Attention-centred InformationAttention-centred Informationin Languagein Language

Attention-centred InformationAttention-centred Informationin Languagein Language

Hélène WŁODARCZYKHélène WŁODARCZYK

Université Paris-Sorbonne (CELTA)

Hélène WŁODARCZYKHélène WŁODARCZYK

Université Paris-Sorbonne (CELTA)

MIC Sorbonne 2012New Standards for Language Studies

Attention:Attention:from psychology to languagefrom psychology to language

““Attention defines the mental ability to Attention defines the mental ability to select select stimuli, responses, stimuli, responses, memories, or thoughts that are behaviourally memories, or thoughts that are behaviourally relevantrelevant, among , among the many others that are behaviourally irrelevant”.the many others that are behaviourally irrelevant”.(Corbetta, 1998, p. 831).

“it is likely that the most accessible (e.g., visually most salient) referent will be articulated before other referents taking part in the event and that it will be assigned as the most prominent grammatical constituent, for example, the Subject.”(Myachikov et al. 2009). From Russell Tomlin’s investigations.

See prof. Franz Stachowiak’s presentation at this workshop.

From Mental Representation toFrom Mental Representation toLinguistic UtteranceLinguistic Utterance

Example of a Example of a mental representation mental representation (what a speaker (what a speaker meansmeans): ):

Semantic Situation : Semantic Situation : a man, a doga man, a dogSpatial Anchor: Spatial Anchor: a park,a park,Temporal Anchor: the time of the speech act (Temporal Anchor: the time of the speech act (present)present)

To build a linguistic utteranceTo build a linguistic utterance on the basis of a mental representation the speaker on the basis of a mental representation the speaker may choose — in the limits of his/her own langage — may choose — in the limits of his/her own langage — a point of view on the a point of view on the situation situation and propose or impose it on the hearer.and propose or impose it on the hearer.

(1) The speaker chooses a verb to refer to the situation from a certain point of view (1) The speaker chooses a verb to refer to the situation from a certain point of view but this verb imposes its but this verb imposes its valence.valence.

(2) The speaker then (a) chooses among the participants or anchors of the (2) The speaker then (a) chooses among the participants or anchors of the situation his/her main situation his/her main centre of attentioncentre of attention (CA)(CA); (b) assigns to the whole utterance ; (b) assigns to the whole utterance — or only to one distinguished CA contrasting with the rest — — or only to one distinguished CA contrasting with the rest — a meta-informative a meta-informative old or new status.old or new status.

Cultural and Individual SubjectivityCultural and Individual Subjectivityin Natural Language Utterancesin Natural Language Utterances

1.1. Cultural choices are imposed on the speaker by his/her language Cultural choices are imposed on the speaker by his/her language conventions including conventions including lexical meanslexical means and and grammaticized conceptsgrammaticized conceptse.g.e.g.• the use of honorifics or personal morphemes with a verb,the use of honorifics or personal morphemes with a verb,• the canonical word-order of subject, object and verb,the canonical word-order of subject, object and verb,• the use of an article in each noun phrase,the use of an article in each noun phrase,• the use of one of the Tense or Aspect value available in a given languagethe use of one of the Tense or Aspect value available in a given languageetc.etc.2. The speaker’s individual choices (depending on his discourse strategy) 2. The speaker’s individual choices (depending on his discourse strategy) among the among the alternative constructionsalternative constructions available in his/her language: available in his/her language:e.g.e.g.•the choice of an active, passive or impersonal constructionthe choice of an active, passive or impersonal construction•the choice of a verb among several lexemes refering to the same situation from the choice of a verb among several lexemes refering to the same situation from different points of view: different points of view: sell sell or or buybuy, , give give or or receive,receive,etc.etc.

The communicative fieldThe communicative fieldcommon to hearer and speakercommon to hearer and speaker

In order In order to communicate informationto communicate information about his mental about his mental representations, the speaker has representations, the speaker has to create a communicative to create a communicative fieldfield making it possible to build an utterance which can be making it possible to build an utterance which can be understood by the hearerunderstood by the hearer

In this field the speaker proposes to the hearer distinguished In this field the speaker proposes to the hearer distinguished chunks of information (his/her chunks of information (his/her Centres of AttentionCentres of Attention worded as worded as Attention-Driven PhrasesAttention-Driven Phrases) and attaches to them ) and attaches to them old old or or new new meta-informative statusmeta-informative status..

Cf. Tomorrow Prof. Yasunari Harada and Dr Dorota Zielinska will give deeper Cf. Tomorrow Prof. Yasunari Harada and Dr Dorota Zielinska will give deeper insight into the communicative fieldinsight into the communicative field

What is Information ?What is Information ?

In the age of unification of cognitive sciences, the term information should be used similarly in linguistics and in information (computer) science.

We consider Information as the semantic content of an utterance.

InformationInformation is produced when relations are established between entities. The components of semantic situations are: The components of semantic situations are:

(1) static or dynamic (1) static or dynamic frames (states, events and processes)frames (states, events and processes),,(2) their (2) their roles roles (enacted by animate (enacted by animate agents agents and/or inanimate and/or inanimate figuresfigures))(3) and (3) and anchors anchors (indicators of spatio-temporal relations).(indicators of spatio-temporal relations).

In linguistic messages information is always partial: speakers express only what is obligatory (grammaticized in their language) and what is relevant from their point of view i.e. what they pay attention to.

What is Meta-Information ?What is Meta-Information ?

Meta-Information is information about another information. In order to achieve the ordering of non-linear mental representations as texts (sequences of linguistic utterances), the speaker must select one or more Centre(s) of Attention (CA) and predicate about it/them.

Although meta-information belongs to the pragmatic dimension of language it is not a mere supplement to the semantic and syntactic structures of utterances.

What linguists usually call “What linguists usually call “information structure” information structure” following following the Prague School’s tradition we name the Prague School’s tradition we name meta-informationmeta-information..

Meta-Informative Old or New statusMeta-Informative Old or New statusand Truth Validity of an Utteranceand Truth Validity of an Utterance

The semantic validation of utterances as The semantic validation of utterances as True or FalseTrue or False is well known in is well known in logic and linguistics. But linguistic messages are always also logic and linguistics. But linguistic messages are always also characterised by another type of validation : they have to be introduced characterised by another type of validation : they have to be introduced into discourse either as into discourse either as Old or NewOld or New information, also called information, also called Given Given and and New New by linguists. This need to introduce information as old or new gives by linguists. This need to introduce information as old or new gives rise to what we call the rise to what we call the meta-informative status of utterancesmeta-informative status of utterances..

We propose to distinguish thoroughly between information as a piece of knowledge about a situation (as a representation of the world) and predication as communication about it. Truth validity concerns information itself whereas O/N meta-informative status concerns predication.

Many problems in linguistic science arise from the confusion of these two levels.

Attention-Driven PhrasesAttention-Driven PhrasesExpressing Centres of AttentionExpressing Centres of Attention

In order to communicate non-linear semantic information the speaker has In order to communicate non-linear semantic information the speaker has to select one of the participants of the semantic situation as the global to select one of the participants of the semantic situation as the global primaryprimary centre of attention. centre of attention. And he/she may select another participant as And he/she may select another participant as a the local secondary centre of attention.a the local secondary centre of attention.

A A segmentsegment of an expression — representing an element of a semantic of an expression — representing an element of a semantic situation or a whole situation — is “centered” (treated by the speaker as a situation or a whole situation — is “centered” (treated by the speaker as a Centre of Attention) if it has been Centre of Attention) if it has been distinguished among other elements or distinguished among other elements or situations by linguistic meta-informative markerssituations by linguistic meta-informative markers (syntactic, morphological, (syntactic, morphological, prosodic or any pragmatic marker).prosodic or any pragmatic marker).

Centres of AttentionCentres of Attentionin the MIC theoryin the MIC theory

In the MIC theory, we treat Subject, Object, Topic and In the MIC theory, we treat Subject, Object, Topic and Focus as resulting from the choice of a “Focus as resulting from the choice of a “Centre of AttentionCentre of Attention (CA)” and consider them not only as psychological phenomena (CA)” and consider them not only as psychological phenomena but also as segments of linguistic utterances: but also as segments of linguistic utterances: Attention-Driven Attention-Driven PhrasesPhrases (ADP). (ADP).

No judgment may be made without selecting at least one No judgment may be made without selecting at least one Centre of Attention (CA).Centre of Attention (CA).

Centering is a structuring operation within the utterance —Centering is a structuring operation within the utterance —not only within a text not only within a text as in the American Centering Theoryas in the American Centering Theory..

Grosz B. J., Joshi A.K., Weinstein S. (1995) “Centering: a framework for Modeling the

Local Coherence of Discourse”, Computational Linguistics, Vol. 21, Nr 2, 1995, p. 203-226

Meta-informativeMeta-informativeand Semantic Patternsand Semantic Patterns

The choice of a verb implies a point of view on the relation between the The choice of a verb implies a point of view on the relation between the participants of the situation. In Indo-European languages, when one of the participants of the situation. In Indo-European languages, when one of the participant is an animate being or a human being acting as an agent it is participant is an animate being or a human being acting as an agent it is likely to be chosen as the main centre of attention (anthropocentric point of likely to be chosen as the main centre of attention (anthropocentric point of view). A non human or non animate entity will be more frequently treated as view). A non human or non animate entity will be more frequently treated as a secondary centre of attention.a secondary centre of attention.

Verb valency determines the canonical word order in the unmarked voice, i. Verb valency determines the canonical word order in the unmarked voice, i. e. the active voice in nominative (non-ergative) languages.e. the active voice in nominative (non-ergative) languages.

Linguistic devices make it possible to change the CA of a situation:Linguistic devices make it possible to change the CA of a situation:Lexical voice transformation (passivization), Lexical voice transformation (passivization), makes it possible for the makes it possible for the speaker to choose which participant will be the global CA: speaker to choose which participant will be the global CA: to buyto buy//to sell, to to sell, to give/to receive, donner/recevoir, give/to receive, donner/recevoir, kriegen/bekommen.kriegen/bekommen.GGrammatical devices: word-order, active, passive, or impersonal voice.rammatical devices: word-order, active, passive, or impersonal voice.

BaseBase and Extended Utterances and Extended Utterancesduality of meta-informative statusduality of meta-informative status

Each utterance contains at least one centre of attention (CA).Each utterance contains at least one centre of attention (CA).The CA may be either of the The CA may be either of the samesame or of a or of a differentdifferent (Old or (Old or

New) meta-informative status than the rest of the utterance.New) meta-informative status than the rest of the utterance.

In a In a basebase utterance there is utterance there is no contrastno contrast between the status of between the status of the global CA and that of the rest of the utterance: it is either all the global CA and that of the rest of the utterance: it is either all New or all Old.New or all Old.

Centres of attention of extended utterances Centres of attention of extended utterances contrastcontrast with the with the rest of the utterance.rest of the utterance.

The The Topic Topic bearing an Old meta-informative status is in bearing an Old meta-informative status is in contrast with the New contrast with the New CommentComment, the , the Focus Focus of New meta-of New meta-informative status is in contrast with the Old informative status is in contrast with the Old Background Background (O).(O).

Homogenous and contrastingHomogenous and contrastingmeta-informative statusesmeta-informative statuses

BaseBase Utterance Schemas Utterance Schemas BaseBase Utterance (Examples) Utterance (Examples)

(New) Subject : (New) Predicate(New) Subject : (New) Predicate #1 A new satellite has been #1 A new satellite has been launched today.launched today.

(Old) Subject : (Old) Predicate(Old) Subject : (Old) Predicate #2 Satellites turn around the Earth.#2 Satellites turn around the Earth.

Extended Utterance SchemasExtended Utterance Schemas Extended Utterance Extended Utterance (Examples)(Examples)

(Old) Topic : (New) Comment(Old) Topic : (New) Comment #3 As regards satellite, X03 it has #3 As regards satellite, X03 it has been destroyed by a meteorite.been destroyed by a meteorite.

(New) Focus : (Old) Background(New) Focus : (Old) Background #4 It is satellite X03 which was #4 It is satellite X03 which was destroyed today. destroyed today.

Meta-informative pivots of discourseMeta-informative pivots of discourse

Pragmatic levelsPragmatic levelsCentres of AttentionCentres of Attention

GlobalGlobal LocalLocal

Meta-Level 1 : Meta-Level 1 : basebase Utterance Utterance SubjectSubject ObjectObject

Meta-Level 2 : Extended UtteranceMeta-Level 2 : Extended Utterance TopicTopic FocusFocus

Meta-Level 3 : Dialogue/TextMeta-Level 3 : Dialogue/Text GeneralGeneral

ThemeTheme

ParticularParticular

ThemeTheme

N.B. Level ø corresponds to the situation itself, it is not expressed directly N.B. Level ø corresponds to the situation itself, it is not expressed directly in linguistic utterances. In case of a binary relation, it can be represented in linguistic utterances. In case of a binary relation, it can be represented by the logical formula by the logical formula p(x, y) p(x, y) in which in which xx enacts the active role and enacts the active role and yy the the passive passive role.role.

Patterns of Situations in Language:Patterns of Situations in Language:Verbs and Noun PhrasesVerbs and Noun Phrases

Verbs subcategorize (traditionally „govern”) NPs which point at different Verbs subcategorize (traditionally „govern”) NPs which point at different dimensions of language : semantics and pragmatics. dimensions of language : semantics and pragmatics. The verb valence is an The verb valence is an heterogenous bag of relations: the subject and direct object are heterogenous bag of relations: the subject and direct object are Attention-Attention-driven Phrasesdriven Phrases expressing centres of attention. Indirect objects (expressed expressing centres of attention. Indirect objects (expressed by PPs prepositional phrases or NPs in oblique cases) point at semantic by PPs prepositional phrases or NPs in oblique cases) point at semantic roles and anchors roles and anchors thanks to their case marker or to the preposition with thanks to their case marker or to the preposition with which they occurwhich they occur

The Subject and Direct Object as The Subject and Direct Object as Centres of Attention combine freely with Centres of Attention combine freely with semantic rolessemantic roles::#1 A car (subject) hit a pedestrian.#1 A car (subject) hit a pedestrian.#2 A pedestrian (subject) was hit by a car.#2 A pedestrian (subject) was hit by a car.

But there is a But there is a default relationdefault relation between the subject of an active verb and the between the subject of an active verb and the active role, the direct object and the passive role in the semantic situation active role, the direct object and the passive role in the semantic situation patternpattern#3 The doctor (subject) treated the patient (direct object) with antibiotics (indirect #3 The doctor (subject) treated the patient (direct object) with antibiotics (indirect object: means).object: means).

Subject and ObjectSubject and Objectare Attention-Driven Phrasesare Attention-Driven Phrases

Expressing Centres of AttentionExpressing Centres of Attention

The The subject of the utterance is the most important and global Attention-of the utterance is the most important and global Attention-Driven Phrase (ADP) about which the speaker Driven Phrase (ADP) about which the speaker predicatespredicates.. A A secondary centre of attention may be expressed as the may be expressed as the object, the , the second ADP second ADP

“the subject and DO (direct object) may be viewed as the grammaticalized primary and secondary topic of the discourse at the time when the clause in which they partake is being processed.” (Givon 1994, 198)

Givón, T., 1994, "The Pragmatics of Voice : Functional and Typological Aspects" Givon, T. (ed.), Voice and Inversion, Typological Studies in Language 28, Amsterdam-Philadelphia, John Benjamins, pp. 3-44

N.B. what Givon calls “topic” we call more generally the “centre of attention”.

Attention- Driven Phrases and other NPsAttention- Driven Phrases and other NPsin a Base Utterancein a Base Utterance

The difference between so-called The difference between so-called abstract abstract cases (Nom and Acc) and cases (Nom and Acc) and concrete concrete cases (Dat, Inst, Loc etc. ) appeared as a cases (Dat, Inst, Loc etc. ) appeared as a serendipityserendipity result in our result in our interactive investigation of the Polish gender with the SEMANA software.interactive investigation of the Polish gender with the SEMANA software.

This is shown on the next slide by the results of the STAT 3 analysis of the This is shown on the next slide by the results of the STAT 3 analysis of the Polish adjective declension morphemes (seen as syntactic relators).Polish adjective declension morphemes (seen as syntactic relators).

WLODARCZYK André & Hélène (2008) & SAUVET Georges, "Morphological Data Exploration  - Using The Semana Platform" (Feature Granularity Problem in the Definition of Polish Gender)", CASK Sorbonne 2008 (Language Data Mining) International conference, June, 13th-14th, 2008, Université Paris-Sorbonne – Paris 4 This entire ppt is downloadable from the webpage http://celta.paris-sorbonne.fr/anasem/papers/

PROJECTION DANS LE PLAN FACTORIEL [1,2]| Horizontal: Axe #2 (Inertie: 12.81%) ——— Vertical: Axe #1 (Inertie: 13.05%)| Largeur: 1.798197; Hauteur: 2.123853; Nombre de points : 27+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------tem------------+--10| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | tej | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | dat | 00| | | 00| sin| | 00| te* tego | | 10ta to ten | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | tym ta* | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00+-----------------------------------------------inahum---gen---------------------------+--40| nhumas | 20| nom acc fem| | 10| neu| loc | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | ins | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| plu | 00| | | 00| ci | tych | 10| te | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | | 00| | tymi| 00+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+--00

axis 2

axis 1

3 6 43

1619

9

21

9

8

6

3

On one side: ta, to, ten, te*, ci, te are only nomin. and/or accus.

On the other side: tej, tych, temu, tymi, ta*, tymi are only genitive, locative, dative and/or instrum.

On one side: ta, to, ten, te*, ci, te are only nomin. and/or accus.

On the other side: tej, tych, temu, tymi, ta*, tymi are only genitive, locative, dative and/or instrum.

tego may be either accusative or genitive tego may be either accusative or genitive

Axis 2 separates syntactic relators

How many Attention-Driven PhrasesHow many Attention-Driven Phrasesare there in one Utterance ?are there in one Utterance ?

is it possible to express more than two centres of attention by more than two is it possible to express more than two centres of attention by more than two attention-driven phrases in one utterance ?attention-driven phrases in one utterance ?

There can be only two attention-driven phrases on the meta-informative level: There can be only two attention-driven phrases on the meta-informative level: one subject and one (direct) object in one base utterance.one subject and one (direct) object in one base utterance.

But the subject (or the object) can be a group of coordinated NPS:But the subject (or the object) can be a group of coordinated NPS:

(1) Peter and Mary bought fruits and candies.(1) Peter and Mary bought fruits and candies.

Are there more than one local CA in Are there more than one local CA in one utterance ?one utterance ?

In those sentences where two objects (direct and indirect) co-occur, or In those sentences where two objects (direct and indirect) co-occur, or where adverbial and/or prepositional NPs cooccur with direct objects, are where adverbial and/or prepositional NPs cooccur with direct objects, are they cases of double Local CA? Are they to be regarded as members of a they cases of double Local CA? Are they to be regarded as members of a single Local CA? single Local CA?

When there seems to be two local ADPs in addition to the Subject, there When there seems to be two local ADPs in addition to the Subject, there is no doubt that one of them is either a topicalised or focalised phrase (the is no doubt that one of them is either a topicalised or focalised phrase (the CA of the meta-meta-informative level), i.e. neither a "second" nCA of the meta-meta-informative level), i.e. neither a "second" nor or “double” subject, nor a "second" nor “double” object.“double” subject, nor a "second" nor “double” object.

André Wlodarczyk (2007 in Japanese) revisited the question ofAndré Wlodarczyk (2007 in Japanese) revisited the question of “double” “double” subjectsubject in Japanese utterances and came to the conclusion that when taking into acount the meta-meta-informative level a base utterance entails only one subject.The problem of double objects in some languages (German) remains to The problem of double objects in some languages (German) remains to be investigated in the MIC framework.be investigated in the MIC framework.

Are Indirect ObjectsAre Indirect ObjectsAttention-Driven PhrasesAttention-Driven Phrases

in Base Utterances ?in Base Utterances ?The question arises: when a verb governs more than one objects are they all The question arises: when a verb governs more than one objects are they all attention-driven NPs ?attention-driven NPs ?

Only the subject and direct object of a verb are attention-driven phrases, the Only the subject and direct object of a verb are attention-driven phrases, the other NPs are indirect objects and adjuncts introduced by case markers or other NPs are indirect objects and adjuncts introduced by case markers or prepositions pointing at the semantic role (or the type of anchor) of the entity prepositions pointing at the semantic role (or the type of anchor) of the entity they refer to.they refer to.

The question of The question of give give verbs in Englishverbs in EnglishBill gave a flower to his wife. -> A flower was given by Bill to his wifeBill gave a flower to his wife. -> A flower was given by Bill to his wifeBill gave his wife a flower. -> She was given a flower by her husband.Bill gave his wife a flower. -> She was given a flower by her husband.The object which can be transformed into the subject of the verb in the The object which can be transformed into the subject of the verb in the passive voice can be considered a direct object (the local CA).passive voice can be considered a direct object (the local CA).

ExamplesExamples

(1) (1) John opened the door with his key.John opened the door with his key. --- is a base utterance: "the door" is --- is a base utterance: "the door" is the Object, "with his key" is not meta-informatively centred.the Object, "with his key" is not meta-informatively centred.

(2a) (2a) John gave Mary a book.John gave Mary a book. -- is a base utterance: "Mary" is an Object. -- is a base utterance: "Mary" is an Object. The phrase "book" is not meta-informatively centred (it is not an object The phrase "book" is not meta-informatively centred (it is not an object because it is not in the prime post verbal position).because it is not in the prime post verbal position).

(2b) (2b) John gave a book to Mary.John gave a book to Mary. -- is an extended utterance: "a book" is an -- is an extended utterance: "a book" is an Object and "to Mary" is a Focus of the beneficiary role.Object and "to Mary" is a Focus of the beneficiary role.

Combination of Centres of AttentionCombination of Centres of Attentionof the Meta- and Meta-Meta-Informative Levelof the Meta- and Meta-Meta-Informative Level

Base utterance with two CAsBase utterance with two CAs: the subject and the object: the subject and the object(1)(1)René Descartes published the Discourse on the Method in 1637 in René Descartes published the Discourse on the Method in 1637 in Leiden (Netherlands).Leiden (Netherlands).

Extended utterance with three or four CAsExtended utterance with three or four CAs : the subject and the object of : the subject and the object of the meta-informative level ad the topic and/or focus of the meta-meta-the meta-informative level ad the topic and/or focus of the meta-meta-informative level can combine in one utteranceinformative level can combine in one utterance(2) As concerns the Discourse on the Method, the author, the French (2) As concerns the Discourse on the Method, the author, the French philosopher René Descartes had to publish it abroad.philosopher René Descartes had to publish it abroad.(3) It is in Leiden (Netherlands) that René Descartes first published the (3) It is in Leiden (Netherlands) that René Descartes first published the Discourse on the Method.Discourse on the Method.(4) As concerns the Discourse on the Method, it is in Leiden (Netherlands) (4) As concerns the Discourse on the Method, it is in Leiden (Netherlands) that René Descartes first published it.that René Descartes first published it.

More than one TopicMore than one Topicbut only one Focus ?but only one Focus ?

It is a well known fact that in spoken French it is possible to have several It is a well known fact that in spoken French it is possible to have several topics one after the other:topics one after the other:

(1)(1)Moi, ma femme, sa voiture, elle est tombée en panne sur l’autoroute.Moi, ma femme, sa voiture, elle est tombée en panne sur l’autoroute. Lit. me, my wife, her car, it broke down on the motorway.Lit. me, my wife, her car, it broke down on the motorway.

We found three utterances with two topics in a database of 580 Polish We found three utterances with two topics in a database of 580 Polish utterances. However, we did not find in the same db examples with more utterances. However, we did not find in the same db examples with more than one focus. This has to be verified on larger corpuses and in different than one focus. This has to be verified on larger corpuses and in different languageslanguages

CAs of the meta-meta-informative levelCAs of the meta-meta-informative leveland their anaphorical resumptionand their anaphorical resumption

One centre of attention may correspond to two attention-driven phrases in One centre of attention may correspond to two attention-driven phrases in the same utterance; this is the case in languages where attention-driven the same utterance; this is the case in languages where attention-driven phrases of the first meta-informative level (subject and object) are not phrases of the first meta-informative level (subject and object) are not marked by a case morpheme and have to be referred to by an anaphoric marked by a case morpheme and have to be referred to by an anaphoric pronoun after they have been left-dislocated by topicalisation or pronoun after they have been left-dislocated by topicalisation or focalisation.focalisation.

(1) (1) The flowersThe flowers, Peter bought , Peter bought themthem..(2) It is (2) It is Peter who Peter who bought the flowers.bought the flowers.In utterances (1) and (2) the CAs of the extended utterance are replaced In utterances (1) and (2) the CAs of the extended utterance are replaced int the background or comment part by an anaphoric pronoun: int the background or comment part by an anaphoric pronoun: who who and and theythey..In a language with case morphemes and explicit personal morpheme in In a language with case morphemes and explicit personal morpheme in the verbform no anaphoric resumption is necessary e.g. in Polish:the verbform no anaphoric resumption is necessary e.g. in Polish:(1 bis) (1 bis) Kwiaty Kwiaty kupił Piotr.kupił Piotr.(2 bis) (2 bis) To PiotrTo Piotr kupił kwiaty. kupił kwiaty.

ConclusionConclusion

We assume that there We assume that there are only two attention-driven phrases on are only two attention-driven phrases on the meta-informative levelthe meta-informative level: one subject and one object in a : one subject and one object in a base utterance.base utterance.But, on the meta-meta-informative level, i.e. in an extended But, on the meta-meta-informative level, i.e. in an extended utterance, it is possible to add new centres of attention : one, or utterance, it is possible to add new centres of attention : one, or even more topics and one focus. It is doubtful whether there even more topics and one focus. It is doubtful whether there can be more than one focus in an extended utterance.can be more than one focus in an extended utterance.

For the time being it is necessary to verify the above For the time being it is necessary to verify the above assumption on large corpuses and with native speaker assumption on large corpuses and with native speaker informants. informants.

© Hélène WLODARCZYK