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28 No 2 Autumn 2006 From Bowlby to Buddha

^FROM BOWLBYT BUDDHA - an

initial exploration of the meaning of

attachment and non-attachment and their

implication for Dramatherapy

by Di Gammage

This Being Human

This being human is a guesthouse.

Every morning a new arrival.

A joy, a depression, a mean ness,

Some momentary awareness comes

As an unexp ected visitor.

Welcome and entertain them all

Even if they're a crowd of sorrows,

Who violently sweep your house

Empty of its furniture

Still, treat each guest honourably.

He may be clearing you out

For some new delight.

The dark thought, the shame, the malice.

Meet them at the door laughing.

And invite them in.

Be grateful for whoever comes.

Because each has been sent

As a guide from beyond .

Rumi

Introduction

It

is many years since my first encounter with Buddhism.

I vividly recall listening to a speaker, on a wet, windy

night, telling me that we are nothing, that an egoless state

is to be aspired to and that until we achieve this we will

con tinue to suffer. I was appalled and affronted Here

was I working diligently to develop and shore up m y own

ego (as well as the egos of my clients) only to be told

that letting go was the only way to alleviate suffering.

I experienced the speaker's words as threatening and

alien, and w ith anything experienced thus, I developed an

imm ediate aversion to it. A s I reflect upon this encou nter,

I wonder how other listeners heard him? My friend, for

instance, had not had such a violent reaction to his words

responding more openly to the practice of Buddhism.

A curiosity has grown. I would like to believe that,

nowadays, there is generally more light and less heat in

my soul. I would like to think that my ability to respond

rather than react is deepening . Perhaps a seed was planted

that fateful evening all those years ago that has slowly

begun to germinate - 'Th e fruit of awareness is already

ripe, and the door can never be closed ag ain' (Nhat Han h,

1993:59).

As a dramatherapist and play therapist and previously

a residential social worker, I have been exposed to and

witnessed much suffering. I consider the work I undertake

to be a privilege, and yet until fairly re cently, my co re as a

therapist has harboured an unease. Questions arose such

as : Wh at is happening here? Wh at is meant to happen?

How can I facilitate this happening? How w ill I know

when it does? To a more fundamental question: What do

I believe is the core of human existence - are we innately

'good' or innately 'bad'?

As I discover more about the practice of Buddhism,

the dharmic path, I am finding responses to my unease.

In particular, I have been intrigued by the subject of

Attachment. I have encountered both a resonance

and a discord with my existing knowledge of Western

psychology and Eastern philosophy around this concept.

Attachment theory proposed by John Bowlby and Mary

Ainsworth and the Buddha's teaching of non-attachment

seem to reflect and challenge one another and serve

to illuminate core understanding of what it means to

be human. What follows is, in effect, an enquiry into

the development of, and beyond, the ego - from the

incarnation of the child to an adu lt discovering som e way

of moving beyond being a product of their conditioning.

I offer here my cautious exploration on the meaning of

attachment and non-attachment and its implications for

dramatherapy.

W ho isthe Buddha?

I have found that when Buddhists speak of Buddha,

there is often a reference to both the Buddha and to the

Buddha-nature w ithin each of us. The Budd ha, that is


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He was a human being and he suffered like any other

human being. Siddhartha abandoned his palatial lifestyle

at the age of 29 so that he might seek understanding of

the suffering he witnessed around him and search for

a way to end this suffering. Siddh artha wandered the

land for a period of six years, experimenting with many

practices which included over-indulgence, self-torture,

trance, yoga, deep discussion and ultimately, fasting. So

weakened and sick by the fasting, he famously sat down

under the bodhi tree declaring, 'I will not leave this place

until my understanding is complete...or I die' (de Bary,

1969; Nhat Hanh, 19 98; Napthali, 2003). He remained

sitting there all night and when the morning star ascended

in the sky, he had an intense breakthrough. He became a

Buddha, filled with understanding and love. He became

enlightened. Henceforth, he vowed to do what he could

to relieve suffering in the world and for over forty years

this is what he did.

The word Buddha means quite simply 'awake' or

'awakened one'; in contact with an inner wisdom that

is inherent in everyone, which has been described as

'growing up - being completely at home in our world no

matter how difficult the situation' (Chodron, 1994: 139).

This principle resonates with the work of Carl Rogers,

and forms the basis of his person-centred approach to

psychotherapy. He believed that every human being

has an innate tendency towards trustworthiness. This

view is also shared by a great m any psycho therapists and

psychoanalysts from differing backgrounds.

The Buddha's teaching is based upon the Four Noble

Truths. These Truths offer the individual a means of

embracing their suffering in order to look deeply into it.

The First Noble Truth is that suffering (dukkha) exists.

Buddha taught of the need to recognise and acknowledge

the presence of suffering, not to deny nor to minimise it.

The Second Noble Truth is the origin or arising of

suffering. A deep exploration into how this suffering

came to be. W hat is it we do, what is it we take in, that is

causing this suffering?

The Third Noble Truth is the ending of creating

suffering by refraining from doing what it is that causes

the suffering. Suffering can be transformed . Bud dhism

is fundam entally a practice and it is the practice in ending

suffering. The Second and Third No ble Truths have great

significance for the therapist, for they unequivocally

convey the potential for healing by understanding

suffering.

The Fourth Noble Truth is the dharmic path that leads

to refraining from doing all that causes suffering and the

cultivation of what leads to happiness and liberation. The

path of transformation or core change.

Zen Buddhist and psychodramatist psychotherapist

David Brazier defines the Four Nob le Truths as:

1) To accept the afflictions in this world as real.

2) To accept that associated with these afflictions are

I 3) To harness that energy.

4) The nob le life that results from so doing : a life

led by vision.

Brazier (2001:24)

The Four Noble truths are a kind of lens through which

we can look at our lives and which enable us to move

towards liberation. Although the Buddha believed

personal liberation to be the responsibility of the

individual, there is great onus upon community (sangha)

and the individual's dependency on others.

The Four N oble Truths are also a way of un derstanding

the process of therapeutic change; The personal growth

of the client is the client's own responsibility, however, it

is the therapeutic relationship that helps to facilitate this

growth. The challenge to the dramatherapist is in how

to harness the client's energy and facilitate its use for the

benefit of the client.

The ttachment Theory of John Bowlby and Mary

insworth

In the late 1930s, British psychoanalyst John Bowlby

alerted the psychological world to the significance of

the relationship between a child's mental health and

developing character and the child's experience of their

mother's physical presence and her emotional attitude

towards her child. Prior to Bow lby's work (with the

notable exception of the Dorothy Burlingham and Anna

Freud 's contributions (19 44), 'any connection b etween

these, in the childcare professions, had been vague and

inconsistent, refiecting the prejudices of the era and the

professionals involved. Attachment theory is concerned

with understanding the nature of bonding established

between humans arising fundamentally from the need

for protection, safety and comfort. The human baby, in

contrast to other mam mals, is bom woefully helpless and

is utterly dependent upon his caregivers for the early part

of life (I refer to the baby as male so as to distinguish

between him and his mother. I am, of course, also

referring to female bab ies).

Mary Ainswo rth, colleague to Bowlby and a prom inent

psychologist in her own right, furthered Bowlby's theory

by her meticulous documentation of her observations of

the mother-child relationship, (initially in Uganda, then

in the USA). It was Ainsworth who created the Strange

Situation Experiment. The Strange Situation E xperiment,

one of the most widely-used and reliable psychological

diagnostic tools, enables professionals to ascertain the

pattern of bon ding in the relationship established between

a mother and her child (Bowlby, 1988; Karen, 1994).

The significance of this first attachment is profound for

it provides the child with a blueprint that underscores

that individual's capacity to love and be loved and,

thus,

all future relationships they will make, including

the relationship they will create with their own child


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The Strange S ituation

In the experiment, the parent (usually mother though

fathers, also, take part in the experiment) and one year

old child are introduced to an unknown playroom and a

stranger in the role of experime nter. A one-way mirror

allows the situation to be observed. The bab y s reactions,

responses and behaviour are noted when mother leaves

the room , during her absence and on her return. Of

particular importance to the observers are the ways

in which the baby separates from his mother, engages

with the experimenter during the moth er s absence,

his willingness to be comforted by the experimenter,

his capacity to be alone and how he reunites with his

mother. When m other leaves the room a second time, the

experimenter departs also, leaving the baby alone. The

experimenter re-enters shortly afterwards, followed by

the mother. The experiment is concluded,

Ainsworth and her colleagues carefully observed and

recorded great numbers of mother-infant pairs and their

results were remarkably consistent despite wide variations

in background and experience. From these results the

researchers were able to categorise the behaviour patterns

of the children (Ainsworth et al, 1978). Ainsworth

identified three categories of attachment (a fourth was

created later). These categories are:

Secure Attachment

Secure attachment is characterised by the baby showing

some degree of distress at the mo ther s departure yet a

willingness to engage with the experimenter, to allow

himself to be comforted by the experimenter and to

show an interest in the toys. On his m other s return,

the securely-attached baby greets her with smiles,

chatter, crying or any combination of these. There is a

desire for physical comfort from the mother, and the

mother, securely-attached to her child, happily responds

to him. On mo ther s second exit accompanied by the

experim enter, the ch ild s level of distress is intensified.

Reunion with m other involves the same responses shown

earlier only with greater magnitude.

This baby is confident that his mother is sensitively

responsive to

him.

He is trusting of his parent to be readily

available should he need her comfort and protection.

Insecure Attachment

Insecure attachment is sub-divided into three further

categories:

Anxious Resistant or Ambivalent Attachment

This baby is uncertain of h is m othe r s availability or

sensitivity toward s him. He cannot trust that she will

protect and/or comfort him when he is fearful or in pain.

This baby is always prone to separation anxiety, he is

clingy and untrusting of his environment and his own self

within it. Often, threats of abandon men t are used by the

other times she is not.

In the Strange Situation, the ambivalently-attached

baby will show higher levels of distress than the securely-

attached baby. He will be less willing to engage with

the experimenter, and less able to accept comfort from

the experimenter. On his mo ther s return, he will greet

her just as the securely-attached baby, however, the

ambivialently-resistant baby demonstrates an uncertainty

toward s, his mother (reflecting his experien ce of her)

and this will manifest as simultaneously pushing his

mother away from him and a desire to be close to her.

Contradictory impulses may manifest as hitting, kicking,

or smacking at the same time as seeking comfort from

her.

Anxious Avoidant Attachm ent

Whereas the ambivalently-attached baby is uncertain

whether to trust his mother, the avoidantly-attached child

knows without doubt that he cannot trust his mother to be

available to him. He has learnt very early on that he is

unable to rely on her and therefore on his environment.

Ultimately, he has only himself and yet this

self

borne out

of isolation and despair, is fragile and fragmented.

In the Strange Situation, the anxiously-attached baby

demonstrates a low level of distress on his m other s

departur e. He is very familiar with this scenario and has

learnt to survive it as best he can. He seem s detached from

his environment and, largely, from

himself.

His capacity

to play with the toys or engage with the experimenter is

severely hamp ered. This is a child who does not show his

distress because no one notices it anyway.

Disorganised Attachment

This third category of insecure attachment patterning was

included by Ainsworth and her colleagues as they noticed

a small, yet significant, number of children who did not

fit with either of the other categories as their behaviour

seemed disorientated and unpredictable. A child with a

disorganised attachment pattern is likely to demonstrate

similar characteristics as the ambivalently- or avoidantly-

attached children, however, this child also engages in

stereotypic behaviour such as freezing and repetitive

movem ents like rocking or head banging.

In the Strange Situation the child with a disorganised

attachment pattern is likely to show extreme levels of

distress at his mothe r s departure counteracted by theself-

comforting behav iours identified abov e. His capacity to

play with toys or engage with the experimenter is grossly

impaired.

The Wider Context

In

my view, it is absolutely crucial to include the other

parent (u sually the father) in the chil d s attachm ent

patterning if this parent is present in the child s life. This

is not only for the reason tha t the father develop s a sepa rate


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include the other parent because the mother's availability

and her ability to respond sensitively to her child has a

direct inter-relationship with the father's capacity to be

available and sensitive to her. If the mother experiences

a secure attachment with her partner, she is more likely to

be able to offer this to her child.

The mother herself was once a baby and experienced

her first attachme nt with her own mother. As mentioned

above, all future relationships, including those made with

her own children, will have this first attachment as their

foundation.

It is not a foregone conclusion, however, that an

insecurely-attached individual will automatically go

on to create similar relationships in the future. Mary

Main, colleague of Mary Ainsworth, was forefront in

researching the longitudinal effects of infant attachment

patterns and their significance across the life cycle (Main,

1991). She determined that the insecurely-attached ch ild

is still open to the possibility of secure attachments with

other people. In other words , transformation is possible.

One person who may become extremely significant

in the life of an insecurely-attached child or adult is the

therapist. Within the therapeu tic relationship, that part of

theself however small, that has remained inherently wise

and awaiting the opportunity to relate in a wholesome

way may be awakened and nurtured.

Enlightenment

Underneath the tree, the Buddha became enlightened.

Buddhism uses the concept of enlightenment to mean

ultimate realisation and liberation. Enlightenm ent is the

complete understanding of how we create suffering and

then living a life that is free from that suffering. Living a

life in love, freedom, openness and fearlessness.

Van Morrison urges m e to 'W ake u p' and tells me that

enlightenment is non-attachment (Van Morrison, 1990).

I asked my therapist what enlightenment means and

straightaway she said, 'It's living without fear'. Fear is to

mistrust or distrust. Therefore enlightenm ent must mean

to live with trust. To trust myself and the world I live in.

To realise my own trustworthiness . In real terms this

means - not to worry about m oney, my relationships, how

other people see me, what they think of me, my health,

the health and well-being of my children, my partner, my

family, my friends, my clients, the country, the world, the

lack of water, the amount of pollution, destruction of the

ozone-layer, exhaustion of the world's natural resources,

melting ice-caps, extinction of the polar bear, prostitution

of children, genocide, floods, insatiable human greed

and corruption, the lack of meaning in people's lives,

loneliness, violence, alcoholism and drug abuse, HIV,

poverty, children diagnosed with Attention Deficit

Hyperactivity Disorder, cancer, ageing, disease...death.

I understand there to be a difference between worry and

concern . It isn 't that I lack concern for all the above,

liberation allows a much more open, authentic concern for

all that is precious in life.

To live such an enlightene d life? Wh o would refuse

this? So, in Buddhism, if enlightenment means to live

without fear, without suffering, and enlightenment is non-

attachment, what does non-attachment mean?

Non attachment

The whole of Buddhism has, at its core, the practice

of non-attachm ent, of letting go. Here , however, the

concept of attachment has meaning beyond relationships

with others. We can become attached to almost anything;

for example, our body (our beauty, our youth, our vigour,

our unsightliness, our limitations); our feelings ( 'I'm just

an angry person', 'I'm always anxious'); our beliefs ('I'm

right, you're wrong', 'There is only one way and that's

my way '); the roles that we play in our lives (victim,

aggressor, martyr, rescuer, hero/heroine, carer, the wise

one); our material possessions, wealth and the illusion of

security that frequently accompanies these. Often implicit

in these attachments is a lack of choice, freedom and an

inability to change ('This is me...jealous/a perfectionist/

scared of comm itment/unable to see the dirty dishes piled

up in the sink/withdrawn). When we cling so tightly to

something, we are closed to the possibility of anything

else.

There is a common belief that non-attachment implies

disconne ction, aloofness or aversion to som ething. This

is an inaccurate

belief.

Avoidance of (moving away

from), ambivalence for (pushing towards and away

from) and clinging to (pushing towards) are all forms

of attachment (in the Buddhist sense of the concept) and

all involve suffering. The re are resona nces here with the

insecure-attachment patterns identified by Bowlby and

Ainsworth. Unlike the states of avoidance, ambivalence

and clinging, each of which has a foundation of fear and

a quality of closedness, non-attachment has a virtue of

heart and a quality of openness. It is possible to feel your

heart literally opening and closing when you are moved

or when you are feeling threatened or hum iliated. This

experience is real and felt in the body.

Letting go is not the same as getting rid of, rather it is

about relaxing around, finding a spaciousness with, the

object or subject we are in relationship with.

Ego

Who or what is getting attached? Who am I? In the

Bowlby mod el, it is ego. Body-centred psychotherapist,

Ron Kurtz, originator of the Hakomi Method, maintains

that effort, an ego function, fundamentally obstructs the

healing process as it creates an 'I' and a something that

the 'I ' wrestles with. In this strugg le, a separate self is

created: an ego . Whe n there is no struggle, effort fades

and ego loosens. It is this loosening of the ego that Kurtz

believes is essential for transform ation. This relaxation


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beyondtheego (Kurtz, 1990).

t h e suffering arises through the ego's attachment to

an objectorsubject,notso much the eventsinour livesas

the relationshipwecreatetothese events.

Co arising

Whatif ego is sofragile and fragmented, howthencan

itbe let go of? Agreat manyof thechildren I worked

with as a residential social worker, and some of my

dramatherapy and play therapy clients, I believe, have

extremely fragmented object relations. Surely, before one

can relinquish

ego, one has to

have

had a

good enough

senseofit ?

Everyone has an ego. Som etimes, however, ego

is contracted and wounded and self crystallises into

something rigid and negative . Before an individual

is in any position to relinquish ego, ego needs to.be

strong enough

and

this

can

only

be

achieved through

the experience of secure attachment. Thetherapistcan

become a crucial figure in the creation of this secure

attachment. In Buddhism, there is a concept called

co-arising, which means 'coming about together'.

Attachment isparadoxical in thatone is simultaneously

connected to others and separate from them. This

paradox wasfamiliar topsychoanalyst Donald Winnicott

as illustrated in his observation thatweleam totolerate

our aloneness through relationship with others (1971).

Secure attachmentandnon-attachment havethecapacity

to

be

co-arising.

As the

client becomes more secure

in

themselves, they simultaneously develop the capacity

to let go of them selves. Crystallised self loosens into

something much m ore fluidandresponsive.

Once enough buoyancy of being has been reached,

whena secure-enough attachmenthasbeen created, then

clientandtherapist gradually begin exploring theclient's

patterns of attachment; With compassion and non-

judgment they make theenquiry-whoisgetting attached

to what? The therapist encouragesandsupports the client

in their discovery,indevelopinga capacityforawareness,

in noticing what's happening in any given situationand

for living

in

the moment.

The

therapist helps the client

to

notice whether the heart is tightening, or op ening; whether

the breathing

is

shallow

or

deep

and

unobstructed.

The

bodyis adelicate barometerfor ouremotional statesand

the therapistcanhelptheclient become more attunedto

their physicalself.

'The greater the degree of awareness, the less the

degree

ofgrasping. It s

psychological physic s'

Levine (1994:110)

Asthe Sufi poet Rumi advocates,the therapist reassures

the client in their welcoming of every emotional

state.

Much

can be

leamt

by

inviting

a

sadness

or

a despair to sit at the table' with one. Welcoming,

aboutitthat I amangry'. 'Thereisanger' has even more

spaciousness as it is totally lacking in any reference to

self. Thedramatherapist is naturally equipped with the

skills to facilitate theclient in visualising, personifying

and conversing with emotions. Frequently in sessions,

my clients invite Frustration, Anger, Lust

or

another

emotion to a 'dinner party'so as to converse with their

guests. Asdramatherapistswehaveaninvaluable means

of supporting our clients in creatively connecting with

their suffering without threatofoverwhelm.

Healthy attachments

Healthy attachments are simply those attachments that

do not cause or create suffering for the individual,

others or theenvironment. In Buddhism, terms suchas

'wholesome'or 'unwholesome', 'helpful' or 'hindrance'

and more commonly used asopposedtodualist terms like

'good'or 'bad' .

'When thecauseofsuffering hasbeen seen, healingis

possible'.

N ha tH anh(1998 :39 )

With deepening awaren ess, the client learnstodistinguish

the attachments that are healthy or harmful to their

wellbeing. When I think this, saythat,act in thisway,

my suffering incre ases. Very often ourperceptions are

clouded by emotional states such as craving, anger,

ignorance and prejudice w hich cause great suffering.

Such emotional states are described as afflictions (the

seedsofwhichare thethree kleshas - greed, hatredand

deep misunderstanding) inBuddhism. It isimportantto

facilitate theclient in looking deeplyat their perceptions

and to dothis with kindnessandcompassion. It iswhen

the client knows the sourceofthese unhealthy p erceptions

that they will have a choiceinwhethertocontinue using

them or toexplore alternatives. Authentic responsibility

(response-ability) arises from choice.

Choice

nd

Empowerment

When the client is becoming more authentically

responsible, they

are

able

to

make more informed choices

in their life. What do youwant/need and how can you

take responsibilityforyour partincreating this life? This

isa periodofawakeningjoy andknowing whenyou are

experiencing it. Thich Nhat Hanh describesit aswatering

the seeds of joy (1998 ). Thisis thecessationof suffering

and

the

presence

of

wellbein g. Pem a Chodron identifies

the sourceofwisdom aswhatever isgoing tohappento

you today and your response to this creating the future

(1994).

Current Western teaching

in

Buddhism

Within current Western teaching

in

Buddhism there seems

to be a wide range of ideas regarding non-attachment.


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in his understanding of the dharmic path, I can't judge.

What I do know, how ever, was my aversive reaction to his

words wh ich I experienced as violent and threatening.

I am fortunate to have encountered a more

compassionate interpretation of Buddhist concepts.

One that holds the position that to be noti-attached

does not automatically mean to throw something out.

It means having a healthy attachment to something that

does not cause or create suffering. Non-attachment in

dharmic practice is the building up of a reservoir of

love, compassion, clarity, wisdom and patience and to

be healthily attached to these. The Budd ha had a healthy

attachment to meditation. He had a healthy attachmetit

to teaching. He even had a healthy attachment to being

the Buddha (Nhat Hanh, 1988). Formyself my journey

is to look at where and to what I am attached, and to

enquire with kindness and compassion whether these are

healthy attachments. This, I believe, is also the task of the

therapist.

Conclusion

As a naive and enthusiastic dramatherapist, I once

believed it was my place to affect change within my

clients. I was heavily influenced by many of the

environments in which I practised (mainly health and

education) where I was fully expected to direct my

clients in their healing process. Their 'h ealing ' entailed

implementing a programme or action plan specifying

what the client needed to do and when they needed to

do it by. My credib ility and my professional status as a

dramatherapist depended upon my success with clients,

and should my clients fail to co-operate with the 'master

plan' then they were seen as resistant and challenging.

Many inexperienced dramatherapists are subjected to

this covert (and sometimes overt) pressure within their

workp laces. They may also experience this from the

clients themselves, who are so used to handing the

responsibility for their wellbeing over to someone else

and, of course, when it does not work out, someone else

can always be blamed.

Buddh ist psychotherapy is non-violent in its approach.

It offers the client an opportunity to change according to

their own innate wisdom and trustworthiness. It is not

about the therapist effecting change in the client, nor is

it about the therapist taking the credit for any change the

client does make. Any healing that happens is co-arising

between client and therapist.

I understand the therapist's task as one of helping

the client let go of those obstacles that are preventing

them grow and become all that they can become. Carl

Jung said patients do not get cured, they simply move

on (Kurtz, 1990). Irvin Yalom comments that the single

most valuable concept he learned as an inexperienced

psychotherapist was that all humans have an innate

propensity towards self-realisation (Homey, 1950). He

have thus far served to restrict the client's psychological

growth (Yalom, 200 1). Ron Kurtz stresses, 'This is very

special work. In this proces s, violence is not only useless,

it is inevitably harm ful' (K urtz, 1990: 6).

Over the years of practice I have become increasingly

aware of a disquiet within

myself.

At times this disquiet

has manifested as an out-and-out rebellion. Yet when I

tried to give voice to my uneasiness, it was generally met

with blank expressions and something along the lines of,

'Well, that's just how it is' . Rare, precious, encounters

with some more enlightened beings persuaded mie that it

did not have to be this way. It seems it is never too late

to accommodate alternative ways of meeting the world.

Their trust in me and my capabilities encourages me

to believe in

myself

and this quality of the therapist is

crucial if she is to authentically con vey to her clients that

she believes in them and their own capacity for healing

and growth.

Buddhism teaches that life is constantly changing

in a dynamic way dependent on both internal and

external processes and cond itions. It has much to

offer dramatherapy, and dramatherapy lends itself very

generously to the exploration and transformation of the

client's attachment patterns; obstacles which may have

served some function at some time but now prevent the

client from growth and self-realisation.

As a Buddhist dramatherapist my intention is to

create and maintain an unconditional acceptance of my

client based on Buddh ist confemplative practice. The

deep respect I have for my client, for their innate wisdom

and their ability to work with the organisation of their

own experience is encapsulated in the Rumi poem, 'This

Being Hum an'. Together, we create the conditions that

allow the client to harness their energy and to effect core

change in their life.

References

Ainswo rth, M. Wittig, B. (1969) 'Attachmen t and

exploratory behaviour of one-year-olds in a strange

situation' in B.M. Foss (ed) Determinants of infant

behaviour,vol. 4, London: Methuen.

Ainsw orth, M., Blehar, M ., Waters, E., and Wall, s. (1978)

Patterns of attachment: assessed in the strange situation

and at home,

Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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