tsc2016auditory distraction would produce similar driving behaviours as has been shown with visual...

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Michelle Chan, PhDEdmonton, Alberta8th International Conference on Urban Traffic SafetyApril 27, 2016

1. What is driver distraction?

Cognitive distraction

2. The emotional side of cognitive distraction

3. Social and cognitive influences of an in‐car passenger

4. Implications for road safety

Refers to any activity that diverts attention away from the task of safe driving towards atask‐irrelevant object or event

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Contributed to 10% of fatal crashes and 18% of injury crashes in 2013 (NHTSA, 2015)

Involves a triggering event or activity as Involves a triggering event or activity as opposed to inattention due to a cognitive state (e.g., fatigue) Visual distraction

Auditory distraction

Physical distraction

Cognitive distraction

Occurs when the cognitive processes associated with a competing activity withdraws attention away from the driving task

Attention as a resource amount of mental effort required for task performance (Kahneman, 1973;

Wickens, 1980)

Limited in capacity

Can be shared between tasks▪ When resource capacity is exceeded dual‐task interference

Cognitive workload

Cognitive distraction (dual‐task) Impaired driving

• Insufficient attentional resources is devoted to the driving and non‐driving related task at the same time

• The mental resources available for driving are inversely related to the cognitive workload of the concurrent secondary task

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Emotion‐related information (external to driver)

Roadside billboards (visual)

Auditory stimuli

Taboo billboards

Presence of a passenger

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KILLER SUNSETBANNER

Conscious experience of strong feelings

Behavioural, physiological, and neural changes

Valence and arousal

6

7

8

9

rousa

l High A

Positive Valence

HAPPINESSSERENITY

1 2 6 83 94 7

1

2

3

4

Low Ar

Arousa

l

Negative Valence

ANGERSADNESS

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Emotional relevance guides selective attention

Evolutionary advantage

Emotional stimuli are preferentially processed over neutral stimuli

Detected faster (Eastwood et al., 2001)

Remembered better (Kensinger & Corkin, 2003)

Examine the effects of emotion‐related distraction on driving performance

d i ll Experiment 1: distractions were visuallypresented on roadside billboards (Chan & Singhal, 2013)

Experiment 2: distractions were auditorily presented (Chan & Singhal, 2015)

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N=30

Four driving conditions Control – no distraction Neutral – 16 neutral + 4 target words Negative – 16 negative + 4 target words Positive – 16 positive + 4 target words

STISIM DriveTM simulator

Surprise free recall test at the end

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Chan & Singhal (2013)

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1. Determine whether emotion‐based auditory distraction would produce similar driving behaviours as has been shown with visual distraction (Chan & Singhal, 2013)

2. Examine event‐related potentials (ERP) related to emotion and cognition in single (non‐driving) and dual‐task (driving) conditions

P300

Stimulus Onset

The amplitude (“height”) of a peak can provide information on the amount of cognitive or attentional resources allocated to a stimulus/task

P300

N100

Primary task – e.g., simulated driving Secondary task – e.g., oddball task (ERPs recorded)

Capacity trade‐offs in cognitive resources between tasks

ERP amplitudes from the secondary task are compared under single‐task (e.g., oddball alone) and dual‐task demands (e.g., oddball + driving)

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P300 elicited from oddball task reduced in amplitude with

Dual‐task

Single‐task

driving task• Division of

attentional resources in dual‐task

Wester el al. (2008)

Single‐task(oddball task alone)

Dual‐task(oddball+driving tasks)

N=25

7 conditions1. Driving‐alone – no distraction2. Driving‐neutral – 20 neutral and 5 target words3. Driving‐negative – 20 negative and 5 target words4. Driving‐positive – 20 positive and 5 target words

5. Listening‐neutral – 20 neutral and 5 target words6. Listening‐negative – 20 negative and 5 target words7. Listening‐positive – 20 positive and 5 target words


ERPs recorded (time‐locked to the auditory words)

Dual‐task

Single‐task

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Reflects amount of working memory resources directed to the auditory stimuli

• NSW amplitude is reduced in dual‐task • Reflects a sharing of resources between the driving task and

auditory task

Reflects sustained attention to the auditory

LPP is most pronounced towards negative words

stimuli


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Emotional distraction captures attention in simulated driving

Attention was modulated by emotional valence (positive vs. negative) to differentially influence driving performance

Similar emotion‐attention system for visual and auditory stimuli during driving

“A class of emotionally arousing references with respect to body products, body parts, sexual acts, ethnic or racial insults, profanity, vulgarity, slang, and scatology”(Jay, Caldwell‐Harris, & King, 2008)2008)

Highly arousing

“Tabooness”

Processed differently thanother types of emotional information (e.g., Jay et al., 2008)

Examine the effects that highly arousing taboo information (words) presented on billboards have on driving performance (Chan, M d & Si h l i )Madan, & Singhal, in press)

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N=30

Five driving conditions Control Neutral Negative Positive Taboo – e.g., sex, bitch, orgasm▪ From Janschewitz’s (2008) taboo words database


Chan, Madan, & Singhal (in press)


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Taboo words better lane control, better memory recall, fewer false alarms

Cognitive tunneling?

High arousal can focus and narrow attention (e.g., Easterbrook, 1959; Hancock & Dirkin, 1982)

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Processing of emotional information can influence higher‐order cognitive processes

ff f ff Differential performance effects depending on the valence (positive vs. negative) and arousal (high vs. moderate) of the distracting content

Active social influence

Involves a deliberate attempt by one person to change another's thoughts or behaviour (e.g.,

di )goading)

Passive social influence

Less direct

Change in one’s thoughts or behaviour due to the presence of others or implicit norms

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Mere presence of others is sufficient to change behaviour

Cyclists in a race were faster with an audience ( l 8 )(Tripplet, 1897)

Compared to being alone, participants made less errors on a simple maze and more errors on a complex maze with an observer present (Hunt & Hillery, 1973)

Most common source of distraction among drivers (Huisingh et al., 2015; Sullman et al., 2015)

The presence of one or more passenger creates i l h i fl d i a social system that can influence driver

behaviour

Mixed findings Passengers divert attention away from safe driving

(Vollrath et al., 2001)

Passengers assist drivers (Lee & Abdel‐Aty, 2008)

Combine ERPs with a driving simulation to examine how passenger presence affects driver attention Primary driving task (easy vs hard) Primary driving task (easy vs. hard)

Secondary oddball task▪ P300 assessed▪ Amplitude reflects attention allocation to targets

All conditions performed with and without a passenger

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N=20 Repeated measures: 10 conditions

Passenger (P) No Passenger (NP)Passenger (P) No Passenger (NP)

Oddball task

Easy driving

Hard driving

Passenger (P) No Passenger (NP)

Easy driving + oddball task

Hard driving + oddball task

Single‐task

Dual‐task

Higher RMSE with a passenger (P) than no passenger (NP)

Chan, Nyazika, & Singhal (in revision)

P300

Pz Electrode Cluster

P300 P300

Amplitude of target tones smaller with a passenger (P) than no passenger (NP)• Passenger may have drawn

resources away from target processing


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P300 P300

Cz Electrode Cluster


Amplitude of target tones smaller with a passenger (P) than no passenger (NP)• Passenger may have drawn

resources away from target processing

Mere presence of a passenger is sufficient to consume driver attentional resources in a dual‐task situation

Reduced processing of target stimuli in difficult driving scenarios

Potential mechanism passengers impose additional cognitive demand on the driver

Emotion‐related information and in‐car passenger significant sources of cognitive distraction

Can modulate driver attention

▪ Visual and auditory emotion‐related distractionVisual and auditory emotion related distraction

▪ Overt (looking at billboards) and covert attention (presence of passenger)

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Roadway design Careful consideration for where on the road certain advertising billboards are placed

Guidelines on the content of billboards Traffic signs should not be placed near distracting or Traffic signs should not be placed near distracting or attractive objects

Avoidance of emotional speech messages/words in in‐vehicle systems

Passenger restrictions Learner’s condition in Alberta: Not permitted to have more passengers than seat belts▪ Should this be revised?

Eye‐tracking

Emotional images on billboards

Emotion‐related sounds (e.g., crying baby)

Different passenger aspects

Conversations

Peer passengers

Anthony Singhal

Action & Attention Lab(Department of Psychology)

Chris Madan Kathryn Lambert Simba Nyazika Milan Khangura

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Chan, M., & Singhal, A. (2013). The emotional side of cognitive distraction: Implications for road safety. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 50, 147‐154.

Chan, M., & Singhal, A. (2015). Emotion matters: Implications for distracted driving.Safety Science, 72, 302‐309.

Chan, M., Madan, C. R., & Singhal, A. (in press). The effects of taboo‐related Chan, M., Madan, C. R., & Singhal, A. (in press). The effects of taboo related distraction on driving performance. Acta Psychologica.

Huisingh, C., Griffin, R., & McGwin Jr., G. (2015). The prevalence of distraction among passenger vehicle drivers: A roadside observational study. Traffic Injury Prevention, 16(2), 140‐146.

Janschewitz, K. (2008). Taboo, emotionally valenced, and emotionally neutral word norms. Behavior Research Methods, 40(4), 1065‐1074.

Wester, A. E., Bocker, K. B. E., Volkerts, E. R., Verster, J. C., & Kenemans, J. L. (2008). Event‐related potentials and secondary task performance during simulated driving.Accident Analysis and Prevention, 40(1), 1‐7.

tsc2016auditory distraction would produce similar driving behaviours as has been shown with visual...

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