring the past four years to undertake the responsibility of dasigning andbuilding multistage satellite launch vehicles. An area in which special emphasisrequires to be given is for sophisticated control and guidance systems. Tnisinvolves ths design and development of optical, magnetic and inertia! typesensors and control components of electro-mechanical, magnetic, pneumaticand hydraulic types and associated special electronics. Moreover, fibre glass,strip-wound and helically welded rocket motors as well as special materials foraero-space use are required to be carried from pilot plant to the stage of largescale fabrication.

Special facilities and new groaps of trained personnel to constructscientific and communication satellites and to environmentally test them arerequired early. The personnel engaged in space research sre growing rapidlyas is indicated in the table below :

Year T©taS

1965 110

1970 2500

1975 4500

1980 7000

2.2 It is decided to launch the first Rohini Scientific SateUite (RS-1)by mid 1374 using SLV 3 vehicle. The satellite, quasi-spherical in shape andweighing a total of about 30 kg. will bs launched into a near circular orbitat 400 km. altitude from SHAR launching range. The structure, on-board dataprocessing, power, command and telemetry systems will weigh aboyt 25 kg, therest of the weight being allocated to one major scientific payioad and a fewtechnological payloads. The technological paylsads include a larga variety ofsensors to measure different performance parameters of the satellite. The housekeeping along with all ths on-board data will be telemetered to ground. Thesatellite will also have the capability of being commanded from ground, it will bepowered by solar cells and standby batteries.

Elaborate ground test facilities whleh include solar simulation chambers,theimo vacuum chambers, vibration tables, shook testing facilities and ^ ra t iona l .Hfe time evaluation facilities am in the process of fasing installed at SSTC fortesting the satellite and ths different sub-systems. Facilities for sophisticatedpackaging.in supsr clean rooms and specie! fabricslisn techniques ara bsingdeveloped.

3. A Domestic Communication Satellite3 -1 National development and the development of communications in acountry are necessarily interdependent. It Is the increase in the amount ofinformation transfer and the speed with which it is disseminated that leads torapid development, especially in the modern world where development is verymuch technology oriented.

3 -2 The introduction of television in India has until recently enjoyed lowpriority. Indead, in adopting television, India stands almost the lowest amongstthe nations of the worid, including developing nations. This Is largely attributableto four principal factors. First is the non-recognition of television as one of themost powerful media of mass communication, and therefore of direct relevanceto development. Second is the inherently higher unit cost of a TV receivercompared to a receiver for sound broadcasting. In consequence, unlesscommunity TV is organised, it cannot reach the vast majority of our population.Third is the absence of broad-band tele-communication links throughout thecountry, or even between the major cities. These are necessary to provide nationalprogramme. And fourth is the large dependence, in the past, on importation ofequipment and components for broadcasting or reception of televisionprogrammes.

3-3 The advent of synchronous communication satellites has a specialrelevance to developing nations which have not still acquired an extensive infra-structure of tele-communications with older technologies. Even though anoptimum system in the future is expected to have ground tele-communicationsas well as satellite tele-communications, there are unique opportunities foroptimising a system in respect of its cost and effectiveness where the existinginvestment is relatively small. India can profit from this situation provided itcan use satellite communications for its national needs meaningfully and withimagination.

3 -4 Three years ago, the Indian Space Research Organisation of theDepartment of Atomic Energy, which is responsible for promoting the peacefuluses of outer space, organised a study of the cost and significance of asynchronous satellite to link together isoiated rural communities and distantcentres of population in India through a powerful national system for masscommunication using television. It was felt that there is necessity to gain insightson the manner in which television can be used as a direct instrument for promotingthe developmental tasks of Government so that it can be regarded as aninvestment rather than an overhead. The Krsshi Darshan Programme was organisedin 1967 in collaboration with Ail India Radio, Indian Agricultural ResearchInstitute and the Delhi Administration through the establishment of communitytelevision receiving sets in 80 villages around Delhi.

3 -5 Parallel with this, a study was conducted to determine the most cost-effective method of deploying a nationwide TV system. This study was conducted

32

by Indian experts drawn from various establishments and departments of Govern-ment. The study had the benefit of experience shared by MASA of USA andparticipation of specialists from many industrial and educational organisations.The study showed that the most cost-effective method would be one thatutilised a satellite for direct broadcasts to remote villages and also for rediffusionthrough terrestrial TV transmitters—in short, a hybrid system. Such a systemcould provide television services to all of India's 560,000 villages and citiesthrough community viewing sets.

3 -6 For undertaking a programme to provide television nationally on thescale indicated, it would be necessary to rely largely on Indian expertise andindigenous supply of hardware. To use it effectively as a means of promotingnational integration and development, experience requires to be gained on theside of content and programming, in applications to education, agriculturalextension, promotion of family planning and national integration. Moreover,insights on managerial and technical questions related to the operation andmaintenance of television sets in rural areas, often with no established electricsupply, would need to be gained.

3 -7 In order to do this and to gain practical experience, an agreementhas been concluded between India and USA which will enable India to utilise,for a pariod of one year around 1973, NASA's ATS-F satellite to beam instruc-tional TV programmes through one video channel accompanied by two audiochannels to villages and cities in various parts of the country. This project-called the Satellite Instructional TV Experiment (SITE) — will provide thenecessary experience and help in developing Indian personnel and facilities.The responsibility for the ground segment of this experiment and for programmingwill exclusively be that of India.

3 -8 SITE would involve about 5000 villages located in clusters of about400 each and spread over West Bengal, U.P., Rajasthan, Delhi, Kashmir, Gujarat,Maharashtra, M,P., Orissa, Bihar and Tamil Nadu. One community TV set willbe located in each of these 5000 villages and instructional /educationalprogrammes produced in India wil! be beamed via the satellite from the earthstation located in Ahmedabad and possibly also from Delhi and Bombay. Thisproject will tie in with AlB's plans of installing TV transmitters in Srinagar,Bombay-Poona, Calcutta, Madras and Kanpur-Lucknow.

3 *9 Following the experiment, which will provide a systems test of broadcastsatellite TV for national development and enhance our capability in the design,development, manufacture, installation, operation and maintenance of groundsegment, it is proposed that w© go further and establish our own domesticsatellite system. Such a system, it is proposed, will utilize a multipurpose satellitefor providing nationwide TV coverage and teie-eommuniGatiors Sinks betweenat least the four major cities of India. As proposed by ISRO. the national satellite

could be launched around 1974-75 and will have the capability of transmittingsimultaneously three video channels (each accompanied by a number of audiochannels) and 3600 high quality telephone channels. While it will be necessaryto build the first such satellite (INSAT) abroad, it is proposed that 30-40Indian engineers will be involved in this task in association with the foreigncontractor. Typically three satellites are built before one is launched, and it isproposed that these engineers will construct the next two satellites in Indiausing the maximum amount of Indian components and sub-systems. Whilethe first synchronous communications satellite (in 1974-75) will have to belaunched by a foreign agency, ISRO should have the capability to launch acommunication satellite around 1980 when a replacement is required.

3-10 The ISRO proposal for a national TV coverage using INSAT includes20 terrestrial TV transmitters, probably located in State capitals and large cities.These stations will be connected to the national hookup via the satellites, sothat they can relay either their own programme or one of the three nationalprogrammes originating through the satellite. Nationwide coverage is theoreti-cally provided as soon as the satellite is in place in 1974-75. However, it isrecognised that national coverage has no meaning unless a very large proportionof the population has the opportunity to view the programmes. Therefore, theproposal also suggests the installation of at least one TV set in every village inthe country. It is estimated that the deployment of one set in every village willtake about 5 years at the rate of 100,000 each year from 1975 onwards. Thecost of community TV sets and the TV broadcast ground installations forthe period 1975-80 is not included in the Department's estimates presentedin this document.

3-12 The economics of INSAT can be judged by the fact that through amere 25% utilization of the tele-communication capability on board the satelliteit will be possible to earn revenues of about Rs. 80 crores a year, i.e. roughlyRs. 400 crores over a five-year period. Besides this, of course, are all the benefitsof a national TV system.

4. Srihasikoia Range (SHAR)

4-1 The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is establishing asatellite launching station at Sriharikota island situated about 19 km. eastof Sullurpet in NeHore District, Andhra Pradesh. This island is *:!ong the east-coast with the Bay of Bengal on one side, PuSikat lake and shallow backwatersof the Bay of Bengal on the other. It is 100 km. from the metropolitan city ofMadras by road. An area of approximately 12,000 hectares on the island which iselliptical in shape has been earmarked by the Andhra Pradesh Governmentfor the Satellite station. It provides a coastal length of about 21 km. and has abreadth of about 8 km. It is a forest area having casuarina and eucalyptus treesand practically no habitation. There is no fishing in this area and the backwatersof the sea provide safety for range operations,

34

4 -2 The object of this station is to provide a suitable range for launchingscientific and technical satellites using multi-stage rockets. This work cannot beundertaken by the existing range at Thumba since Thumba Equatorial RocketLaunching Station (TERLS) has a small area surrounded by thickly populatedvillages, and for tha important reason that a satellite should be launched in theeastward direction. Secondly, there is a necessity for having a big range forflight testing of single and multi-stage rockets being indigenously developedfor our space programme. This calls for considerable safety zone around thelaunching base.

4 -3 It is proposed to put up a Rocket Propellent Plant for manufacture oflarge size boosters and a static and high altitude test facilities at SHAR. Thiswill facilitate handling and transport problems connected with large size boosters.The work of SHAR is intended to be taken up in 3 phases. In phase one., asounding rocket launch facility will be put up and used for carrying out flighttests of our Rohini rockets developed at the Space Science & TechnologyCentre, Thumba. It is expected that this facility would be available by December1970.

4-4 In the second phase to be completed by December 1971, the rangewill be developed further for flight testing of large sized multi-stage vehiclesand necessary tracking and telemetry systems will be available for performancetests. En the third phase of the programme, the various facilities required forhandling the satellite launch vehicle, long range tracking radars, high powerground telemetry stations, computational facilities, communication and controlcentre, will all be provided^ This will be made ready by 1973-74, to handle fullscaie satellite launch operations.

i . Economic; lstsplS«satS©i*s

5 -1 The principal objectives of the space programme of the Atomic EnergyCommission are to develop indigenous competence for designing and buildingsophisticated hardware involved in space technology including rockets andsatellites for scientific research and practical applications, the use of thesesystems for providing point-to-point communications and a national TV hook-upthrough a direct broadcast synchronous satellite; and the applications ofsatellites for meteorology and for remote sensing of earth resources.

5 -2 All these will involve considerable effort in research and development.Annex. I (p. 40) gives the estimate of the funds required to be invested for acquiringthis capability in the course of the next 10 years. The returns from this investmentthrough expanded point-to-point tele-communications facilities alone can be ashigh as Rs. 80 crores per year from 1976 onwards. To this will have to be addedthe tangible benefits expected to arise out of reliable wsather forecasting inthe shape of saving of human life, property, crops, etc. A nations! TV net-workbased on synchronous satellites wiil provide benefits by promoting agricultural

35

productivity and contributing to family planning, etc., apart from fosteringnational integration. Along with these, the country will acquire much neededcapability in rocket technology, vital to national security.

5 -3 It is pertinent to note that ail the benefits outlined above can be acquiredwith an outlay of Rs. 10 to 20 crores per annum over the next 10 years.Annex. II (p. 41) gives the provisions during the Fourth Plan for space research.

6. Oomelysions

6 -1 Our space research programme thus involves the establishment of thefollowing for the decade 1970-80:

(a) Augmentation of the facilities for R. &. D. at the Space Science andTechnology Centre to be able to build scientific and communicationsatellites and to environmentally test them.

(b) Facilities at the Space Science & Technology Centre for the developmentof inertiai guidance systems and on-board miniaturised computers.

(c) Development (at SSTC, TIFR and ECIL) and construction of highperformance missile tracking radars and PCM communications systemsfor installation at SHAR and in the Andamans for the satellite programme.

(d) Construction of a plant for manufacture of large solid propellant blocksat SHAR and a facility for static testing of these propetlant blocks on theground and under simulated high altitude conditions.

(e) Completion of a rocket fabrication facility at Trivandrum for manufactureof large sized rocket casing and hardware for rocket motors includingthe development of special materials for rocket motor systems.

(0 Development by 1973-74 of a launcher which would be of four stages,burning solid propellant, capable of putting into orbit a satellite ofabout 80 kg. payload. This would be followed by development of moreadvanced rocket systems capable of putting 1200 kg. payloads Intosynchronous orbits.

(g) Fabrication of communication satellites by 1975 capable of providinghigh quality point to point tele-communication service betweenmetropolitan areas and direct broadcast of teb

Development of sensors and techniques for remote sensing.

6*2 The constraints on the development of space technology are relatedto the development of men and taams familiar with the new sophisticatedtechnology. With a growth rate of 50 to 100 per cent per year, we still needabout three years before we can reach the minimum critical size for successfullyimplementing large scale projects of space technology.

• 3 6 ' • • • : • ' : - . • • . . " : . - - . ' . • • ^ • ' - ; • ' • • • " ; ; :

MSLESTONE CHART OF MAJOR SPACE RESEARCH PROJECTS

m

v . t '

g

tS70 j 1971

I

2

G

C

8

222

1972

Y77

1322.

PHASE-ta

i

1973

PHASE-n

1974 ^975

PHASE-)

777;

PHASE!

1976

TP77

PHASE-II

7221

1977 1978

"ZZZ1

1979 1930

PHASE-ll

ITEM

AUGMENTATION OF FACIUTlESFOR R ft D AT SSTC FOHBUILDING SCIENTIFIC &COMMUNICATION SATELLITES& ENVIRONMENTAL TLSTING

DEVELOPMENT OF INERTIAL &IN-FLIGHT GUIDANCE SYSTEMSFOR ROCKETS & ON-BOARDMINIATURISED COMPUTER

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHPERFORMANCE MISSILETRACKING RADARS 6 P C MCOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

col in PRnPFI 1 ANT PLANT

AND TESTING FACILITY ATSHAR

ROCKET FABRICATIONFACILITY FOR LARGESIZED ROCKETS

S.No

• • *

1

d .

9

JO

1970

m m

1971

I1972

I1S73

•<

1974

1

k

o r

2222

' 1

4

1S75 1976

JHH H i

1977

H I

1978

1

1979

m

sErass i s

fife

19B0

B I5HU

ITEM

SLV-3 SATELLITE UUKCW VEHICLE

DEVELOPED AT SSTC.30 Kg—400 KmCIRCULAR ORBIT.

RS-1 ROHINI SCIENTIFICTECHNOLOGICAL SATELLITEDEVELOPED AT SSTC30 Kfl.-

SITE. DAE-NASA ITV EXPTNASA ATS/F SATELLITEINDIAN GROUND SEGMENT5000 COMMUNITY RECEIVERS

INSAT-1 INDIAN NATiONALCOMMUNICATION SATELLtTEFIRST BUJLT & LAUNCHED—U.S.SECOND & THIRD BUILT AT SSTC1200 Kg—40,000 Km.

SLV-SYN DEVELOPED ATSSTC FOR LAUNCHING1200 Kg. TO 40.000 Km.CIRCULAR ORBIT

LEGEND

— PREPARATION

— CONSTRUCTIONABBREVIATIONS

OPERATION

LAUNCH

SSTC — SPACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CENTREPCM — PULSE CODE MODULATION

SKAR — SHRIHARIKOTA RANGE

ANNEXURE

COST

SI.No.

ESTIMATES OF

Item

THE SPACE RESEARCH PH©SRAM§¥Ii

Funds required

1970-80 1970-76 1975-80

1. Augmentation of facilities for R. & D. at SSTC forbuilding scientific and communication satellite andenvironment testing

2. Development of inertial & inflight guidance systemsfor rockets and onboard miniaturised computer

3. Development of High Performance Missile TrackingRadars and P.C.M. Communication Systems

4. Solid Propellant Plant and Testing Facility at SHAR .

5. Rocket Fabrication Facility for large sized rockets ..

6. Development of SLV-3 satellite launch vehicle

7. Development of Scientific Satellite

8. Expansion of Experimental Satellite CommunicationEarth Station including Satellite Instructional Tele-vision Experiment (SITE)

9. Development of Communication Satellite

10. Development of Satellite Launcher (SLV-SYN)

11. Operational requirements:

(i) Thumha Equatorial Rocket Launching Station..(ii) Experimental Satellite Communication Earth

Station

{iii) Rocket Propellant Plant

(iv) Space Science & Technology Centre(v) Rocket Fabrication Facility

(vi) Sriharikota Range(vii) Indian Space Research Organisation ..

(Rupees in crores)

5.00

2.50

10.00

5.00

.25

4.60

1.25

3.7515.70

2.00

3.50

3.00

4.25

27.00

15.45

2.0012.45

2.00

3.50

1.00

4.25

2.00

1

3

2

25

15

.75

.25

—

—

.00

.00

.45

5.40

2.255.00

36.009.00

20.000.60

0.752.00

10.003.008.000.20

1.503.00

26.006.00

12.000.40

Total.. 165.00 62.00 103,00

40

AMNEXURE II

MCW^^B M THE 1¥ PL&PI (1S89-I4)SPACE RESEARCH

SI.No.

Stesn

1. Indian Space Research Organisation

2. Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station (including SatelliteInstructional Television Experiment but excluding assistance from UnitedNations Special Fund)

3. Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (including Housing Colony)

4. Space Science and Technology Centre (including rocket development)..

5. Rocket Propeilant Plant (including expansion and binder unit)

6. Rocket Fabrication Facility

7. Sriharikota Range

Total ..

NOTE : Shown as Plan Provision

Shown as Non-Plan

Total .

(Rs. in crores)

i 0

4

4

14

1

3

2

31

15

16

31

.14

.84

.50

.22

.50

.20

.70

.10

.02

.08

.10

Published by the Publications Officer, Departmenl of Atomic Energy, Government of India. 1, Chhatrtpati

Shivaji Maharai Marg. Printed by R. Subbu at TATA PRESS Ltd. 414. Veer Savarkar Marg, Bombav-25.