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Author Index
Abelson, H., 551 , 558
Aberdeen, J. S., 341 , 343
Abma, H. J., 84
Abraham, M., 420, 425
Abrahamson, C. E., 101
Abrami, P., 100, 101 , 102
Ackerman, P. L., 105
Adam, J. J., 341
Adams, B. C., 56
Addison, P., 369
Admiraal, W. F., 257
Agapova, O., 418
Aglinskas, C., 378, 379, 383 , 384 , 385
Aidman, E., 328
Ainsworth, S., 64 , 221 , 272 , 279, 457, 489, 491 , 499,500
Akaygun, S., 223 , 420, 423
Aksu, M., 571 , 578
Al-Ghafrey, S., 555 , 556
Al-Seghayer, K., 1 22 , 1 23 , 473
Alborzi, H., 539
Alessi, S. M., 216, 219, 224
Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., 83 , 275 , 278
Allen, B. S., 497
Allen, G. L., 341
Allinson, L., 315
Allport, D. A., 1 50
Allspach, L., 51 1
Almeida, L., 530, 531
Alonso-Tapia, J., 385
Altschuld, J., 490
American Society for Training and Development(ASTD), 1 1 2
Amon, E., 479
Anderson, J. R., 77, 100, 161 , 162
Anderson, R. B., 3 , 45 , 84 , 1 21 , 1 22 , 1 24 ,1 44 , 1 46, 195 , 271 , 398, 433 , 453 , 459,604
Anderson, T., 251 , 255 , 259, 261 , 264
Andre, E., 106, 107, 509, 51 2 , 514 , 517
Andre, T., 421 , 425
Andrews, L., 360
Andrews, T. K., 538, 540
Angeli, C., 254–256, 261
Anglin, G. J., 60
Anstett, M., 360
Antonis, B., 1 50
Arbaugh, A. B., 250
Ardac, D., 223 , 420, 423
Arens, K., 473
Asgari, M., 380, 381
Ash, I. K., xiii, 7, 375
Ash, K., 530
Ashby, R., 386
Assad, C., 555
Astleitner, H., 576
Astur, R. S., 532
Ataya, R., 250, 262
Atkinson, C., 7, 54 , 56
Atkinson, D., 468
Atkinson, R., 356
Atkinson, R. C., 24 , 45
61 7
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Atkinson, R. K., xiii, 81 , 82 , 83 , 106, 1 27, 205 , 208,209, 210, 230, 231 , 232 , 234 , 235 , 236, 237, 238,239, 335 , 393 , 401–403 , 404 , 406, 508, 513 , 516
Attree, E. A., 532 , 535 , 536, 538, 540
Atwood, M., 20
Ausubel, D. P., 319, 475
Avigail, O., 252 , 259
Aviv, R., 266
Ayres, P., xiii, 6, 27, 79, 80, 81 , 105 , 109, 1 10, 1 23 ,1 27, 1 35 , 195 , 232 , 327, 330, 596, 610
Azevedo, R., 224 , 319, 490, 491 , 498, 499, 500
Babcock, R. L., 341 , 345
Bacon, S., 468
Baddeley, A. D., 23–30, 34 , 35 , 36, 45 , 54 , 56, 71 , 75 ,1 48, 235 , 342 , 490, 510, 578, 598
Badger, S., 421 , 422
Badler, N., 508
Baek, E., 561
Baek, Y. K., 287
Baggett, P., 1 43 , 198, 456
Baggett, W. B., 458
Bagnara, S., 571
Bailey, J. H., 534
Baker, M., 223
Baker, P., 540
Baker, S., 345
Balajthy, F., 323
Bally, J., 431
Balota, D. A., 341
Bandura, A., 102
Banerjee, A., 413
Bangert-Drowns, R., 220
Bannert, M., 45 , 46, 54 , 56, 63 , 272 , 446, 492 , 493 ,498
Barab, S. A., 247, 539, 561 , 576
Barak, M., 422
Barbieri, E., 532 , 535
Bardram, L., 606
Barnea, N., 422 , 425
Barnett, M., 539
Barron, K. E., 104
Barron, R., 360
Barton, K. C., 381 , 382 , 385
Bass, K., 41 1
Bassok, M., 1 4 , 232 , 233 , 273 , 278, 280
Bastiaens, Th. J., 80, 84
Bates, J., 508
Baum, D. R., 528
Baumer, A., 1 10, 347
Baylor, A. L., 106, 108, 508, 514
Bayon, V., 535
Beach, R., 372
Beal, C. R., 364
Beardon, L., 528, 536
Beccue, B., 582
Beck, I. L., 363
Becker, D., 41 2
Behara, R. S., 255
Beishuizen, J., 221 , 222 , 223
Belingard, L., 538
Bell, J. T., 530
Bell, L., 56
Bell, P., 218
Benbunan-Fich, R., 255
Bendix, J., 606
Benford, S., 528, 536
Bengston, B., 51 1
Bereiter, C., 380, 418
Bergeron, G., 303
Bergin, R. A., 607
Berliner, D. C., 16, 551
Berman, T. R., 239
Bernard, M., 301
Bernard, R., 100, 101 , 102
Bernard, R. M., 255 , 258, 262
Bernstein, J., 477
Berry, D. C., 222 , 602
Bert-Erboul, A., 300, 304
Bertenthal, B., 542
Betrancourt, M., xiv, 7, 287, 288, 289,290, 291 , 294 , 346, 456, 457, 458
Bhattachyra, M., 250
Bibby, P., 272
Bielaczyc, K., 275
Biesenbach-Lucas, S., 251
Binkley, M., 1 24
Binru Huang, 100, 101 , 102
Birkerts, S., 357
Bisciglia, M. G., 250, 252 , 261
Bishay, M., 1 10
Bjork, R. A., 1 22
Black, J., 216
Black, J. B., 455
Blankinship, E., 382
Blok, H., 356
Bloom, E., 100
Blumenfeld, P., 41 1
Bobis, J., 163
Bocacz, S., 440
Bock, M., 299
Boechler, P. M., 578
Boeckheler, J., 292
Boerger, A., 320, 321
Boersma, K. (?Boersman in biblio), 256
Boire, M., 45 , 84 , 195 , 343
Bolhuis, B., 81
Bolter, J. D., 357, 358
Boltman, A., 539
Boneh, T., 431
Bonito, J. A., 51 1
Bonk, C. J., 254–256, 261
Booth, M. B., 386
Borokhovski, E., 100, 101 , 102
Borras, L., 477
Bosquet, D., 362 , 364 , 368, 380
Bosseler, A., 106, 51 2 , 516
Bourne, L. E., Jr., 1 22
Bove, W., 45 , 1 47, 162 , 167, 190, 492 ,498
Bowen Loftin, R. B., 529, 530, 538,539, 540
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Bower, G., 45 , 1 40, 328
Bowerly, T., 528
Boyce, M., 555
Bradley, B. A., 360, 363 , 367
Bradshaw, J. M., 508
Bragin, V., 422
Brandt, D., 355
Bransford, J. D., 1 2 , 1 3 , 32 , 33 , 298, 362 , 404 , 472
Brenner, W., 508
Brett, P., 472 , 478
Brewer, W. F., 216
Bricken, M., 529
Bridwell-Bowles, L., 356
Brinkerhoff, J. D., 574
Britt, M. A., 66, 300, 303 , 378, 379, 383 , 384 , 385
Britton, B. K., 1 24 , 362 , 364 , 368, 380, 461
Brna, P., 279
Broadbent, D. E., 222
Broers, N. J., 80
Brooks, B. M., 532 , 536, 538, 540
Brooks, L., 1 5 1
Brown, A., 319, 418
Brown, A. L., 1 2 , 1 3 , 32 , 33 , 234 , 275 , 279, 404 , 559
Brown, C., 472
Brown, D. J., 535 , 538, 540
Brown, J. S., 41 1
Brown, K., 248
Brown, S., 539
Brown, S. W., 366, 474
Brownston, L., 508
Bruce, B. C., 367, 369
Brunken, R., 1 26, 1 42 , 1 55 , 1 79, 197, 21 1 , 519
Brush, T., 389, 390
Bryman, A., 45 , 1 47, 162 , 167, 190, 492 , 498
Buckwalter, J. G., 528, 532
Bull, S., 500
Bunce, D., 410, 420, 423 , 425
Burgoon, J. K., 51 1
Burkhardt, H., 612
Burnett, J., 472
Bus, A. G., 364 , 368
Bush, V., 569
Butt, A., 1 49
Buxton, W. M., 478
Byers, J. L., 369
Byman, A., 260
Byrne, C., 530
Byrne, M. D., 290
Byrnes, H., 473
Cafolla, R., 573 , 582
Calfee, R. C., 16, 36
Calisir, F., 572 , 577
Callaway, C., 509
Callow, J., 369
Camacho, M., 413
Cammack, D., 250, 262
Camp, G., 80, 344 , 347
Campbell, J., 202 , 207, 210
Campione, J., 418
Campos, J., 542
Campos, R., 542
Canale, M., 468
Cannon-Bowers, J., 316
Caplan, L. J., 341
Cordova, 368, 370
Carey, J. O., 559
Carey, L., 559
Cariana, R. B., 482
Caris, M., 250, 261
Carlisle, M., 539
Carlson, R. A., 86
Carmel, F., 305
Carney, R. N., 56, 60, 333
Carpenter, P. A., 54 , 1 21 , 1 86, 363 , 479
Carroll, J. M., 81 , 90, 162 , 167
Cassell, J., 106, 107, 210, 516
Cassidy, S., 104
Cate, C., 290, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461
Caterino, L. C., 61
Catrambone, R., 80, 234 , 236, 237, 238, 290
Cattell, R. B., 105
Cazzulo, C. L., 532
Ceci, S. J., 105
Cederberg, C., 51 1
Cerpa, N., 84 , 1 42 , 1 43
Chambliss, M. J., 36
Chamot, A., 468
Chamot, T., 468
Chan, A. T., 302
Chan, Y. G., 302
Chandler, P., 26, 27, 28, 34 , 35 , 46, 63 , 79, 81 , 82 ,83 , 84 , 85 , 102 , 105 , 109, 1 21 , 1 23 , 1 24 , 1 27,1 28, 1 38, 1 39, 1 41–1 42 , 1 43 , 1 54 , 1 55 , 161 ,162–163 , 164 , 1 75 , 1 76, 1 78, 192 , 194 , 195 , 197,200, 231 , 232 , 235 , 272 , 283 , 291 , 292 , 294 , 327,329, 330, 331 , 332 , 335 , 343 , 345 , 346, 398,399, 400, 404 , 405 , 575 , 576, 596, 597, 598,599, 601 , 604 , 610
Chanlin, L. J., 358
Channell, J., 477
Chapelle, C., 469, 470, 471 , 475 , 477, 478, 482
Chapuis, N., 532 , 533
Char, P., 531
Charney, D., 300, 308, 500
Chase, P., 56
Chase, W. G., 20, 595
Cheema, I., 104
Chen, C., 300, 315 , 318, 571
Chen, H., 305
Chen, J., 529, 538, 539, 540
Chen, Q., 218, 220, 222
Chen, S. Y., 580, 582
Chen, Z., 218
Chennault, R., 472
Chera, P., 363
Chi, M. T. H., xiv, 7, 1 4 , 21 , 232 , 233 , 234 , 261 , 271 ,273 , 274 , 275 , 276, 277, 278, 280, 283 , 333 , 448,457, 461 , 516
Chin, E., 410, 41 1 , 41 2 , 421 , 425
Ching, C., 560
Chinn, C. A., 216
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62 0 author index
Chiu, C.-H., 302
Chiu, M. H., 273 , 274 , 275 , 280, 283 , 448, 457, 461
Cho, K.-L., 256, 263
Choi, S., 106, 1 1 1
Chomsky, N., 468
Chou, C., 258, 574 , 579
Christie, B., 266
Christie, M. A. T., 222 , 615
Chu, G., 555 , 556
Chua, C., 528
Chun, D. M., 45 , 66, 468, 469, 472 , 473 , 474 , 475 ,476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481 , 570, 578, 580
Chung, M., 275
Chung, S., 275
Churchill, E., 210
Clarebout, G., 508, 51 1 , 519
Clarihew, A., 316
Clark, D., 221
Clark, J. M., 34 , 71 , 342 , 472 , 490
Clark, R. C., xiv, 7, 323 , 500, 519, 589, 593 , 596,602
Clark, R. E., xiv, 6, 72 , 97, 98, 99, 100, 102 , 104 ,106, 1 10, 1 1 1 , 1 1 8, 1 28, 478, 516, 519, 594
Clarke, T., 79, 80, 1 10
Clements, D. H., 559
Clifford, B. R., 538, 540
Climent-Bellido, M. S., 531
Cobb, P., 559
Cobb, S. V. G., xiv, 7, 525 , 528, 530, 531 , 535 , 536,538, 539, 540
Cocking, R. R., 1 2 , 1 3 , 32 , 33 , 404
Cody, J., 426
Cognition & Technology Group at VanderbiltUniversity, 357, 367
Cohen, C. A., 454
Cohen, J., 1 74 , 190, 206
Coiro, J. L., 369
Cole, M., 248
Cole, S. P., 1 23 , 475 , 476, 477, 481
Coleman, D., 299
Collins, A., 41 1 , 559
Comenius, J. A., 50
Commack, D. W., 369
Conati, C., 234 , 275 , 284
Confrey, J., 559
Conklin, J., 300
Connolly, T., 253 , 256
Constance, J., 539
Constantinidou, F., 345
Constantiono-Gonzalez, M. D., 252 , 263
Cook, L. K., 36
Cooney, J. B., 62
Cooper, G. A., 20, 26, 1 37, 230, 232 , 238, 330, 397,596
Cooper, M., 26, 30, 109, 1 38, 163 , 194 , 197, 398, 404 ,405
Corbett, A. T., 100, 1 1 1 , 456
Corderoy, R., 496
Cordova, D. I., 364 , 368
Corno, L., 1 27
Corrales, B., 535
Corrie, C., 477, 481
Cortina, J. M., 1 74 , 190, 206
Coulson, R. L., 320, 321 , 362 , 367, 570, 571
Cowell, G. S., 479
Cox, P. W., 579
Cox, R., 279, 283
Craig, S. D., 106, 107, 108, 1 55 , 164 , 1 78, 193 , 204 ,208, 210, 508, 513 , 514 , 515 , 518
Craik, E. I. M., 1 20, 1 25
Craik, F., 474
Crawford, S., 305
Cromby, J. J., 535 , 538, 540
Cromley, J. G., 224 , 319, 490
Cronbach, L. J., 99, 1 27, 328
Crosier, J., 529, 530, 531 , 539, 540
Crowder, E. M., 283
Cuban, L., 8, 550, 589, 590
Cunningham, J. B., 219
Curry, J., 582
Curtis, D. C., 250, 254–256
Cutelli, E., 535
Czaja, S. J., 347
Czerwinsky, M., 302
Daele, A., 249
Dale, E., 357
Dallal, N. P., 307
Daneman, M., 54
Danielson, D. R., 307
Dar, T., 451
Darrow, M., 531
David, M., 252 , 259
Davidson-Shivers, G., 579
Davies, A., 1 5 1
Davies, I. K., 298
Davis, E. A., 218, 224
Davis, J., 410, 41 2 , 414 , 560
Davis, J. N., 472
D’Cruz, M. D., 526
de Croock, M. B. M., 72 , 80, 81 , 335
de Groot, A. D., 20, 21 5
de Hoog, R., 219, 222
de Jong, T., xiv, 7, 109, 1 10, 21 5 , 216, 217, 218, 219,220, 221 , 222 , 223 , 224 , 273 , 278, 280, 552 , 557,558, 573 , 605
de Leeuw, N., 273 , 274 , 275 , 280, 283 , 448, 457, 461
De Ridder, I., 472
De Simone, C., 250, 261
de Vries, E., 219, 222 , 223 , 573
Debreceny, R., 302
Deci, E. M., 519
Dede, C., 529, 530, 538, 539, 540
Dee-Lucas, D., 305 , 308, 317, 582
Dehn, D. M., 106, 509, 51 1 , 516
DeJong, M. T., 364 , 368
Dempsey, J., 559
Dennis, L., 1 5 1
Deno, S. L., 472
Derry, S. J., 81 , 230, 237, 491 , 561
Dershimer, C., 413
Desmarais, S., 76
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author index 62 1
Desrochers, A., 472
Deterding, R., 600
Deters, R., 500
Detweiler, M., 1 48
Dick, W., 559
Dickinson, A. K., 386
Dillenbourg, P., 289, 291
Dillon, A., xiv, 7, 300, 362 , 569, 570, 571 ,572 , 576, 579, 584 , 594
diSessa, A., 551 , 558, 559
Divine-Hawkins, P., 1 52
Dix, A., 318
Dixon, P., 230
Dochy, F. J. R., 1 29
Docq, F., 249
Doctorow, M., 37, 516
Doll, J., 105
Dooling, D. J., 298
Dori, Y., 422 , 425
Doughty, C., 472 , 475
Dow, G. T., 83 , 106, 1 76, 1 78, 205 , 209, 275 ,278, 283 , 345 , 346, 514 , 515 , 516
Downey, M. T., 385
Drake, D., 301
Drayton, B., 260
Dreher, M. J., 300
Driscoll, D. M., 106, 107, 108, 1 55 , 164 , 1 78,193 , 204 , 208, 210, 508, 513 , 514 , 515 ,518
Druin, A., 539
Dryer, C., 509
Dubreil, S., 477, 481
Duff, A., 104
Duffy, H., 532 , 533 , 534 , 540
Duffy, T. M., 104 , 247
Dufresne, R. J., 81
Duguid, P., 41 1
Dunbar, K., 223
Duncan, R. G., 224
Dupree, A., 362
Duquette, L., 472
Duran, R., 516
Durkin, D., 361
Durup, M., 532 , 533
Dutke, S., 56
Dwyer, D. J., 1 25
Dyer, D., 262
Eastgate, R. M., 526, 528, 536
Eccles, J. S., 102 , 105
Echt, K. V., 347
Economou, D., 539
Edelson, D. C., 383
Edmonds, D., 580
Edwards, D., 306
Edwards, L. D., 558
Effken, J. A., 508, 516
Egan, D. E., 20
Egbert, J. L., 253 , 256
Ehrenfeucht, A., 198
Ehri, L. C., 361
Ehsani, F., 477
Eisner, E., 500
Ekstrom, R. B., 578
Elen, J., 508, 51 1 , 519
Eley, M., 454
Elkerton, J., 456
Ellion, D. M., 530
Elliot, R. G., 86
Elliott-Square, A., 535
Ellis, A. W., 66
Ellis, J. A., 1 22 , 1 25
Ellis, R., 471 , 476
Ellsworth, R. A., 366
Elshout, J. J., 109
Engestrom, Y., 249
Enyedy, N., 223
Epstein, I., 302
Erickson, F., 551
Erickson, T., 108
Ericsson, K. A., 24 , 105 , 333 , 335 , 342
Erlich, Z., 266
Ertmer, P. A., 369
Evansm M. A., 561
Everson, H., 1 27
Fabos, B., 570
Faerch, C., 473
Fajen, B., 508, 516
Falk, J., 260
Fallside, D. C., 363
Faraday, P., 460
Faremo, S., 497
Farmer, L., 202 , 207, 210
Farr, M. J., 333
Farris, M., 468, 473
Faust, M. E., 341
Favart, M., 300
Fayad, P., 302
Feldon, D. F., xiv, 97, 1 1 4
Feltovich, P. J., 333
Feltovitch, P. J., 320, 321 , 362 , 367, 570,571
Fennel, S., 202 , 207, 210
Ferguson, D., 250, 261
Ferguson, E. S., 447, 450, 453
Fergusson-Hessler, M., 273 , 280
Ferretti, R. P., 386
Feuer, M. J., 551
Feyten, C., 478
Fienhold, J., 421
Fiolhais, C., 530, 531
Fischer, R., 468, 473
Fiset, M., 100, 101 , 102
Fishman, B. J., 251
Fisk, J. E., 341
Fitzgerald, G. E., 577
FitzGerald, P. J., 508, 509, 51 1 , 516,518
Flach, J. M., 1 20
Flaitz, J., 473
Flammer, A., 299
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62 2 author index
Fleiszer, D., 491 , 498
Fleming Seay, A., 290
Fletcher, J. D., xiv, 3 , 6, 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 19, 1 23
Flood, J., 355 , 357, 369
Fogg, B. J., 509, 51 1
Fogler, H. S., 530
Foltz, G., 360, 367
Foltz, P. W., 300, 302
Ford, J., 162
Ford, N., 580, 582
Foreman, N., 532 , 533 , 534 , 538, 540
Forness, S. R., 104
Fors, U. G. H., 607
Fost, P., 473
Fowlkes, J. F., 530
Francoeur, E., 422
Frank, K. A., 550
Frankola, K., 103
Fraser, D. S., xiv, 7, 525
Fredericksen, E., 103
Frederiksen, J. R., 217, 551 , 554 , 559
Fredricks, J., 41 1
Freitas, C. M. D. S., 530
Freitas, P., 290, 456, 461 , 602 , 603 , 604 , 610
French, J. W., 578
Frensch, P. A., 333
Fretz, E., 224
Frick, R., 1 52
Friedler, Y., 21 5 , 216, 218
Friedman, N. P., 55
Funch-Jensen, P., 606
Funke, J., 109
Furness, T., 530
Gabbard, R., 300, 569, 570, 571 , 572 , 576, 579, 594
Gable, D., 410, 420, 423 , 425
Gabrys, G., 379
Gaddy, M. L., 299
Gagne, R. M., 87, 596
Gallimore, R., 240
Gallini, J. K., 44 , 63 , 1 23 , 271 , 328, 433 , 453 , 459,460, 492 , 498
Galvin, T., 589, 590, 592 , 605
Ganeshan, R., 508
Garg, A. X., 454 , 457
Garrett, S. R., 508, 516
Garris, R. D., 1 25
Garsoffky, B., 292 , 294
Gass, M., 469
Gay, G., 1 23
Gee, J. P., 550
Gent, C., 539
Gentner, D., 562
Georgi, M. C., 379
Gerace, W. J., 81
Gerjets, P., 80, 230, 234 , 236, 238
Geva, A., 266
Gholson, B., 106, 107, 108, 1 55 , 164 , 1 78, 193 , 204 ,208, 210, 508, 513 , 514 , 515 , 518
Gibson, J. J., 543
Gifford, B., 223
Gijlers, H., 223
Gildea, P. M., 361 , 368
Gilinski, A., 341
Gillett, R., 532 , 538
Gilley, W., 559
Gillingham, M., 531
Gilmartin, K., 20
Gimino, A., 102
Giroux, L., 303
Gittleman, S. S., 457
Glaser, R., 1 4 , 21 , 109, 218, 232 , 233 , 273 , 278, 280,333 , 500
Glass, G., 100
Glavin, R. J., 80
Glenberg, A. M., 272 , 300
Globerson, T., 358, 363 , 491 , 561
Glover, J. A., 316, 482
Glover, T., 528, 536
Gluck, K., 100
Goldman, S. R., 271 , 298, 299, 362 , 472 , 499
Goldsmith, T. E., 304
Goldstein, D., 341
Gomez, L. M., 251 , 262 , 383
Gonzales, C., 287
Good, J., 279
Good, R., 413
Goodenough, D. R., 579
Goodman, J., 362
Goodman, K., 357
Goodyear, P., 1 10
Gordon, S., 302
Gorodetsky, M., 413
Gott, S. P., 607, 609
Gough, P. B., 356
Grabner-Hagen, M. M., 253
Grabowski, B. G., 254
Grace, C., 474
Graesser, A. C., 53 , 64 , 458, 461 , 509
Graf, M., 109
Graf, P., 457, 461
Grant, M., 560
Grantcharov, T. P., 606
Gredler, M. E., 550, 559
Greenbowe, T., 421 , 422 , 425
Greene, S., 381
Greenhalgh, C., 528
Greeno, J., 328, 41 1
Greer, J., 500
Gregoire,, J. P., 509
Greidenhaus, T., 473
Gretton, C., 539
Grice, H., 202
Griffiths, G. D., 526
Große, C. S., 82 , 230, 239, 240, 241
Grotzer, T. A., 105
Gruber, H., 109, 231 , 234 , 238, 275
Grusin, R., 370–374
Guerrera, C., 496, 497
Gulikers, J. T. M., 80
Gullo, D. F., 559
Gunawardena, C. N., 255 , 264
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Gundersen, D. E., 255
Gurel, Z., 572 , 577
Guri-Rozenblit, S., 272
Gurtner, J., 21 1
Gussarsky, E., 413
Gustafsson, J. F., 1 3 1
Gustavel, J., 302
Guterman, E., 358
Guthrie, J. T., 300, 306, 308, 319
Gutierrez, K., 551
Gzrondziel, H., 292
Haderlie, S., 582
Hadwin, A. F., 499, 500
Haggerty, D., 341
Hagman, J. D., 1 22
Hakkarainen, K., 251 , 253 , 254 , 258, 267
Hakkinen, P., 255 , 260
Hammett, R., 364
Hammond, N., 315
Hankey, J., 302
Hanley, J. E. B., 1 23 , 475 , 476, 481
Hannafin, K. M., 1 20
Hannafin, M. J., 108, 1 20, 290, 456
Hanson, D., 356
Hara, N., 254–256, 261
Harackiewicz, J. M., 104
Hardinger, S., 422
Hardman, L., 306
Harel, I., 559, 560, 563
Harman, H. H., 578
Harp, S. F., 80, 191 , 192 , 209, 210, 491 , 596
Harper, B., 490, 496
Hartley, J., 298
Hartman, M., 341
Haseman, W. D., 292 , 579
Hasher, L., 341 , 343 , 345
Hausmann, R. G. M., 280, 283
Hawamdeh, S., 581
Hay, K. E., 530, 539
Hayes, D. A., 272
Hayes, J. R., 21
Hayes-Roth, B., 508
Hays, R. T., 219
Healy, A. F., 1 22
Heath, S. B., 355 , 357
Hecht, H., 289, 290, 455 , 465
Hedberg, J., 490, 496
Hegarty, M., xiv, 7, 55 , 1 21 , 1 86, 272 , 289, 290, 291 ,293 , 329, 363 , 433 , 441 , 447, 448, 450, 452 , 453 ,454 , 455 , 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461 , 602 , 603 ,604 , 610
Heining-Boynton, A. L., 479
Heiser, J., 45 , 82 , 1 24 , 1 55 , 164 , 191 , 193 , 271 ,283 , 293 , 343 , 407, 453 , 455 , 456, 515 , 518,601
Hendricks, M., 344 , 347
Hendricks, R., 1 5 1
Henning, P., 248
Henry, R. A., 105
Henson, R. K., 104
Herl, H. E., 1 78
Hermann, H., 250
Hernandez, S. S., 472 , 478
Herring, S. C., 262 , 264
Herron, C. A., 1 23 , 475 , 476, 477, 481
Hesketh, B., 1 22
Hesse, F. W., 292 , 294 , 460
Hewitt, J., 261
Hickey, D. T., 222 , 615
Hidi, S., 1 27
Hiebert, J., 240
Hijne, H., 1 10
Hilbert, T., 241
Hill, M., 472
Hiltz, S. R., 255
Hiraga, M. K., 494
Hirst, W., 1 5 1
Ho, C., 360
Hoffman, B., 497
Hoffman, H., 531
Hoffman, R. R., 431
Hofman, R., 304 , 305 , 575
Holland, J. H., 76
Hollander, A., 531
Hollander, M., 473
Holmquist, S., 290, 291 , 329, 456
Holt, G. R., 249
Holt, T., 377, 378
Holyoak, K. J., 76, 236
Hong, N., 262
Hooper, S. R., 1 20
Hoosain, R., 31 2
Hopkins, E., 528, 536
Horn, J., 105
Horowitz, P., 558, 559
Horwitz, P., 222 , 558, 615
Houx, P. J., 341
Howard-Jones, P. A., 578
Howe, M. J., 479
Hoyles, C., 558
Hron, A., 333
Hsu, Y., 575
Huard, R., 508
Hughes, C. E., 530, 531 , 539
Hulin, C. L., 105
Hull, S., 301
Hulshof, C. D., 221 , 222 , 223
Hulstijn, J., 473
Hummel, H. G. K., 616
Hundhausen, C. D., 261 , 263
Huppert, J., 222
Hutchins, E., 254
Hwang, D., 104
Hymes, D., 468
Hynd, C. R., 362 , 364 , 368, 380
International Reading Association, 356, 369
International Society for Technology in Education,369
Intrator, S., 356, 366
Isaak, M. I., 457
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62 4 author index
Issroff, K., 267
Iyer, G., 291 , 293
Jackiw, N., 559
Jacobson, M., 362
Jacobson, M. J., 320, 321 , 362 , 367, 570, 571 , 576
James, R., 364
James, W., 1 19
Jamieson, B. A., 348
Jansen, C., 573
Jarvela, S., 255 , 260, 267
Jayawardena, S., 532
Jeffries, R., 20
Jehng, J. C. J., 256, 262 , 320, 321
Jelsma, O., 72
Jensen, E. D., 472
Jessup, L. M., 253 , 256
Jeung, H., 85 , 1 54 , 1 78, 235 , 343 , 399, 400, 404 ,405 , 604
Jih, H. J., 562
Jobst, J., xiv, 7, 569
John, B. E., 456
Johnson, A., 531
Johnson, B. T., 516, 518
Johnson, D. W., 248
Johnson-Laird, P. N., 54 , 55 , 298, 479
Johnson, M. K., 298
Johnson, R. T., 248
Johnson, W. L., 500, 508, 509, 51 1 , 516, 519
Johnston, J., 372 , 413
Joiner, E., 468, 478
Jolles, J., 341
Jonassen, D. H., xiv, 7, 247, 248, 254 , 255 , 256, 257,258, 261 , 262 , 263 , 359, 491 , 550, 561
Jones, A., 267
Jones, D. M., 534 , 540
Jones, L., 418
Jones, L. C., xiv, 7, 467, 473 , 477, 478, 479, 480,481
Jones, M., 422
Jones, T., 410, 41 2 , 414
Jorde, D., 221
Joskowicz, L., 451
Judd, B. B., 341
Just, M. A., 1 21 , 1 86, 272 , 363 , 433 , 448, 453 , 455 ,457, 459, 460, 461 , 479
Kaartinen, S., 223
Kafai, Y., 560
Kaiser, M. K., 289, 290, 455 , 465
Kalawsky, R. S., 543
Kali, Y., 454
Kalra, M., 76
Kalyuga, S., xiv, 7, 1 5 , 27, 63 , 80, 81 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 105 ,109, 1 23 , 1 24 , 1 27, 1 28, 1 54 , 1 55 , 164 , 1 78, 1 79,192 , 197, 231 , 232 , 325 , 327, 330, 331 , 332 , 335 ,343 , 575 , 576, 596, 610
Kamil, M. L., 356, 366, 473
Kamin, C., 600
Kanari, Z., 216
Kane, M. J., 234
Kantardjieff, K., 422
Kanuka, H., 251
Kaplan, D., 216
Kaput, J., 400, 558, 559
Karagiannidis, C., 106
Karchmer, R. A., 367
Karp, S. A., 579
Kaspar, G., 473
Kauffman, D., 319
Kavale, K. A., 104
Kayany, J. M., 371
Kear, J. J., 366
Keehner, M., 454
Keeves, J., 274 , 278, 281
Kehoe, E. J., 161
Keil, F. C., 462
Kellogg, G. S., 479
Kelly, M., 478
Kenelman, A., 216
Kennedy, C., 103
Kennedy, R. S., 530
Kern, R., 467, 479
Kerr, S., 528, 536, 538
Kerr, S. J., 535 , 536, 539, 540
Keselman, A., 218
Kester, L., xv, 2 , 6, 71 , 72 , 79, 81 , 84 , 105 , 1 10, 1 27,334 , 347
Kettanurak, V. N., 292 , 579
Kettel, L., 500
Khoo, H., 86
Kidd, G., 328
Kieras, D. E., 299
Kiesler, S., 51 1
Kim, B., 530
Kim, H., 356, 366
Kim, K.-S., 580
Kim, L., 528
Kim, M., 473
Kindfield, A. C. H., 222 , 615
Kini, A. S., 1 20, 555
Kinshuk, 106
Kintsch, E., 56, 461
Kintsch, W., 24 , 53 , 55 , 56, 65 , 298, 299, 316, 319,321 , 335 , 342 , 400–401 , 403 , 404 , 405 , 461 , 479
Kinzer, C. K., 250, 262 , 355 , 362 , 368, 369
Kirasic, K. C., 341
Kirby, J. R., 66, 279, 580
Kirkley, S. E., 253
Kirkpatrick, H., 550
Kirriemuir, J., 559
Kirsch, I., 306, 308
Kirschner, P. A., 72 , 79, 81 , 84 , 105 , 1 10, 1 27, 334 ,347, 616
Kitchner, K. S., 261
Klahr, D., 218, 220, 223
Klein, J. K., 253 , 256
Kliegl, R., 341 , 343 , 345
Knauff, M., 55
Knerr, B. W., 534
Koedinger, K. R., 83 , 275 , 278
Kohn, A.
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author index 62 5
Kolar, C., 576
Kolb, D. A., 579
Kolers, P. A., 1 57
Koleva, B., 528
Korb, K. B., 431
Korhagen, F. A. J., 257
Koschmann, T., 283
Koskinen, P., 472
Kosslyn, S. M., 53 , 54 , 56
Kost, C. R., 473
Kostuck, J., 360
Kotovsky, K., 21
Koved, L., 301
Kozhevnikov, M., 455
Kozma, R. B., xv, 7, 98, 272 , 328, 355 , 410, 41 1 , 41 2 ,413 , 414 , 416, 418, 421 , 423 , 425 , 433 , 492 , 498,499, 500
Kozminsky, E., 298, 299
Kraiger, K., 316
Krajcik, J. S., 224 , 41 1 , 492 , 493
Krampe, R. T., 341 , 343
Krapp, A., 1 27
Krashen, S., 468, 469, 472 , 474
Kraus, L. A., 577
Kress, G., 371
Kreuz, R., 509
Kristiansen, V. B., 606
Kriz, S., 290, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461
Krug, D., 316
Ku, H. K., 251
Ku, T., 582
Kuhl, J., 576
Kuhn, D., 216, 255
Kuhn, M. R., 364 , 368
Kulhavy, R. W., 333
Kulik, C., 220
Kulik, J., 220
Kulikowich, J. M., 577
Kulvahy, R. W., 61
Kumar, D., 490
Kumpulainen, K., 223 , 259
Kupper, L., 468
Kurland, M., 559
Kushmerick, 508
Kwon, H. I., 256
Kyllonen, P. C., 1 26, 1 28
Labbo, L. D., 250, 262 , 356, 364 , 365 , 367, 368,369
Lachman, R., 298
Lafayette, R. C., 477
Laffey, J., xv, 7, 247, 249, 251 , 256
Lahar, C. J., 341 , 343
Lahti, H., 251
Lajoie, S. P., xv, 7, 489, 491 , 496, 497, 498, 499,500, 561
Lamarche, J.-P., 303
Lambert, N. M., 32 , 33
Lambert, W. E., 472
Land, S., 108
Landauer, T., 10, 571
Landes, S., 224
Lane, D. M., 356, 366
Lane, M., 369
Langston, W. E., 272 , 300
Lanham, R. A., 358
Lansdale, M., 578
Lapkin, S., 469, 476, 481
Lapp, D., 355 , 357, 369
Larkin, J. H., 21 , 63 , 163 , 305 , 308, 317, 457, 461 ,582
Larsen-Freeman, D., 470
Larson, K., 302
Laufer, B., 472
Laurel, B., 508, 509
Laurinen, L., 251 , 253 , 255
LaVancher, C., 273 , 274 , 275 , 280, 283 , 448, 457,461
Lave, J., 41 1
Lavigne, N. C., 496, 497
Lawless, K. A., 366, 474 , 577, 582
Lawson, M. J., 250, 254–256, 274 , 278, 281
Layne, B. H., 287
Lazarowitz, R., 222
Lazonder, A. W., 162 , 217, 218, 219, 224
Le, S. E., 302
Leadbetter, A. G., 538, 540
Leahy, W., 82 , 1 54 , 343 , 597, 599, 601 , 604 ,610
Learning Technology Center at Vanderbilt University,362
LeBaron, C., 283
Lebiere, C., 77
Lee, C. B., xv, 7, 247
Lee, D., 482
Lee, L., 477
Lee, M. J., 300
Lee, P. J., 386
Lee, S.-Y., 256, 258
LeFevre, J. A., 230
Lehman, J. D., 474 , 476, 481 , 574 , 576
Lehmann, A. C., 105
Lehrer, R., 559
Leibowitz, L., 273
Leidig, L., 318
Leinhardt, G., 378, 385
Lemke, J. L., 369
Lemon, M., 582
Lent, B., 508
Lentz, R., 60, 62 , 328
Lenzini, J. J., 473
Leonard, A., 536, 538
Leonard, J. M., 318
Leone, T. J., 218
Leong, S. C., 581
Lepper, M. R., 21 1 , 364 , 368, 500
Lerche, T., 231
Leroux-Demers, T., 219
Lesgold, A. M., 500, 607, 609
Lester, J. C., 106, 108, 1 55 , 204 , 208, 500, 508,509, 510, 51 1 , 51 2 , 513 , 514 , 515 , 516, 518,598
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62 6 author index
Leu, D. J. J., 250, 262 , 355 , 356, 369
Leutner, D., 45 , 66, 81 , 1 26, 1 42 , 1 55 , 1 79, 197, 21 1 ,468, 472 , 473 , 474 , 475 , 476, 478, 479, 480, 483 ,519, 570, 578, 580
Levie, H. W., 60, 62
Levie, W., 328
Levin, H. M., 100
Levin, J., 1 52
Levin, J. A., 219
Levin, J. R., 56, 60, 333
Levonen, J. J., 300, 308, 362
Levstik, L. S., 382 , 385
Lewalter, D., 433 , 493
Lewis, E. L., 219
Lewis, M. W., 1 4 , 1 10, 232 , 233 , 273 , 278,280
Li, L., 1 1 4
Li, Y., 251 , 252 , 253 , 256
Liao, Y. C., 571
Light, L. L., 341
Liker, J. K., 105
Limon, M., 223
Lin, D. M., 572
Lin, H., 574 , 579
Linden, P., 475 , 481
Linn, M. C., 109, 21 5 , 216, 218, 219, 490
Lipman, P. D., 341
Lipponen, L., 253 , 254 , 258, 267
Litvak, S., 530
Liu, M., 472
Lockhart, R., 474
Lockhart, R. S., 1 20, 1 25
Lockhorst, D., 257
Loconte, A., 535
Loftin, R. B., 529, 530, 538, 539, 540
Logie, R. H., 598
Loh, B., 383
Lohman, D. F., 328
Lohner, S., 224
Lohr, L., 251
Loizou, A., 279
Loman, N. L., 197, 299
Lomask, S. M., 222
Lomicka, L. L., 478
Long, D., 468
Long, M., 470
Long, M. H., 469
Lonn, S., 45 , 82 , 1 24 , 1 55 , 164 , 191 , 193 , 271 , 283 ,293 , 343 , 407, 515 , 518, 601
Loo, R., 104
Lorch, E. P., 299, 305
Lorch, R. F., 305
Lorch, R. F., Jr., 197, 299
Lort, M., 380, 381
Lou, Y., 100, 101 , 102
Lovett, M., 360
Low, H. L., 538
Low, R., xv, 6, 102 , 1 47, 1 53 , 1 78, 192 , 197, 235 , 343 ,398, 399, 400, 404 , 405 , 518, 610
Lowe, C. A., 255 , 264
Lowe, K. K., 493
Lowe, R. K., xv, 7, 53 , 288, 292 , 293 , 294 , 333 , 429,434 , 435 , 436, 437, 438, 440, 457, 458, 459
Luca, J., 251
Lucassen, B., 559
Luke, N., 555 , 560
Lund, K., 223
Lundberg, I., 360
Lundeberg, M., 51 1
Lundgren-Cayrol, K., 255 , 258, 262
Luursema, J. J., 80
Lyman-Hager, M. A., 472
Lynch, T., 468
Lynn, S., 382
Lyons, C., 596, 602
Lyster, R., 476, 481
Ma, R., 360
MacArthur, C. A., 386
MacArthur, C. D., 386
Macaulay, D., 456
Macedo-Rouet, M., 302
MacEneaney, J. E., 272
MacLatchy-Gaudet, H., 276
Macpherson, K. A., 239
Maddux, C. D., 590
Maehr, M. L., 1 27
Maes, P., 508, 509
Mageau, T., 590
Maheshwari, P., 454 , 457
Maier, U. H., 238, 239, 335
Maj, L., 535
Mallett, A., 539
Mamelak, A. N., 532
Mandl, H., 109, 234 , 238, 242 , 275
Manlove, S., 217, 218, 219, 224
Mannes, B., 316
Mannes, S., 300
Maouri, C., 576
Maran, N. J., 80
Marchigiani, E., 571
Marcus, N., 30
Margrain, S., 1 49
Markman, A. B., 450
Marks, C., 37, 516
Mars, R., 45 , 1 40, 1 47, 162 , 167, 190, 328, 492 ,498
Marshall, S., 383 , 440, 560
Martens, R. L., 80, 85 , 345 , 346
Martin, A., 380, 381
Martin, H., 362
Martin, M., 418
Martin, N., 422
Martin, R. J., 578
Martinez-Jimenez, P., 531
Marttunen, M., 251 , 253 , 254–256
Marx, N., 410, 41 1 , 41 2 , 414 , 421 , 425
Marx, R., 41 1
Mason, M. E. J., 482
Mason, R. A., 379
Massa, L. J., 104 , 1 1 1
Massara, A., 535
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Massaro, D., 106, 51 2 , 516
Masterman, E., 382
Mastropieri, M. A., 62
Masunaga, H., 105
Mathias, A., 79, 1 73 , 1 76, 346, 594 , 602 , 604 , 610
Matzko, M., 560
Mautone, P. D., 85 , 1 77, 192 , 204 , 207, 223 , 608
Mayer, R. E., xiii, xv, 1 , 2 , 3 , 6, 7, 1 1 , 1 5 , 23 , 31 , 32 ,33 , 34 , 36, 37, 44 , 45 , 46, 50, 56, 60, 61 , 62 , 63 ,64 , 65 , 66, 71 , 77, 79, 80, 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 99, 104 ,106, 108, 1 1 1 , 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 19–1 20, 1 21–1 22 , 1 23 , 1 24 ,1 25 , 1 26, 1 27, 1 28, 1 32 , 1 36, 1 39–1 41 , 1 43–1 44 , 1 46,1 47, 1 55 , 160, 162 , 164 , 167, 169, 1 70, 1 73 , 1 75 ,1 76, 1 77, 1 78, 1 85 , 190, 191 , 192 , 193 , 194 , 195 ,197, 201 , 202 , 204 , 205 , 206, 207, 208, 209, 210,216, 220, 221 , 223 , 235 , 236, 271 , 275 , 278, 283 ,291 , 292 , 293 , 294 , 299, 304 , 306, 308, 316, 323 ,328, 333 , 335 , 339, 342 , 343 , 345 , 346, 357, 367,393 , 396, 398, 400, 401 , 402–403 , 404 , 405 , 406,407, 409, 422 , 423 , 433 , 452 , 453 , 457, 459, 460,468, 471 , 472 , 473 , 474 , 475 , 476, 479, 480, 483 ,489, 490, 491 , 492 , 493 , 498, 499, 500, 507, 508,509, 510, 51 2 , 513 , 514 , 515 , 516, 517, 518, 538,540, 561 , 562 , 570, 575 , 578, 580, 581 , 584 , 593 ,594 , 596, 598, 600, 601 , 602 , 604 , 608, 610
Mayer, S., 83 , 106, 1 76, 1 78, 205 , 209, 275 , 278, 283 ,345 , 346, 514 , 515 , 516
Mayr, U., 105 , 341 , 343 , 345
Mazur-Rimetz, S., 162
McArthur, D., 1 10
McCabe, R., 360
McCalla, G., 500
McCallum, G. A., 1 25
McClean, C., 539
McClean, P., 530
McCloskey, M., 455
McCombs, B. L., 32 , 33
McConkie, G. W., 359
McDaniel, M. A., 482
McDermott, J., 21
McDonald, S., 304 , 572 , 573 , 577
McEwan, L. A., 250, 261
McEwan, P. J., 100
McFarlane, A., 559
McGee, J., 528
McGee, P., 369
McGinn, M., 41 1
McGlynn, D., 530
McGovern, L., 299
McKenna, M., 356, 366, 369
McKenna, M. C., 360, 363 , 367
McKeown, M. G., 363
McKillop, A. M., 364
McKnight, C., 318, 584
McLarty, K., 362
McLaughlin, C., 251
McNamara, D. S., 56, 275 , 280, 461
McNish, M. M., 362 , 364 , 368, 380
Meakin, L., 539
Meister, G. R., 100
Melara, G., 572
Mendozzi, L., 532 , 535
Merrill, D. C., 224
Merrill, M. D., 72 , 87
Merrill, M. M., 83 , 208, 234 , 238, 239, 402–403 , 404 ,406
Merrill, S. K., 224
Mestre, J. P., 81
Meyer, B. J. F., 298
Meyer, H. A., 1 27
Meyer, K. A., 250, 261
Meyers, S. D.Michas, I. C., 602
Middleton, T., 531
Mielke, K. W., 98, 99
Millar, R., 216
Miller, A. C., 340
Miller, D. P., 302 , 303
Miller, G. A., 21 , 24 , 35 , 361 , 368, 596
Miller, L., 357
Miller, M. S., 56
Miller, R., 219
Miller, W., 161
Millis, K. K., 53 , 64
Millogo, V., 300, 304
Mills, R., 366
Mintz, F. E., 440
Mintz, R., 530
Mishra, P., 576
Mitchell, D. R. D., 341
Mitchell, P., 528, 536, 537, 538
Mitchell, W. L., 539
Mitrovic, A., 106, 508, 509, 51 1 , 51 2 , 516
Miyake, A., 55
Mohageg, M. F., 306
Mohl, R., 544
Mohler, T., 531
Molinari, E., 532
Monk, A., 318
Monk, J. M., 545
Monk-Turner, E., 250, 252 , 261
Montello, D. R., 454
Montemayor, J., 539
Montgomery, C., 422
Moon, Y., 509
Moore, C. A., 579
Moore, J., 302
Moore, M. G., 341
Moore, P. J., 66, 279, 580
Moreledge, D., 539
Moreno, R., xv, 7, 32 , 45 , 46, 61 , 77, 80, 82 , 83 , 84 ,85 , 99, 106, 108, 1 22 , 1 40, 1 44 , 1 55 , 164 , 1 70, 1 78,1 85 , 191 , 193 , 194 , 195 , 197, 204 , 206, 207, 208,210, 217, 218, 220, 223 , 235 , 271 , 290, 291 , 329,343 , 400, 401 , 403 , 404 , 405 , 406, 407, 433 , 452 ,456, 460, 491 , 492 , 498, 500, 507, 508, 509, 510,51 2 , 513 , 514 , 515 , 516, 517, 518, 538, 540, 570,575 , 581 , 598, 600, 601 , 604 , 608, 610
Moriarty, S., 494
Morling, A., 532
Moro, W., 535
Morrell, R. W., 347
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62 8 author index
Morris, A., 508, 516
Morris, A. W., 249
Morris, B. A., 219, 559
Morrison, G. R., 99
Morrison, J. B., 290, 294 , 346, 456, 457, 458
Moshell, J. M., 530, 531 , 539
Moskal, P. J., 1 25
Motoda, H., 458
Motta, A., 532
Moundridou, M., 106, 107, 51 2
Mousavi, S. Y., 102 , 1 53 , 1 78, 192 , 197, 235 , 343 , 398,399, 400, 404 , 405 , 518, 610
Mulhern, J., 319
Muller, J., 106, 107, 509, 51 2 , 514 , 517
Mulligan, C. F., 1 25
Mulligan, C. P., 1 25
Mumme, D., 21 1
Munsie, S., 496, 497
Murdock, B. B., Jr., 1 49
Murphy, K. L., 254–256, 258, 268
Muyskens, J. A., 479
Mwangi, W., 235 , 238, 276
Myers, J., 364 , 369
Myers, J. L., 478
Nachmias, R., 21 5 , 216
Nadolski, R. J., 81 , 616
Naeve, A., 530
Nagao, K., 508
Najimi, A., 477
Najjar, L. J., 271
Nakamura, C., 7, 489
Nakheh, M., 410
Narayanan, N. H., 289, 290, 291 , 329, 433 , 448,453 , 456, 457, 458, 459, 461 , 602 , 603 , 604 ,610
Nardi, B. A., 249
Nass, C., 108, 202 , 509
Nathan, M. J., 400–401 , 403 , 404 , 405
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 389
National Center for History in the Schools, 377
National Reading Panel, 356
National Research Council, 41 1 , 551 , 560
Neale, H., 528, 529, 536, 538, 539
Neale, H. R., 535 , 536, 539
Neisser, U., 1 19, 1 5 1
Nelson, T., 477, 569
Nelson, W. A., 559
Neuman, B., 472
Neuman, Y., 273 , 278
Neumann, U., 528
Newman, D., 559
Newton, D., 261
Nguyen, 590
Nicholson, A. E., 431
Niederhauser, D. S., 315 , 362 , 575 , 577
Nielsen, J., 303 , 571
Niemi, C., 1 78
Niemivirta, M., 253 , 258
Nigam, M., 220
Nijhoff, W. J., 84
Nikolova, O. R., 477
Nilsson, R. M., 304 , 306, 308, 578
Nisbett, R. E., 76
Njoo, M., 1 10, 216, 217, 218, 223
Noah, D., 551 , 553 , 555 , 561
Nobuyoshi, J., 476
Noh, T., 419, 422 , 423 , 425
Nolan, M., 551
Noon, S. L., 105
Norman, D. A., 9–10, 499, 509, 555 , 562
Norman, G. R., 454 , 457
Norman, K., 302
Norman, K. L., 303
Nosek, J., 318
Noss, R., 558
Nouri, H., 1 74 , 190, 206
Oberauer, K., 1 26
Ocker, R. J., 250, 252
Oestermeier, U., 460
Office of Technology Assessment, 101
Ohlsson, S., 531
Okada, T., 223
Okolo, C. M., 386
Okonkwo, C., 51 1
Olin, K., 1 78
Olive, J., 558
Oliver, M., 258
Oliver, W., 477
Ollerenshaw, A., 328
Olson, J., 357
Olson, K., 372
Olson, R. K., 360, 367
Oltman, P. T., 579
Omaggio, C., 472
Omaggio Hadley, A. C., 479
O’Malley, C., 254
O’Malley, J. M., 468
O’Neil, H. F., 1 1 4 , 1 78
O’Neill, D. K., 262 , 380, 381 , 385
Oostdam, R., 356
O’Reilly, M., 261
O’Reilly, T., 276
Orion, N., 454
Orly, Y., 252 , 259
Osberg, K., 531
O’Shea, T., 251 , 252 , 253 , 256
Oshima, J., 253
Oshima, R., 253
O’Sullivan, P., 600
Otter, M. E., 356
Otto, R. G., 497
Otto, S., 468
Oughton, J. M., 582
Overmaat, M., 356
Ozden, Y., 571 , 578
Paas, F. G. W. C., xv, 7, 26, 27, 63 , 64 , 71 , 72 , 80, 81 ,82 , 108, 1 20, 1 26, 1 54 , 1 79, 197, 21 1 , 231 , 335 , 339,341 , 342 , 343 , 344 , 347, 348, 598
Padovani, S., 578
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author index 62 9
Painchaud, G., 472
Paivio, A., 2 , 34 , 45 , 54 , 56, 63 , 71 , 92 , 1 19, 1 21 , 1 24 ,222 , 342 , 367, 459, 472 , 490, 493 , 510, 561 , 570
Palinscar, A. S., 279
Palmer, S. E., 56, 450
Palmeri, T. J., 77
Palmiter, S. L., 456
Palmquist, R. A., 580
Palonen, T., 253 , 258
Pane, J. F., 456
Paolucci, R., 573
Papert, S., 551 , 558, 559, 563
Paris, S., 361
Parise, S., 51 1
Park, O. C., 457
Parkinson, S., 302 , 303
Parlangeli, O., 571
Parmley, M. W., 220, 555 , 558
Parnell, R., 532
Parrish, P., 430
Parsons, S., 528, 536, 537, 538
Pasqualotti, A., 530
Payne, D. G., 315 , 318, 321 , 322
Payne, S. J., 534 , 540
Pea, R. D., 491 , 559
Peck, C., 550
Peeck, J., 64
Peirce, C. S., 494 , 496
Pellegrini, A. D., 561
Penner, D. E., 218, 554
Penney, C. G., 23 , 75 , 1 49, 1 50
Perfetti, C. A., 56, 66, 300, 303 , 379
Perkins, D. N., 76, 105 , 363 , 491 , 561
Peruch, P., 538, 545
Peters, K. M., 262
Peterson, L., 22
Peterson, M., 22
Petz. W., 103
Phelps, A., 421
Phillips, C. B., 508
Philpott, L., 532
Piaget, J., 248
Pica, T., 469, 475 , 476, 481
Picard, E., 333
Picciano, A. G., 254–256, 260, 262
Pickett, A., 103
Pickle, M., 363
Pieter, W., 250, 262
Pilkington, R. M., 253 , 256, 261
Pintrich, P. R., 101 , 102 , 104 , 519
Pirolli, P. L., 230, 273 , 275
Plass, J. L., xv, 7, 45 , 66, 1 26, 1 42 , 1 55 , 1 79, 197, 21 1 ,467, 468, 469, 472 , 473 , 474 , 475 , 476, 478, 479,480, 481 , 483 , 519, 570, 578, 580
Platner, M., 539
Ploger, D., 551 , 558
Pollock, E., 79, 1 76, 329, 335 , 346
Polo, J., 531
Polson, P., 20
Pontes-Pedraja, A., 531
Poole, D. M., 259, 260
Poole, M. J., 249, 251 , 256
Poole, S., 550
Porteous, J., 539
Postovsky, V. A., 468
Potelle, H., xv, 7, 297, 305 , 316, 317, 319, 321 ,577
Potter, J., 532
Pouw, M., 572 , 573
Powell, W., 605
Powers, D., 531
Pressley, M., 361
Prevost, S., 210
Prins, F., 221 , 222 , 223
Proffitt, D. R., 289, 290, 455 , 465
Prothero, W., 1 77, 223 , 608
Pugh, K., 369
Pugnetti, L., 532 , 535
Pusack, J., 468
Quibble, Z., 307
Quilici, J. L., 80, 236, 290, 291 , 329, 456
Quinlan, K. M., 376
Quintana, C., 224
Rada, R., 300, 315 , 318, 571
Radinsky, J., 383
Radtke, P. H., 1 1 8
Rainer, K., 299
Rakestraw, J. A., Jr., 298, 299
Ramamurthy, K., 292 , 579
Randel, J. M., 219, 559
Ranney, M., 263
Ranta, L., 476, 481
Raskin, E., 579
Rasmussen, K., 559, 579
Ratcliffe, A., 418
Ravid, G., 266
Rebetez, C., 289, 291
Recker, M. M., 230, 273
Reder, L., 161 , 162
Reed, W. M., 472 , 577, 582
Rees, E., 21
Reeves, B., 202 , 509
Reeves, T. C., 262 , 359, 474 , 491 , 562
Regian, J. W., 545
Reid, D. J., 218, 220, 222
Reigeluth, C. M., 240
Reimann, P., 1 4 , 232 , 233 , 273 , 278, 280, 333 , 490,493 , 499, 500, 582
Reinert, H., 480, 580
Reinking, D., xv, 7, 272 , 355 , 356, 357, 358, 360, 361 ,362 , 363 , 365 , 366, 367, 368, 369, 370
Reiser, B. J., 218, 224 , 238, 383
Reitsma, P., 360
Remidez, H., 255 , 258
Renkl, A., xv, 7, 26, 81 , 82 , 83 , 109, 1 20, 1 27, 229,230, 231 , 232 , 233 , 234 , 235 , 237, 238, 239, 240,241 , 274 , 275 , 278, 335 , 342 , 343
Renninger, K. A., 1 27
Rensink, R., 457
Resnick, M., 558
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630 author index
Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., 340
Reynard, G., 528, 536
Reynolds, H., 535
Reynolds, L., 366
Reynolds, N. R., 535
Reynolds, P., 1 50
Reynolds, R. E., 315 , 362 , 575 , 577
Ricci, C. M., 364
Ricci, K. E., 1 25
Rice, M., 260, 261
Richardson, J., 584
Richardson, J. A., 104
Richardson, J. T., 104
Richey, R. C., 559
Rickel, J. W., 500, 508, 509, 516
Rickman, S. S., 361 , 368
Riding, R. J., 104 , 580
Rieber, L. P., xvi, 7, 1 20, 1 24 , 219, 220, 221 , 222 , 223 ,290, 456, 457, 493 , 549, 550, 551 , 553 , 555 , 556,558, 560, 561 , 563
Riempp, R., 292 , 458
Rikers, R., 80, 344 , 347
Ring, J., 360
Risko, V. J., 362 , 368, 472
Rist, T., 106, 107, 509
Ritchey, K., 299
Riva, G., 532
Rivlin, E., 451
Rizzo, A. A., 528, 532
Roberts, G., 590
Robinson, N., 219
Rogers, W. A., 348
Rogers, Y., 251 , 382 , 465 , 539
Roh, S.-Z., 303
Rohrer-Murphy, L., 561
Rollins, H. A., 1 50, 1 5 1
Roncarrelli, ?noalpha, 400
Rosch, E., 56
Roschelle, J., 558, 559
Roscoe, R. D., 276
Rose, A., 1 22
Rose, F. D., 532 , 535 , 536, 538, 540
Rose, H., 531
Rosenberg, J., 606
Rosenblit, L. G., 462
Ross, E., 369
Rost, M., 468
Roth, I., 318
Roth, W., 218
Roth, W.-M., 41 1
Rouet, J.-F., xvi, 7, 297, 300, 302 , 303 , 304 , 305 , 306,308, 316, 317, 319, 321 , 362 , 379, 577
Rourke, L., 259, 261
Rovai, A., 250, 252
Roy, M., xvi, 7, 271
Roychoudhury, A., 218
Rubin, A., 367, 369
Ruddle, R. A., 534 , 540, 545
Rummel, N., 241 , 250
Russell, J., xvi, 7, 250, 410, 41 1 , 41 2 , 413 , 414 , 421 ,425
Russell, T. L., 1 32
Rutten, A., 538
Ryan, R. L., 519
Ryokai, R., 106, 107
Rypma, B., 345
Ryu, J., 514
Sabol, M. A., 1 22 , 1 25
Sadoski, M., 367, 561
Sahl, K., 369
Saint-Eidukat, B., 530
Salas, E., 316
Salden, R. J. C. M., 80
Salmen, D. J., 315 , 362 , 575 , 577
Salmon, G., 257, 264
Salomon, G., 76, 83 , 98, 99, 101 , 102 , 104 , 248, 254 ,358, 363 , 367, 490, 491 , 561
Salthouse, T. A., 341 , 343 , 345
Salzman, M. C., 529, 530, 538, 539, 540
Samarapungavan, A., 320, 321
Sampson, D., 106
Samuels, S. J., 473
Sandoval, W. A., 218
Sanger, M., 421 , 422 , 425
Sangin, M., 289, 291
Santos, J. G. E. D., 252 , 263
Saussure, D., 494
Savelsbergh, E. R., 217, 218, 219, 224
Savery, J. R., 253
Saye, J. W., 389, 390
Scaife, M., 465 , 539
Scanlon, E., 251 , 252 , 253 , 256
Scardamalia, M., 380, 418
Scevak, J. J., 279
Schadelbach, H., 528
Schank, P., 416, 418, 423
Schank, R., 239
Scharmann, L., 419, 422 , 423 , 425
Schauble, L., 559
Scheiter, K., 80, 230, 234 , 236, 238
Schmid, R. F., 250, 261
Schmidt, H. G., 343 , 344 , 347, 348
Schmidt, R., 471
Schmidt, R. A., 1 22
Schmitz, J., 320, 321
Schneider, V. I., 1 22 , 360
Schneider, W., 21 , 86, 1 48
Schnotz, W., xiii, xvi, 2 , 6, 45 , 46, 49, 54 , 56, 63 , 272 ,288, 291 , 292 , 293 , 294 , 333 , 409, 433 , 446, 492 ,493 , 498
Schoenfeld, A. H., 240, 612
Schofield, N. J., 66, 580
Schoon, P., 573 , 582
Schrader, P. G., 250, 262
Schramm, W., 98, 99
Schuh, J., 236
Schultze, R., 1 26
Schunk, D. H., 101 , 102 , 104 , 519
Schuurman, J. G., 80
Schwan, S., 292 , 294 , 458
Schwartz, B. J., 20
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author index 631
Schwartz, D. L., 453 , 455
Schwartz, M. N. K., 299
Schwarz, B., 273 , 278
Schwarz, C. V., 559
Schweitzer, K., 231
Schwen, T. M., 575
Schwenz, R., 413
Schwert, D. P., 530
Schworm, S., 234 , 241
Scifers, E. L., 255
Scott, J., 539
Scruggs, T. E., 62
Segers, E., 360
Seibert, D., 224 , 319, 490
Seignon, N., 1 27
Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P., 251
Seixas, P., 376, 381
Severance, C., 275
Sha, L., 380, 381
Shaffer, L. H., 1 50
Shallice, T., 54
Shank, P., 263
Shapiro, A. M., xvi, 7, 304 , 305 , 313 , 316, 317, 318,320, 321 , 362 , 572 , 574
Sharit, J., 347
Sharp, D. L. M., 362 , 472
Shavelson, R. J., 551
Shaw, E., 508, 51 1 , 519
Shaw, G. P., 250, 258, 262
Shaw, R., 508, 516
Shea, P., 103
Shebilske, W. L., 545
Shehadeh, A., 476
Sheldon, S., 369
Shemilt, D., 381
Sherman, L., 539
Shiffrin, R. M., 21 , 24 , 45 , 54 , 56
Shneiderman, B., 301 , 303 , 509
Short, J., 266
Shotsberger, P. G., 250
Shute, V. J., 109, 218
Siegler, R., 276, 284
Silberstein, S., 473
Simon, D., 21
Simon, H. A., 20, 21 , 35 , 63 , 1 37, 163 , 223 , 457, 461 ,595
Simpson, A., 318
Sims, S., 76
Sims, V. K., 45 , 55 , 84 , 1 24 , 1 44 , 195 , 292 , 455 , 457,458, 460
Simsarian, K., 539
Singer, M. J., 219
Singh, N., 161
Sinkoff, E., 508
Sisson, N., 302 , 303
Skinner, B. F., 468
Skolmoski, P., 315 , 362 , 575 , 577
Skovronek, E., 341
Slamecka, N. J., 457, 461
Slator, B. M., 530
Slotta, J., 218
Sluijsmans, D. M. A., 81
Smith, B., 218
Smith, B. K., 382
Smith, E. E., 299
Smith, G. G., 250, 261
Smith, J., 333 , 555 , 560
Smith-Kerker, P., 162
Smith, M., 555 , 556
Smith, R. B., 251 , 252 , 253 , 256
Snapp, J., 316
Snow, R., 328
Snow, R. E., 99, 1 27, 328, 500
Snowberry, C., 302 , 303
Sobko, K., 204 , 207
Soederberg Miller, L. M., 56
Sohbat, E., 380, 381 , 385
Solman, R., 161
Soloway, E., 41 1 , 492 , 493
Songer, B. B., 256, 258
Songer, N. B., 56, 109, 461
Soraci, S., Jr., 362
Sorensen, F. K, 269
Sotillo, S. M., 250, 254–256, 259
Spada, H., 241 , 250
Spahi, F., 555 , 556
Spelke, E., 1 5 1
Spero, L., 454 , 457
Sperotable, L., 454
Spieler, D. H., 341
Spires, H. A., 106, 108, 1 55 , 204 , 208, 500, 508, 510,51 2 , 513 , 514 , 515 , 516, 598
Spiro, R. J., 320, 321 , 362 , 367, 570, 571
Spoehr, K. T., 376, 378–379, 383 , 384 , 385
Spoehr, L. W., 376, 378
Sproull, L., 509, 51 1
Spruijt, S., 573
Spyridakis, J. H., 298, 299
Squire, K., 539
Stacey, E., 260, 261
Stahl, S. A., 104 , 362 , 364 , 368, 380
Staley, R., 238, 239, 335
Standal, T. C., 298, 299
Standen, P. J., 535 , 538, 540
Stanezak, L., 340
Stanovich, K. E., 365
Stanton, D., 532 , 533 , 534 , 538, 539, 540
Stanton, N. A., 304 , 305
Stark, R., 109, 234 , 238, 242 , 275
Stasko, J. T., 290
Steinbacher, S., 1 55
Steinhoff, K., 45 , 1 40, 328, 455
Steinmuller, F., 218
Stelling, G., 509
Stenning, K., 457
Stern, H. W., 1 1 8
Stern, J. L., 219
Sternberg, R. J., 36, 333
Steuer, J., 108
Stevens, A., 562
Stevenson, R. J., 304 , 572 , 573 , 577
Stieff, M., 414
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632 author index
Stiehl, C., 328
Stigler, J. W., 240
Stine, E. A., 341 , 343
Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., 56
Stock, W. A., 61
Stoltzfus, E. R., 341 , 345
Stone, B., 509
Straetmans, G., 81
Streumer, J. N., 84
Strickland, W., 555 , 556
Stroup, W., 558, 559
Subramani, R., 509
Sugrue, B., 1 1 8, 1 28
Sullivan, H., 253 , 256
Sullivan, J., 210
Sullivan, M. A., 86
Sun, Y., 220
Sundblad, Y., 539
Sung, Y.-C., 299
Suraweera, P., 106, 508, 509, 51 1 , 51 2 , 516
Suß, H.-M., 1 26
Susskind, T., 41 2
Sutcliffe, A., 460
Sutherland, R. J., 532
Suthers, D. D., 252 , 261 , 262 , 263
Sutton-Smith, B., 561
Suwa, M., 458
Svejda, M., 542
Svetcov, D., 589
Swaak, J., 21 5 , 220, 222
Swaffar, J., 473
Swain, M., 468, 469, 476, 481
Swan, K., 103 , 381
Swanson, H. L., 62
Sweller, J., xiii, xvi, 2 , 6, 1 5 , 19, 20, 24 , 25 , 26, 27, 28,30, 34 , 35 , 41 , 45 , 46, 63 , 64 , 65 , 71 , 79, 80, 81 , 82 ,84 , 85 , 92 , 102 , 105 , 108, 109, 1 10, 1 19, 1 20, 1 21 ,1 23 , 1 24 , 1 26, 1 27, 1 28, 1 35 , 1 37, 1 38, 1 39, 1 41–1 42 ,1 43 , 1 47, 1 53 , 1 54 , 1 55 , 1 59, 161 , 162–163 , 164 ,1 70, 1 76, 1 78, 1 84 , 192 , 193 , 194 , 195 , 197, 200,210, 220, 222 , 223 , 230, 231 , 232 , 235 , 236, 238,272 , 276, 283 , 327, 329, 330, 331 , 332 , 334 , 335 ,339, 342 , 343 , 346, 397–398, 399, 400, 403 , 404 ,405 , 409, 510, 517, 518, 575 , 576, 596, 597, 598,599, 601 , 604 , 610
Swinney, D. A., 299
Symons, C. S., 516, 518
Symons, S., 276
Syri, J., 253 , 258
Tabak, L., 218
Tabbers, H. K., xvi, 7, 83 , 85 , 1 26, 1 79, 197, 21 1 , 345 ,346, 347
Takeuchi, A., 508
Takle, E. S., 269
Tao, L., 363
Tapangco, L., 45 , 1 47, 162 , 167, 190, 492 , 498
Tapola, A., 253 , 258
Tarmizi, R. A., 1 37, 1 38, 232 , 235 , 397–398, 403 ,404 , 405
Taxen, G., 530, 539
Taylor, L. B., 532
Taylor, R. G., 304 , 305
Teale, W. H., 250, 262
Teasley, S. D., 275
Tedder, M. L., 300
Teeken, J. C., 341
Teichert, H. U., 475
Tennyson, A., 500
Tergan, S., 321
Terjak, M., 360
Terrell, T., 479
Thagard, P. R., 76
Thibadeau, R., 1 50
Thibodeau-Hardman, P., 81
Thiebaux, M., 528
Thinus-Blanc, C., 532 , 533 , 538
Thomas, M. J. W., 251
Thomas, P., 413
Thorisson, 516
Thorndike, E. L., 1 1
Thurman, R. A., 1 78
Tierney, P., 26, 109, 1 38, 194 , 197, 398, 404 , 405
Tindall-Ford, S., 27, 28, 85 , 1 54 , 1 78, 195 , 330, 343 ,598, 610
Tinker, R., 415
Tlauka, M., 532 , 534
Tobias, S., xvi, 3 , 6, 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 20, 1 23 , 1 27, 1 28, 362
Torres-Quinones, S. S., 479
Toulmin, S., 255
Towne, L., 551
Towns, S. G., 508, 509, 51 1 , 516, 518
Townsend, M., 316
Trafton, J. G., 238, 440
Treisman, A. M., 1 5 1
Treng, S., 220, 221 , 222 , 223 , 555 , 556, 563
Tribble, K., 220, 221 , 222 , 223 , 555 , 556, 563
Trickett, S., 440
Trinidade, J., 530, 531
Tron, M., 319
Trumpower, D. L., 304
Tseng, H., 51 1
Tufte, E. R., 451
Tung L. L., 302
Tuovinen, J. E., 81 , 105 , 109, 1 26, 1 79, 197, 21 1 , 220,222 , 223 , 231 , 331 , 332 , 347, 518, 596
Turner, A., 20
Turner, T. E., 104
Tversky, B., 288, 290, 291 , 293 , 294 , 346, 453 , 455 ,456, 457, 458
Tweedie, L. A., 304 , 305
Ulivi, M. S., 341
Underwood, J., 474
Undheim, J., 1 3 1
University of Texas, 479
Uribe, D., 253 , 256
Ushakov, A., 418
Vagge, S., 45 , 84 , 195 , 343
Vahey, P., 223
Valanides, N., 255 , 261
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author index 633
Valdez, F., 83
Vallar, G., 54
van Berkum, J. J., 1 10
Van Boxtel, M. P. J., 341
Van den Branden, K., 476, 481
van den Broek, P., 299
van der Maij, J., 216, 221 , 223
van der Meij, H., 162 , 256
van der Zaag, C., 528, 532
van Dijk, T. A., 53 , 55 , 56, 65 , 298, 299
Van Dyke, J., 379
Van Gerven, P. W. M., xvi, 7, 1 26, 1 79, 197, 21 1 , 343 ,344 , 347, 348
van Gog, T., 81
van Joolingen, W. R., 109, 1 10, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220,222 , 223 , 224 , 552 , 557, 558, 605
Van Labeke, N., 221 , 457
Van Loon, E. M., 341
van Merrienboer, J. J. G., xiii, xvi, 2 , 6, 26, 27, 63 , 64 ,71 , 72 , 79, 80, 81 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 105 , 108, 1 10, 1 27,1 54 , 231 , 240, 334 , 335 , 343 , 344 , 345 , 346, 347,348, 598, 616
Van Meter, P., 283
van Mulken, S., 106, 509, 51 1 , 51 2 , 514 , 516, 517
van Nimwegen, C., 572 , 573
van Oostendorp, H., 304 , 305 , 572 , 573 , 575
van Rijn, H., 221 , 222 , 223
Van Rooyen, A., 528
van Someren, M., 221 , 222 , 223
Van Willis, W., 422
Vanderbilt University (Cognition & TechnologyGroup), 357, 367
Vanderbilt University (Learning Technology Center),362
VanLehn, K., 234 , 240, 275 , 284
Vassileva, J., 500, 51 1
Vaucelle, C., 106, 107
Veen, W., 257
Veenman, M. V. J., 109
Veerman, A., 250, 256, 257
Veermans, K. H., 218, 222 , 224
Veldhuis-Diermanse, D., 250, 256, 257
Verdi, M. P., 333
Verhoeven, L., 360
Vicente, K. J., 318
Vidal-Abarca, E., 300, 304 , 306
Vila, J., 582
Villa, J. L., 385
Vinther, T., 472
Virvou, M., 106, 107, 51 2
Vispoel, W., 320, 321
Voss, J. F., 378, 379, 380, 383 , 384 , 385
Vye, N. J., 362
Vygotsky, L., 248, 471
Wade, A., 100, 101 , 102
Wade, S. E., 478
Wagner, D., 355
Walker, C., 468
Walker, J. H., 509
Walker, S., 366
Walker, S. A., 253 , 256, 261
Wallet, P. A., 100, 101 , 102
Walsh, P., 318
Wang, F.-M., 302
Wang, H.-Y., 319
Wang, J., 576
Wang, M., 249, 251 , 256
Wang, S., 254
Ward, M., 1 38, 235
Warr, P., 341
Warschauer, M., 467
Watanabe, Y., 473
Waters, K., 51 1
Waterworth, E. L., 526
Waterworth, J. A., 526
Watkins, J., 365 , 368, 370
Watson, J., 468
Waugh, M., 219
Webber, C. L., 508
Weber, S., 231
Wenger, E., 259, 41 1
Wenger, M. J., 315 , 318, 321 , 322
Wertsch, J., 254
Wessling, R., 360
Wetzel, C. D., 1 1 8, 219, 559
Wetzell, K., 79, 1 73 , 1 76, 346, 594 , 602 , 604 ,610
Wey, P. S., 318
Whelan, S. M., 289, 290, 455 , 465
White, A., 530
White, B. Y., 217, 551 , 554 , 558, 559
Whitehill, B. V., 219, 559
Whitley, L. K., 582
Whitten, W. B., 318
Wickens, C. D., 1 20, 538, 540, 575
Wiederhold, B. K., 532 , 537
Wiederhold, M. D., 537
Wiemer-Hastings, K., 509
Wigfield, A., 102 , 105
Wilensky, U., 414
Wiley, J., xvi, 7, 299, 375 , 378, 379, 380, 383 , 384 ,385
Wilhelm, O., 1 26
Wilkins, L., 539
Williams, F., 266
Williams, H. P., 538, 540
Williams, M. D., 345
Williamson, V., 420, 425
Williges, R. C., 318
Willoughby, T., 76
Wilson, J. R., 526, 528, 530, 531 , 536, 539, 540
Wilson, M., 509
Wilson, P. N., 532 , 533 , 534 , 538, 540
Windschitl, M., 369
Wineburg, S. S., 362 , 377, 378, 381 , 384 , 385
Wingfield, A., 341 , 343
Winn, W., 279, 529, 531 , 538
Winne, P. H., 499, 500
Wise, B. W., 360, 367
Wiser, D. C., 422
Wisher, R. A., 1 22 , 1 25
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634 author index
Witkin, H. A., 574 , 579
Witmer, B. G., 534
Wittig, H., 508
Wittman, W. W., 1 26
Wittrock, M. C., 34 , 37, 490,516
Wohldmann, E., 1 22
Wollensak, A., 531
Wong, R. M. F., 274 , 278, 281
Wood, B., 508
Wood, C., 363
Wood, D., 272
Wood, E., 76
Wood, R., 582
Woods, D., 369
Woodward, A., 1 24
Woolverton, M., 21 1
Wortham, D. W., 81 , 230
Wozney, L., 100, 101 , 102
Wray, D., 259
Wright, P., 300
Wright, R., 490, 496
Wu, H.-K., 492 , 493
Wubbels, T., 257
Wyatt, C., 307
Wykoff, J., 41 2
Xie, Q., 415
Yair, Y., 530
Yang, C.-C., xvi, 7, 247
Yang, E.-M., 421 , 425
Yarborough, J. C., 298
Yaverbaum, G. J., 250, 252
Yeh, S., 474 , 476, 481 , 574 , 576
Yelsma, P., 371
Yildirim, Z., 571 , 578
York, H., 475 , 481
Yoshii, M., 473
Young, A. W., 66
Young, E. Y., 400–401 , 403 , 404 , 405
Young, K. M., 378
Young, M. F., 576
Young, R., 475
Youngblut, C., 1 1 8, 529
Younger, M., 600
Yu, B.-M., 303
Zacks, J. M., 291 , 293 , 458
Zacks, R. T., 341 , 343 , 345
Zammit, K., 369
Zaphiris, P., 303
Zarnekow, R., 508
Zelinski, E. M., 341
Zettlemoyer, L. S., 509
Zhang, H., 31 2
Zhang, J., 218, 220, 222
Zhao, Y., 369, 550
Zhu, X., 1 37
Zola, D., 359
Zumbach, J., 582
Zwaan, R. A., 53 , 64
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Subject Index
Illustrative materials are fully indexed under the entry “tables, charts, and figures.”
4C/ID-model, see four-component instructionaldesign model
4M:Chem (now SMV:Chem), 41 2–414 , 423
ACCESS, 378–379
achievement or performanceassessing, see assessmentintelligence, connection between, 105 , 1 10
active learning, 1 4–1 5
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 510, 515 , 516,518
cognitive processes involved in, 37
cognitive theory, active processing assumptionbehind, 35–36
historical background to concept, 44–45 , 1 19
knowledge structures involved in, 36–37
mathematics, 404
pictures, processing of, 42
spoken words, processing of, 44
working memory and active processing assumptionof cognitive theory, 47
activity theoryCSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),
254 , 264
games, simulations, and microworlds, 561
adaptive site maps, 322
ADDIE (analysis, design, development,implementation, and evaluation) model,87
additive coding, 1 24 , 1 29
additivity of visual and auditory capacities, lack ofevidence for, 1 52
advance organizersdefined, 483 , 584
hypermedia learning, 573–575 , 584
site map principle, 316, 322
SLA (second language acquisition), see secondlanguage acquisition (SLA) with multimedia
agecognitive changes related to, see cognitive aging
principlehypermedia learning research, age of learners
studied in, 581 , 583
agent-based instruction, see animated pedagogicalagents; image principle
Air Force Armstrong Laboratory Test DevelopmentCenter, 1 26
analysis, design, development, implementation, andevaluation (ADDIE) model, 87
ANIMATE, 400–401 , 405
animated pedagogical agents (APAs), 507–508
active learning, 510, 515 , 516, 518
animation and image effects, distinguishingbetween, 514
anthropomorphismarguments in favor of and against, 509
cognitive theory and, 510, 517
cognitive load theory, 517
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, futureresearch in, 500
635
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animated pedagogical agents (APAs) (cont.)cognitive theory
implications of research for, 516–518
model for multimedia learning with APAs, 51 1
predictions about APA design drawn from,509–510
content areas for future research, 520
cost-efficient principle, 518
defined, 21 1 , 507
definitions pertinent to, 520
examples of, 508–509
false assumptions regarding effect of, 106–108
future directions in research, 519–520
guided-discovery principle, 515 , 516, 518
image principle, see image principleinstructional design implications, 518–519
interactivity principle, 515 , 516, 518
interest hypothesis (motivation), 510
animation and image effects, distinguishingbetween, 514
cognitive theory, implications of research for, 516
distinguishing between image and modalityeffects, 514
image effect, 51 2 , 513 , 514
persona effect, 51 1–51 2
internal vs. external properties, 508, 516, 519
limitations of research on, 516
modality principle, 515 , 516, 518
persona effect, 51 1–51 2
personalization principle, 515 , 516, 518
redundancy principle, 510, 515 , 516, 518
reflection principle, 518
role in multimedia learning, 509
self-explanation principle, 516
split-attention principle, 510, 51 2 , 513 , 514 ,517
summary of research results, 517
survey of research on, 51 1–516
transfer vs. retention testing, 51 2
animation principle, 7, 287–288, see also imageprinciple
active exploration of phenomenon, encouraging,289
apprehension principle, 294
attention-guiding principle, 294
cognitive conflicts, presenting, 289
cognitive theory, implications for, 293
congruence principle, 294
contiguity principle, 292
definition of concepts, 287–288, 295
e-learning, use of animation in, see e-learningexamples of scenarios using, 288–289
flexibility principle, 295
hypermedia learning, 576
image and animation effects, distinguishingbetween, 514
instructional design implications, 293–295
interactivity and, see interactivity principlelimitations of research on, 292–293
mathematics, use of dynamic graphics to teach, seemathematics and multimedia learning
meteorological dynamics, research on providingstudents with explicit information about,437–440
modality principle, 292
physical systems, use of animated graphics in, seephysical systems and multimedia learning
prior knowledge, effect of, 292 , 293 , 329
signaling principle, 292 , 295
spatial abilities of learners, 292
survey of research on, 1 22–1 23 , 289–292
visualization and mental representation processes,supporting, 288
annotations, SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 472 , 473–474 , 483
anthropomorphism of APAs (animated pedagogicalagents)
arguments in favor of and against, 509
cognitive theory and, 510, 517
anticipative reasoningself-explanation principle, 274
worked-out examples principle, 234 , 237, 238
APAs, see animated pedagogical agentsapperception and SLA (second language acquisition)
with multimedia, 470, 471–472 , 483
apprehension principleanimation principle, 294
cognitive aging principle, 346, 348
defined, 348
physical systems and multimedia learning, 458
aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI) researchchemistry and multimedia learning, 425
defined, 1 29
multimedia principle, 1 27–1 28, 1 29
physical systems and multimedia learning, 457
prior knowledge principle, 332
Armstrong Laboratory Test Development Center (AirForce), 1 26
assessmentCSCL, see computer-supported collaborative
learning (CSCL)examinations as form
CSCL (computer-supported collaborativelearning), 262
examinations as form oftransfer and retention, see transfer vs. retention
testingguided-discovery principle and problems with
learning outcomes, 222
learning process, 222
history and multimedia learning, 385
mathematics and multimedia learning, 404 , 407
prior knowledge principle, 335
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 478, 481 , 483
transfer and retention, see transfer and retentiontesting
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 540
assimilation theory and site map principle, 319
assumptions about multimedia learningcognitive theory, assumptions underlying, 32–33
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dual coding theory, see dual coding theoryfalse assumptions not supported by research, 97–98,
1 10–1 1 1
animated pedagogical agents, effect of, 106–108
different learning styles supported by multimedialearning, 103–106
discovery learning environments, 108–1 10
greater learning benefits from multimedia, 98–101
motivation and interest, 101–103 , 104 , 106–108
asynchronous e-learning, 591–592 , 612
asynchronous vs. synchronous tools in CSCL(computer-supported collaborative learning),250, 264 , 266
ATI, see aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI)research
attention-guiding principle and use of animation, 294
auditory processinganimation, audio narration used to explain, 604
cognitive aging and sensory deficits, 341
cognitive theory and processing of spoken words,43–44
complex visual content explained with audionarration, 598–599
e-learning, 598–601
environmental sounds, use of, 600
hypermedia learning, 575
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension
auditory picture comprehension (soundcomprehension), 58, 67
listening comprehension, 58, 67
mathematics, spoken text used to teach, 393 , seealso mathematics and multimedia learning
music, use of, 600
physical systems, use of spoken materials to teach,452
redundant or extraneous audio, omission of,599–601
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 472 , 478, 483
spoken vs. written word processing, see modalityprinciple
visual processing vs., see dual coding theoryautomated cognitive defaults due to sensory overload,
102
automated processingcognitive load theory, see cognitive load theory4C/ID-model, automation of schemata in, 76
behavioral activity, 1 4–1 5
behavioral psychologyhypermedia, 570
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 468
Belvedere, 262 , 263
Berkeley, Bishop George, 1 1 8, 1 23 , 1 30
BGuILE, 218, 220
BioWorld, 496–498
CAI (computer-assisted instruction), 8
Center for Applied Special Technology, 368
characteristics of learners, see learner characteristicscharts, see tables, charts, and figuresChemDiscovery (formerly ChemQuest), 418–419
Chemical Change, 420
chemistry and multimedia learning, 409
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) research, 425
cognitive theoryapplicability of, 409–410
implications for, 423–424
concepts and principles, learningexamples of multimedia learning of chemistry,
41 2–416
theoretical underpinnings, 409–410
contiguity principle, 410
definitions pertinent to, 425
examples of multimedia learning tools, 41 2–419
ChemDiscovery (formerly ChemQuest), 418–419
Chemical Change, 420
ChemSense, 416–418, 423
concepts and principles, learning, 41 2–416
Connected Chemistry, 414–415
Molecular Workbench, 415–416
need for further research into, 425
practice, learning chemistry as, 416–419
SMV:Chem (formerly 4M:Chem), 41 2–414 ,423
future directions in research, 424–425
gender-based differences, 420, 422 , 425
instructional design implications, 424
interactive molecular modeling graphics, 421–422 ,425
interactivity principle, 410
learner characteristics, 425
limitations of research, 422–423
modality principle, 410
multimedia principle, 410
practice, learning chemistry asexamples of multimedia learning of chemistry,
416–419
need for additional research on, 425
theoretical underpinnings, 410–41 2
representations and representational competence,410–41 2 , 418, 425
signaling principle, 410
situative theory, 410–41 2 , 426
spatial abilities of learners, 421 , 425
survey of research on, 419–422
ChemQuest (now ChemDiscovery), 418–419
ChemSense, 416–418, 423
chess and evidence for extensive long-term memory,20
chunkingcognitive load theory, 24
limited capacity assumption, cognitive theory, 35
cinema, see filmCLP, 218
CLT, see cognitive load theoryCMDA (Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis),
262 , 264
Co-Lab, 219, 220
cognitive activity, 1 4–1 5
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cognitive aging principle, 7, 339–340
apprehension principle, 346, 348
cognitive architecture and, 342
cognitive load theory, 343 , 347
cognitive theory, 343
coherence principle, 343 , 344
definitions pertinent to, 348
dual coding theory, 342
future directions in research, 347–348
instructional designfuture directions in, 347–348
learner control and parts-whole sequencing,345–347, 348
research on instructional mechanisms for dealingwith cognitive aging, 343–345
theoretical framework, implications of, 342–343
just-in-time information presentations, 347, 348
learner control issues, 345–347
modality principle, 344 , 345
multimedia techniques’ significance for olderlearners, 348
parts-whole sequencing (segmenting principle),345–347, 348
phenomenon of cognitive aging, survey of researchon, 340–341
prior knowledge principle, 342 , 347
reduced inhibition, 341 , 344 , 345 , 348
reduced integration or coordination, 341 , 344 , 345 ,348
reduced processing speed, 341 , 344 , 345 , 348
reduced working memory capacity, 340, 344 ,349
redundancy principle, 343 , 344
sensory deficits in older learners, 341
sensory memory, 342
signaling principle, 343 , 344
spatial contiguity principle, 343 , 344
table of declines and possible compensatorystrategies, 344
temporal contiguity principle, 343 , 344
theoretical framework, 342–343
training variability, 348, 349
worked-out examples principle, 348
cognitive aid, multimedia learning viewed as, 10
cognitive approach to SLA (second languageacquisition) with multimedia, 468
cognitive architecturecognitive aging principle, 342
cognitive theory, 19
defined, 28
4C/ID-model, 75–77
importance of understanding, 19
instructional methods research and, 100
integrated model, 49, 54 , 59
cognitive capacitycognitive aging principle and reduced working
memory capacity, 340, 344 , 349
defined, 1 70, 1 80, 198, 349
cognitive defaults, automated, 102
cognitive economy, integrated model of text andpicture comprehension, 64 , 67
cognitive flexibility theoryhypermedia, 570, 571
reading comprehension, 362 , 367
site map principle, 320, 321
cognitive load theory, 19, 1 20
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 517
automated processingconscious or automatic processing of material
held in long-term memory, 21
defined, 28
relations between long-term and workingmemory, 24 , 25
chunking, 24
cognitive aging principle, 343 , 347
cognitive theory (Mayer) compared, 45 , 46
definitions pertinent to, 28–29, 1 30
discovery learning environments, false assumptionsregarding, 108
e-learning and cognitive load managementanimation, use of, 603–604
instructional design, 596
element interactivity, see element interactivityevolutionary theory and, 19
relations between long-term and workingmemory, 25
working memory limitations, reasons for, 23
expertise reversal effect, 27
extraneous cognitive load, 26–27, 1 80
germane cognitive load, 27
guided-discovery principle, 222–223
historical background, 1 20
hypermedia learning, 578
instructional design consequences, 19, 596
central executive of working memory,instructional guidance acting as, 26–28
e-learning and cognitive load management, 596
working memory limitations, implications of, 22 ,23
intrinsic cognitive load, see intrinsic cognitive loadlong-term memory, 19
conscious or automatic processing of materialheld in, 21
defined, 29
relations between working memory and, 24–25
role in human cognition, 20
schema construction and, 21
structure of knowledge in, 20–21
modality effect, 27
modality principle, 1 48, 1 52
motivation and metacognition, 1 27
prior knowledge principle, 331
random generation and effectiveness testing(inquiry-based learning)
defined, 29
limits of working memory for processing of newinformation, 22–23
relations between long-term and workingmemory, 25
schemas as central executive for workingmemory, 25
redundancy principle, 27, 160–161 , 165
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schemas, see schemassplit-attention principle, 26, 29, 1 35 , 1 40, 1 41 , 1 42 ,
1 45
understandingrelations between long-term and working
memory, 25
structure of knowledge in long-term memory, 20
worked example effect, 26
worked-out examples principle, 230, 240
working memory, 19
defined, 29
implications of multimedia principle research for,1 26–1 27
instructional design consequences of limitationson, 22 , 23
instructional guidance acting as central executivefor, 26–28
lack of central executive, 19, 1 26
limitations when working with new information,21–23
multiple streams, channels, or processors, 23
reasons for limitations on, 22–23
relations between long-term memory and, 24–25
schemas functioning as central executive, 25
cognitive mastery, 100
cognitive processescognitive aging and reduced processing speed, 341 ,
344 , 345 , 348
cognitive theory, see cognitive theoryconstructive nature of, 1 19
essential processing, see essential processing,techniques for managing
extraneous processing, see extraneous processing,techniques for reducing
4C/ID-model, 76–77
cognitive psychology, basis for, 1 19
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 489–490
cognitive theory, implications of research for,493–498
cognitive toolsconcept of, 491–492
defined, 501
instructional design implications, 498–499
coherence principle, 491
definitions pertinent to, 501
diagrams, 496
dual coding theory, 490–491 , 493 , 497, 501
example of, 491–492
future directions in research, 499–501
hypermedia, 490
icons, indexes, and symbols, 494 , 496, 501 , 502
images, 496
information-rich environments, 496–498
instructional design implications, 498–499
interactive aspect of multimedia, 490
limitations of research, 492–493
logotypes, 495
metaphors, 495 , 496, 497
multiple representations, 489
instructional design implications, 498–499
limitations of research, 492
model of relationship between internal andexternal representations, 493–498
pedagogical agents, use of, 500
personalization principle, 491
physical systems, 492
prior knowledge, 499, 500
scaffolding, 500
self-regulation, 500
semiotics, 494–496, 502
signs, 494 , 502
simulation environments, 501
spatial contiguity principle, 491
systematization assumption, 492
theoretical frameworkcognitive theory, implications of research for,
493–498
dual coding theory, 490–491 , 493 , 497, 501
interactive aspect of multimedia, 490
semiotics, 494–496
shift in, 490
triadic vs. dyadic chains, 494
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 500, 501
cognitive styles and learning preferencesassumptions regarding, 103–104
hypermedia learning, 579–580
cognitive theory, 31–32 , 1 19–1 20
active processing assumption, 36–37
animation and interactivity principles, implicationsof, 293
APAs, see animated pedagogical agents (APAs)assumptions underlying, 32–33 , 34
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) research,1 27–1 28, 1 29
chemistry and multimedia learningapplicability of, 409–410
implications for, 423–424
cognitive aging principle, 343
cognitive architecture of, 19
cognitive load theory (Sweller) compared, 45 , 46
cognitive processes required by, 38–41
comparison of related theories, 45
different types of materials, processing of, 33 ,42–44
five forms of representation reflecting, 41–42
integration of verbal and pictorial models, 40–41
organization of selected images, 40
organization of selected words, 39–40
selection of relevant images, 39
selection of relevant words, 38–39
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, researchon, 493–498
compared to related theories, 45–46
criteria used for building (theoretical plausibility,testability, empirical plausibility, andapplicability), 32
definitions pertinent to, 47
different types of materials, processing of, 33 ,42–44
dual coding theory, 33–35 , see also dual codingtheory
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cognitive theory (cont.)essential processing techniques, implications of
research on, 1 78
expertise reversal effect, implications of, 334
extraneous processing, techniques for reducingbasis for, 1 84
implications of, 195–196
future directions in, 46
games, simulations, and microworlds, 561–562
historical background, 44–45 , 1 19–1 20
hypermedia, 570
implications of empirical research for, 1 25–1 28
integrated model of text and picture comprehensioncompared, 45 , 46, 56, 59, 64–65
integration issuescognitive processes required by, 40–41
implications of multimedia research for, 1 26
limited capacity assumption, 35–36, see also limitedcapacity assumption
long-term memory, 37–38, 41–42
mathematics and multimedia learning, 404
memory stores, types of, 37–38, 45
meteorological multimedia learning, implications of,441–442
modality principle, implications of, 1 78
motivation and metacognition, 1 27
pictorial models, 38
five forms of representation, 41–42
integration with verbal models, 40
organization of selected images into, 40
pictures, processing of, 42
pre-training principle, implications of, 1 78
printed words, processing of, 44
prior knowledge principle, 333–334
representation, five forms of, 41–42
research-based approach, importance of, ix–xiresearch basis for multimedia learning, 6–7
role of, 32
segmenting principle, implications of, 1 78
sensory memory, 37–38, see also sensory memorysite map principle research, implications of, 319–320
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 471 , 479–480
social cues, 209
sociocultural and social cognitive theory, 248–249
spoken words, processing of, 43–44
underlying assumptions, 32–33 , 34
verbal models, 38
five forms of representation, 41–42
integration with pictorial models, 40
organization of selected words into, 40
spoken words, processing of, 44
verbal processingintegration of verbal and pictorial models, 40–41
organization of selected words, 39–40
printed words, processing of, 44
selection of relevant words, 38–39
spoken words, processing of, 43–44
visual processing, see visual processingworking memory, 37–38, 1 26–1 27, see also working
memory
cognitive toolscognitive science, see cognitive skills and multimedia
learningguided-discovery principle, 217–219, 224
coherence principle, 6, 1 83–1 86, 1 87
cognitive aging, 343 , 344
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 491
cognitive theory, implications for, 195–196
defined, 1 84 , 198
example of, 1 87
expertise reversal effect, 197
future directions in research, 197
instructional design implications, 196–197
instructional effectiveness of multimedia principle,1 21–1 22
integrated model, 60–61 , 65 , 67
limitations of research, 197
redundancy principle (presentation of additionalinformation), variation of, 160
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 480
summary of results of research on, 191
survey of research on, 190–191
theoretical rationale for, 1 85–1 86
type 1 extraneous overload, 1 85–1 86
collaboration principle, 7, 247–248
constructivism, influence of, 247, 248
CSCL, see computer-supported collaborativelearning
discovery learning environments, 223
theory behind CSCL, 248–249
collaborative e-learning, synchronous or asynchronous,591–592 , 612 , 614
collaborative user virtual environments (CVEs), seevirtual reality (VR) and virtual environments(VE)
Collaboratory Notebook, 262
COMET Program, 429
Committee on Development in the Science ofLearning, 404
commodity view of multimedia learning, 1 2
community building and CSCL, seecomputer-supported collaborative learning
completion strategy principle, 4C/ID-model, 78,81–82 , 88
complex learning4C/ID-model for, see four-component instructional
design modelmodality principle, 598–599
navigational principles, complex text defined forpurposes of, 298
visual content explained with audio narration,598–599
component-fluency principle, 4C/ID-model, 78, 86,88
comprehension, reading, see reading comprehensioncomputer-assisted instruction (CAI), 8
Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis (CMDA),262 , 264
computer simulations, see games, simulations, andmicroworlds
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computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL),247–248
activity theory, 254 , 264
APAs, see animated pedagogical agents (APAs)assessment, research on, 261–262
CMDA (Computer-Mediated DiscourseAnalysis), 262 , 264
concept mapping, 261
essays, 261
examinations, 262
findings, 261–262
implications and recommendations, 262
limitations of research, 262
case studies, research in course of, 254–255
CMDA (Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis),262 , 264
community building, research on, 258–261
findings, 259–260
implications and recommendations, 260
learning and community, relationship between,260
limitations of research, 260
social interaction in online learning, 259–260
concept mapping as form of assessment, 261
constructivism, influence of, 248–249, 265
debates, 255–256
definitions pertinent to, 264
distributed cognitions theory, 254 , 265
ESL (English-as-a-second-language), 259
essays as form of assessment, 261
examinations as form of assessment, 262
Explanatory Coherence, Theory of, 263
F2F (face-to-face) learning, compared to, 249
future directions in research, 263–264
gender-based differencesgroup composition, 252 , 253
technological issues, 250
group composition, research on, 252–254
findings, 252–254
implications and recommendations, 254
limitations of research, 254
group size, 253
ill-structured or wicked problems, 256, 265
instructor, research on role of, 257–258
findings, 257–258
implications and recommendations, 258
limitations of research, 258
Interaction Analysis for Examining SocialConstruction of Knowledge, 264
knowledge construction, 262–263
learner characteristics, 253–254
motivation, 253 , 258, 260
Multi User Dimension Object Orientedenvironments (MOOs), 252 , 259, 265
principles, research-based, 249
prior knowledge, 258
prior knowledge principle, 253
problem-solving, 256
scaffolding collaboration, 262–263 , 265
sociocultural and social cognitive theory, derivedfrom, 248–249, 265–266
synchronous vs. asynchronous tools, 250, 264 , 266
tasks, research on nature of, 254–257
findings, 254–256
implications and recommendations, 257
limitations of research, 256–257
technological issues, research on, 249–252
appropriation of or resistance technology, 251
findings, 249–251
implications and recommendations, 251
limitations of research, 251
limitations on support for collaborative activity,251
theoretical bases, 248–249, 254 , 263
computer technologyanimation, computerized, see animation principleAPAs, see animated pedagogical agentscognitive skills, see cognitive skills and multimedia
learningCSCL, see computer-supported collaborative
learning (CSCL)e-learning, see e-learningguided-discovery principle, 216–217, 224
hypermedia, see hypermedia learninglearner-centered approaches to multimedia
learning, 10
navigational principles and hypertext systems, seenavigational principles
part-task practice, 4C/ID-model, and drill &practice computer-based training (CBI), 85–86
technology-centered approach to learning, problemswith, 8
VR and VE, see virtual reality (VR) and virtualenvironments (VE)
concept maps, see also site map principleassessment of computer-supported collaborative
learning (CSCL) using concept mapping, 261
defined, 309, 386
history and multimedia learning, 385 , 386
navigational principles, 303–307, 308
prior knowledge principle, 304 , 305
search tasks comparing concept maps to othercontent representations, 305–307
conceptual simulations, 605 , 606, 612
conceptually-oriented equations, worked-outexamples principle, 238
congruence principleanimation, use of, 294
reading and multimedia learning, 363 , 364
Connected Chemistry, 414–415
Construction-Integration Modelnavigational principles, 298, 299, 304 , 309
site map principle, 319–320, 321
constructionist learning, VR and VE (virtual realityand virtual environments), 530, 531 , 539
constructivismcognitive processes, constructive nature of, 1 19
collaboration principle and CSCL, 247, 248, 265
defined, 265 , 387
discovery learning environment, false assumptionsregarding, 108–1 10
genetic epistemology, 248
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constructivism (cont.)history and multimedia learning, 376–377, 384 , 387
hypermedia, 570
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 468
social or sociocultural, 248–249
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 529, 530, 531
worked-out examples principle, 239, 240
content areas, see also entries at domainAPAs (animated pedagogical agents), future
research in, 520
chemistry, see chemistry and multimedia learningcognitive skills, see cognitive skills and multimedia
learninghistory, see history and multimedia learningmathematics, see mathematics and multimedia
learningmeteorology, see meteorology and multimedia
learningphysical systems, see physical systems and
multimedia learningreading, see reading and multimedia learningself-explanation principle research, 275
split-attention principle researched over differentcontent areas, 1 37–1 41
VR and VEs used to communicate domain-specificknowledge, 529–531
worked-out examples principle, relevance ofcontent area to, 241
content, instructional, 597
content representations, navigational principles, seenavigational principles
context issues in hypermedia learning, 580–583
contextualization heuristic, history and multimedialearning, 378, 387
contiguity principleanimation principle, 292
chemistry and multimedia learning, 410
cognitive aging principle, 343
e-learning, 610
instructional effectiveness of multimedia principle,1 21
integrated model, 58, 60–61 , 65 , 67
physical systems and multimedia learning, 460
spatial contiguity, see spatial contiguity principlesplit-attention principle, 1 40, 1 43–1 44
temporal contiguity, see temporal contiguityprinciple
control-of-processing principleintegrated model, 65
interactivity and control distinguished, 288, 295
Convince Me, 263
cooperation principle and social cues, 202
coordination, see entries at integrationcorroboration heuristic, history and multimedia
learning, 378, 387
cost issuesAPAs (animated pedagogical agents), 518
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) research andefficient use of instructional materials, 1 27
cosmetic features in e-learning, importance of, 61 1
graphic detail, 1 25
simulations, level of immersion and fidelitynecessary for, 608–609
CSCL, see computer-supported collaborative learning(CSCL)
CTML (cognitive theory of multimedia learning), seecognitive theory
cueing devicese-learning, 604
physical systems and multimedia learning, 456
CVEs (collaborative user virtual environments), seevirtual reality (VR) and virtual environments(VE)
Darrow, Benjamin, 8
DCT, see dual coding theorydebates used in CSCL (computer-supported
collaborative learning), 255–256
decoding and reading, 356, 359–361 , 367
deductive learning, 593 , 612
deep vs. superficial processing. integrated model oftext and picture comprehension, 63
delivery media view of multimedia presentation, 2
dependent measure limitations and research on socialcues, 210
design of instruction, see instructional designdesign of research studies
agent-based instruction, 106–108
games, simulations, and microworlds, 563
history, see history and multimedia learninghypermedia learning, 581
instructional methods, 99, 100
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 477
diagramscognitive skills and multimedia learning, 496
hypermedia learning, 576
physical systems, see physical systems andmultimedia learning
directive e-learning, 591 , 592–593 , 594 , 612
directive support, guided-discovery principle, 217
discovery learning environmentsfalse assumptions regarding, 108–1 10
guided discovery, see guided-discovery principlehistory, inquiry learning in context of, see history
and multimedia learningineffectiveness of, 108–1 10, 21 5–216, 220, 608,
609
random generation and effectiveness testing(inquiry-based learning), see cognitive loadtheory
scientific discovery learning, 21 5
simulations, 556, 557, 608, 609
training in discovery skills, 218
transformative and regulatory processes, 216,218
worked-out examples compared, 332
distributed cognitions theory, CSCL(computer-supported collaborative learning),254 , 265
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domain knowledge, see also content areasguided-discovery principle, 220
hypermedia learning, 577–578, 580
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments) used to teach domain-specificknowledge, 529–531
domain models, 4C/ID-model, 74 , 79, 82 , 83
drop-out rates for multimedia courses, 103
dual coding theory (dual-channel assumption),33–35
cognitive aging principle, 342
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 490–491 ,493 , 497, 501
defined, 1 30, 501
different types of materials, processing of, 42–44
division of sensory and working memory into twochannels, 33–35
e-learning, 406, 598, 612
games, simulations, and microworlds, 561–562
guided-discovery principle, 222–223
historical background, 1 19
historical background to cognitive theory,44–45
history and multimedia learning, 376, 388
hypermedia, 570
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 54 , 55
mathematics and multimedia learning, 404
modality principle and evidence for independentvisual and auditory processing systems,1 49–1 50, 1 5 1
Paivio’s dual-coding theory, 45 , 54 , 1 19
physical systems and multimedia learning,459
presentation mode approach, 34
relations between channels, 34
sensory-modalities approach, 34
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 472
spatial ability of learners, effect of, 1 24
worked-out examples principle, 235
working memory’s multiple streams, channels, orprocessors, 23
dyadic vs. triadic chains, cognitive skills andmultimedia learning, 494
dynamic graphics, see also animated pedagogicalagents; animation principle
hypermedia learning, 576
mathematics, see mathematics and multimedialearning
physical systems, use of animated graphics in, seephysical systems and multimedia learning
dynamic principle, mathematics and multimedialearning, 403
e-learning, 589–590
advantages of, 609–610
animation, use of, 601–605
audio narration used to explain, 604
cognitive load management, 603–604
cueing devices, use of, 604
evidence of effectiveness, 604 , 609, 61 1
learner control, 604
sequencing, 604
visual alternatives to, 602–603
asynchronous, 591–592 , 612
auditory processing, 598–601
cognitive load managementanimation, use of, 603–604
instructional design, 596
collaborative, 591–592 , 612 , 614
conceptual simulations, 605 , 606, 612
contiguity principle, 610
cosmetic features, importance of, 61 1
cueing devices, use of, 604
deductive learning, 593 , 612
definitions pertinent to, 591 , 612
directive, 591 , 592–593 , 594 , 612
dual coding theory (dual-channel assumption), 406,598, 612
element interactivity, 597, 598, 613
expertise reversal effect, 596, 613
far transfer, 594 , 597, 605 , 613
future directions in research, 610–612
generalizability of multimedia principles regarding,610
guided-discovery principle, 592–593 , 594 , 595 , 608,613
inductive learning, 594 , 613
instructional design, 594–597, 612
learner control, 604 , 613
long-term memory, 595–596, 613
mixed media, 598–601 , 604
modalities, 598–601
complex visual content explained with audionarration, 598–599
defined, 613
extraneous audio, omission of, 599–601
generalizability of modality principle, 610
modality principle, 598, 613
visual and auditory processing, 598
near transfer, 593 , 597, 613
need for research on, 590–591
operational simulations, 591 , 605 , 613
practice opportunities, incorporation of, 610
receptive, 592–593 , 594 , 613
redundancy principle, 599–601 , 614
schemas, 595 , 596, 597, 614
sequencing principle, 604
simulations, 605–609
advantages of, 406, 605–608
conceptual, 605 , 606, 612
defined and described, 605 , 614
future directions in research, 61 1
high consequence tasks, 606
ineffectiveness in pure discovery environment,608, 609
level of immersion and fidelity necessary, 608–609
low incidence tasks, 606–607
operational, 591 , 605 , 613
scaffolding, need for, 608, 609, 61 1 , 614
troubleshooting tasks, 607
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e-learning (cont.)solo, 591–592
split-attention principle, applicability of,1 41–1 43
print materials alone vs. computer media alone,1 42–1 43
print materials alone vs. print and computermedia, 1 41–1 42
synchronous, 591–592 , 61 1 , 614
time variations, generalizability of multimediaprinciples over, 610
translating research into practice, 612
unique qualities of, 597
visual processing, 598–599
working memory, 595–596, 614
easy-mapping guideline, worked-out examplesprinciple, 235–236
Edison, Thomas, 8
effectiveness testing and random generation(inquiry-based learning), see cognitive loadtheory
elaboration, 4C/ID-model, 76, 83 , 88
electronic performance support systems (EPSSs),4C/ID-model, 83–85
element interactivity, 28
defined, 28, 1 56, 613
e-learning, 597, 598, 613
intrinsic cognitive load and, 27, 28
modality principle, 1 54
prior knowledge principle, 330
redundancy principle, 166
split-attention principle, 1 41 , 1 42 , 1 45
empirical research, see researchempty vessel view of multimedia learning, 1 2
English-as-a-second-language (ESL), see secondlanguage acquisition (SLA) with multimedia
environmental sounds, use of, 600
EPSSs (electronic performance support systems),4C/ID-model, 83–85
error-triggered learninganimation principles presenting cognitive conflicts,
289
worked-out examples principle, 240
ESL (English-as-a-second-language), see secondlanguage acquisition (SLA) withmultimedia
essays as form of assessment in CSCL(computer-supported collaborative learning),261
essential processing, techniques for managing,169–1 71 , see also pre-training principle;segmenting principle
cognitive capacity, 1 70, 1 80
cognitive theory, implications for, 1 78
concise narrated animation, 169, 1 80
definitions pertinent to, 169, 1 80
essential material, 169, 1 70, 1 80
essential overload, 169, 1 80
examples of, 1 71–1 74
future directions in research, 1 79–1 80
instructional design implications,1 79
intrinsic cognitive loadsimilarity of essential processing to, 1 70, 1 80
types of essential overload, 1 80
limitations of research on, 1 79–1 80
modality principle, see modality principleprior knowledge principle, 1 74 , 1 76, 1 78
summary of results of research on, 1 75 , 1 76, 1 77
survey of research on, 1 74–1 78
theoretical basis for, 1 70–1 71
transfer vs. retention testing, 1 74 , 1 78
type 1 essential overload, 1 70, 1 71 , 1 80
type 2 essential overload, 1 70, 1 71 , 1 80
EUMETCAL Program, 429
everyday life skills training, VR and VE (virtual realityand virtual environments), 535–536
evidence-based research, see researchevolutionary theory and cognitive load theory, 19
relations between long-term and working memory,25
working memory limitations, reasons for, 23
examinations as form of assessmentCSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),
262
transfer and retention, see transfer and retentiontesting
experienced vs. novice learners, see expertise reversaleffect; prior knowledge principle
experimental evidence, see researchexperimental support, guided-discovery principle,
218
expert learners, see prior knowledge principleexpertise reversal effect
cognitive load theory, 27
cognitive theory, implications for, 334
coherence principle, 197
defined, 335 , 613
e-learning, 596, 613
modality principle, 1 54
redundancy principle’s centrality to, 165
research findings, 328, 330–332
worked-out examples vs. problem-solving, 165 , 231 ,331–332
Explanatory Coherence, Theory of, 263
explicit vs. intuitive or implicit knowledge,guided-discovery principle, 222
exploratory instructional approach, see discoverylearning environments; guided-discoveryprinciple
Exploring the Nardoo, 496
external representations, see representationsextraneous cognitive load, 26–27, 1 80
extraneous processing, techniques for reducing,1 83–1 86, see also coherence principle;redundancy principle; signaling principle;spatial contiguity principle; temporal contiguityprinciple
cognitive theorybased in, 1 84
implications for, 195–196
definitions pertinent to, 1 84 , 198
essential material, 1 84 , 198
examples of, 1 87–190
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extraneous material, 1 84 , 198
extraneous overload, 1 84 , 198
extrinsic cognitive load, similar to, 1 84
future directions in research, 197–198
instructional design implications, 1 84 , 196–197
learner characteristics, effects of, 197
limitations of research on, 197–198
prior knowledge, 190, 197
redundancy principle, see also redundancy principlerepresentational holding, 1 86, 198
spatial abilities of learners, 190, 197
summaries of results of research on, 191 , 192 , 193 ,194 , 196
survey of research on, 190–195
theoretical rationale, 1 84–1 86
transfer testing, success of techniques in, 1 87, 190
type 1 extraneous overload, 1 85–1 86
type 2 extraneous overload, 1 85 , 1 86
type 3 extraneous overload, 1 85 , 1 86
extrinsic cognitive load, similarity to extraneousprocessing, 1 84
false assumptions about multimedia learning notsupported by research, 97–98, see alsoassumptions about multimedia learning
far transferdefined, 407, 613
e-learning, 594 , 597, 605 , 613
mathematics and multimedia learning, 402 , 403 ,407
feedback delivery system, multimedia learning viewedas, 10
fidelity of computer simulation systems andguided-discovery principle, 219
fidelity principle, 4C/ID-model, 78, 79–80, 87, 88
field dependency/independence, 579, 580
figures, see tables, charts, and figuresfilm
historical information, as source of, 381
revolutionizing effect on learning, 8
flexibility, cognitive, see cognitive flexibility theoryflexibility principle and use of animation, 295
floundering (thrashing), 1 10
fluid ability and performance, 105
four-component instructional design model(4C/ID-model), 71–72 , 86–88
ADDIE (analysis, design, development,implementation, and evaluation) model,87
advantages and limitations, 86–88
automation of schemata, 76
cognitive architecture, 75–77
cognitive processes, 76–77
completion strategy principle, 78, 81–82 , 88
component-fluency principle, 78, 86, 88
definitions pertinent to, 88–89
domain models, 74 , 79, 82 , 83
elaboration, 76, 83 , 88
electronic performance support systems (EPSSs),83–85
fidelity principle, 78, 79–80, 87, 88
future directions of research, 88
individualization principle, 78, 80–81 , 87, 88
induction, 76, 88
knowledge compilation, 76, 83 , 88
learning tasks, 72–75 , 78
completion strategy principle, 78, 81–82 , 88
defined, 88
fidelity principle, 78, 79–80, 87, 88
individualization principle, 78, 80–81 , 87, 88
sequencing principle, 77–79, 89
simulated task environments, 77–82
training-wheels principle, 78, 81 , 87, 89
variability principle, 78, 80, 89
limitations of, 87
long-term memory, 75–76
meaningful learningcognitive architecture and, 75–77
implications of model for, 77
memory systems, 75–76
modality principle, 78, 85 , 87, 88
part-task practice, 72–75 , 78
component-fluency principle, 78, 86, 88
defined, 88
drill & practice computer-based training (CBI),85–86
procedural information, 72–75 , 78
defined, 89
electronic performance support systems (EPSSs),83–85
modality principle, 78, 85 , 87, 88
signaling principle, 78, 85 , 87, 89
spatial split-attention principle, 78, 84–85 , 89
temporal split-attention principle, 78, 84 , 89
redundancy principle, 78, 82 , 89
SAPs (systematic approaches to problem-solving),74 , 79, 82 , 83
schemas, 75–77
schemata, 75–77
segmentation, 83
self-explanation principle, 78, 83 , 89
self-pacing principle, 78, 83 , 87, 89
sequencing principle, 77–79, 89
signaling principle, 78, 85 , 87, 89
split-attention principleapplicability to different components, 87
definitions, 89
spatial split-attention principle, 78, 84–85 ,89
temporal split-attention principle, 73 , 84 , 89
“streaming” or transient information, 83
strengthening, 76, 77, 86, 89
supportive information, 72–75 , 78
defined, 89
elaboration, 76, 83 , 88
hypermedia, 82–83
redundancy principle, 78, 82 , 89
self-explanation principle, 78, 83 , 89
self-pacing principle, 78, 83 , 87, 89
temporal split-attention principle, 78, 84
theory, different levels of, 71 , 86
training-wheels principle, 78, 81 , 87, 89
variability principle, 78, 80, 89
working memory, 75–76
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4M:Chem (now SMV:Chem), 41 2–414 , 423
Francais Interactif, 479
future directions in research, see under specific topics
games, simulations, and microworlds, 549–551
activity theory, 561
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 501
cognitive theory, implications for, 561–562
conceptual simulations, 605 , 606, 612
definitions, 563 , 614
design of research studies, 563
discovery learning environments, simulations usedas, 556, 557, 608, 609
dual coding theory, 561–562
e-learning, use of simulations in, see e-learningexamples of, 551–554 , 555
explanation and experience, distinguishing, 550,563
4C/ID-model, 77–82
frustration levels, measuring, 557
future directions in research, 563
goal orientation, 552
guided-discovery principle, 216–217, 224 , 552 , 608,609
high consequence tasks, benefits of simulations forlearning, 606
instructional design implications, 563
knowledge structures (mental models), 562
learner design of their own games, 559
level of immersion and fidelity necessary forsimulations, 608–609
limitations of research on, 560–561
low incidence tasks, benefits of simulations forlearning, 606–607
modeling and model progression, 558, 563
motivation and interest, 560
operational simulations, 591 , 605 , 613
play theory, 561
quantitative vs. qualitative research, 560–561
scaffolding, need for, 608, 609, 61 1 , 614
scripted vs. interactive multimedia, 550
similarities and differences between, 549–551
survey of research on, 554–560
games, 559–560
microworlds, 558–559
simulations, 554–558
theoretical frameworks, 561–562
troubleshooting tasks, 607
GEFT (Group Embedded Figures Test), 574 , 579,584
gender-based differenceschemistry and multimedia learning, 420, 422 , 425
CSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning)group composition, 252 , 253
technological issues, 250
hypermedia learning, 581–582
generative activities and hypermedia learning, 576,584
generative theory of multimedia learning, 570, 578,584
genetic epistemology, 248
GenScope, 605
germane cognitive load, 27
goal orientation, 104 , 1 27
games, simulations, and microworlds, 552
hypermedia learning, 582–583
instructional design, 597
site map principle, 317, 318, 321
goals of multimedia learning, 1 3–1 4 , see also outcomesof multimedia learning
graphic detail, 1 25
group composition and CSCL, seecomputer-supported collaborative learning
Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT), 574 , 579,584
guided-discovery principle, 7, 21 5–216
adaptivity of guidance to learner characteristics, 221
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 515 , 516,518
assessment problemslearning outcomes, 222
learning process, 222
assignments, 217, 220
cognitive load theory, 222–223
cognitive tools, 217–219, 224
collaborative discovery, 223
computer simulations as example of multimediaenvironment for, 216–217, 224
definitions pertinent to, 224 , 613
directive and non-directive support, 217
domain knowledge, provision of, 220
dual coding theory, 222–223
e-learning, 592–593 , 594 , 595 , 608, 613
effectiveness, mixed results regarding, 219–221
explicit vs. intuitive or implicit knowledge, 222
fidelity of simulation systems, 219
future directions in research, 223–224
games, simulations, and microworlds, 216–217, 224 ,552 , 608, 609
hints, 217, 220
history and multimedia learning, 385
instructive vs. inductive learning modes, 21 5
interpretive, experimental, and reflective support,218
just in time explanations, 220
limitations of research on, 221–222
modeling and model progression, 220, 224
prior knowledge, 218, 221
regulatory processes, 216, 218
representational mode used, significance of, 221
scientific discovery learning, 21 5 , 225
SDDS (Scientific Discovery as Dual Search) model,223
theory of, 222–223
training in discovery skills, 218
transformative processes, 216, 218
types of guidance, 217–219
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 538
head-mounted display/devices (HMDs) used in virtualreality (VR), 526, 527
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help guidelines (instructional explanations),worked-out examples principle, 234–235
hierarchical concept maps in hypermedianavigational principles, 303–307, 308
site map principle, 316
high-knowledge learners, see prior knowledgeprinciple
history and multimedia learning, 375–376
assessment, 385
audience, student vs. expert sense of, 381
concept maps, 385 , 386
constructivism, 376–377, 384 , 387
contextualization heuristic, 378, 387
corroboration heuristic, 378, 387
definitions pertinent to, 376–377, 384–385
design studies vs. controlled experimentsdefinitions, 387
future directions in research, 386
limitations of research regarding, 384
“disciplinary approach,” 376–377, 384–385
dual coding theory (multiple channel learning),376, 388
enhancing collective memory, history learningviewed as, 376
films as source of historical information, 381
future directions in research, 385–386
guided-discovery principle, 385
initial cognitively-based projects contrastingthought processes of experts with students,377–378, 381
inquiry learningdefined, 387
instructional design implications, 384–385
research projects intended to stimulate, 377–379,380–381
instructional design implications, 384–385
knowledge structures (mental models), 385 , 388
learner characteristics, 385–386
learning outcomesdefined, 387
limitations of research regarding, 383–384
learning tasks, role of, 379–380
limitations of research, 383–384
mentors, use of, 380
motivation, multimedia used for purposes of,381–383
National Standards for History, 377
primary sourcesdefined, 388
research projects on student use of, 383
prior knowledge, 385
scaffolding, 378, 383 , 388
sense of historical time, developing, 382
sequencing tasks, 382 , 388
silence, absence, or incomplete information,judgments drawn from, 378
sourcing heuristic, 377, 388
survey of research on, 377–383
theoretical approaches, 376–377, 384
HMDs (head-mounted display/devices) used in virtualreality (VR), 526, 527
hypermedia learning, 569–570
advance organizers, 573–575 , 584
age of learners studied, 581 , 583
auditory processing, 575
behavioral psychology, 570
cognitive flexibility theory, 570, 571
cognitive load theory, 578
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 490
cognitive theory, 570
concept maps, see concept maps; site map principleconstructivism, 570
content area knowledge, effect of, 577–578
context issues, 580–583
defined, 300, 309, 322
definitions pertinent to, 584
design of research studies, 581
diagrams, 576
domain knowledge, 577–578, 580
dual coding theory, 570
dynamic graphics and animation, 576
future directions in research, 583
gender-based differences, 581–582
generative activities, 576, 584
generative theory of multimedia learning, 570, 578,584
goal orientation, 582–583
guidelines for, 583
individual differences principle and learnercharacteristics, 577–580
domain knowledge and prior knowledge,577–578, 580
spatial abilities of learners, 578–579, 580
styles of learning and cognition, 579–580
instructional design issues, 572–577, 584
advance organizers, 573–575
mixed media, 575–576
structure of information, 572–573
learner control issues, 576, 584
limitations of research, 571 , 583
metaphors, 575 , 578
mixed media, 575–576
modality principle, 570
navigation, see navigational principlesprior knowledge, effect of, 577–578
site maps, see concept maps; site map principleSLA (second language acquisition) with
multimedia, 576
spatial abilities of learners, 578–579, 580
structure of information, 572–573 , 585
styles of learning and cognition, 579–580
supportive information component of4C/ID-model, 82–83
survey of research reviews, 571–572
theoretical framework, 570–571 , 584
visual processing, 576
hypertext systems, navigational principles for, seenavigational principles
icons, semiotics concept of, 494 , 496, 501
iExpeditions system, 249
ill-structured or wicked problems, 256, 265
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illustrations, see tables, charts, and figuresimage principle, 6, 201 , 204 , see also animated
pedagogical agentsanimation and image effects, distinguishing from,
514
cognitive load, social cues adding to, 210
cognitive theory, implications for, 209
defined, 201 , 21 1
example of, 204
independent variable limitations, 210
instructional design implications, 209
modality principle, distinguishing from, 513–514
research regarding, 208–209, 210–21 1 , 51 2–513
tabular summary of research results, 208
image processing, see visual processingimages as semiotics concept, 496
imagination effect in instruction, 330, 336
implicit or intuitive vs. explicit knowledge,guided-discovery principle, 222
incidental learning and site map principle, 321
independent variable limitations and research on socialcues, 210
indexes as semiotics concept, 494 , 501
individual differences principle, see also learnercharacteristics
hypermedia, see hypermedia learningmathematics and multimedia learning, 406
prior knowledge, 328
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 479, 480
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 540
individual learner characteristics, see learnercharacteristics
individualization principle, 4C/ID-model, 78, 80–81 ,87, 88
individualized instructor contact, multimedia coursesbelieved to provide more of, 103
inductive learninge-learning, 594 , 613
4C/ID-model, 76, 88
guided-discovery principle, instructive vs. inductivelearning modes, 21 5
information acquisition, multimedia learning viewedas, 10, 1 1 , 1 2
“information” as term, use of, 349
information delivery system, multimedia learningviewed as, 10
inhibitiondefined, 348
reduced inhibition due to cognitive aging, 341 , 344 ,345 , 348
inquiry learning, see also discovery learningenvironments
history, in context of, see history and multimedialearning
random generation and effectiveness testing, seecognitive load theory
instructional designanimation and interactivity principles, implications
of, 293–295
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 518–519
approaches to, 10
chemistry and multimedia learning, 424
cognitive aging principle, see cognitive agingprinciple
cognitive load theory and, see cognitive load theorycognitive skills and multimedia learning, 498–499
content and goal, 597
e-learning, 594–597, 612
essential processing techniques, implications ofresearch on, 1 79
extraneous processing, techniques for reducing, 1 84 ,196–197
games, simulations, and microworlds, 563
goal orientation, 597
graphic detail, 1 25
history and multimedia learning, 384–385
hypermedia learning, see hypermedia learningimplications of multimedia research for, 1 24–1 25
integrated model, implications of, 64–65
learner-centered approaches, 9–10
learner involvement ingames, simulations, and microworlds, 559
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 539
mathematics and multimedia learning, 405–406
media vs. methods, 594
meteorology and multimedia learning, 442–444
methods, significance of, 594 , 597
modality principle, 1 53–1 55 , 1 79
most significant factors in, 597
motivation and interest, 596
pre-training principle, 1 79
prior knowledge principle, 595 , 596, 597
prior knowledge principle, implications of, 334–335
reading and multimedia learning, 365–366
redundancy principle, implications of, 165–166
relevancy of multimedia materials, importance of,1 24–1 25
research-based approach, importance of, ix, xseductive detail, distractive qualities of, 596
segmenting principle, 1 79
self-explanation principle, implications of, 282–284
site map principle, 320–321
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 480–482
social cues, implications of, 209
split-attention principle, implications of, 1 45
technology-centered approaches, 8–9, 10
theories of multimedia learning, different levels of,71
worked-out examples principleimplications, 239–240
requirements, 232–238
instructional effectivenessempirical foundations, 1 21–1 22
false assumptions about greater learning benefitsfrom multimedia, 98–101
methods, of different types of, 99, 100, 1 1 8
need to combine multimedia principle with otherpractices, 1 22
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instructional explanations (help guidelines),worked-out examples principle, 234–235
instructional methodsATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) research,
1 27–1 28, 1 29
effectiveness of different types of, 99, 100, 1 1 8
split-attention principle and e-learning, 1 42–1 43
instructional support, learner need for, 109–1 10, 1 23
instructive vs. inductive learning modes andguided-discovery principle, 21 5
instructors’ role in CSCL, see computer-supportedcollaborative learning (CSCL)
integrated model of text and picture comprehension,49–52 , 56–60
auditory processingauditory picture comprehension (sound
comprehension), 58, 67
listening comprehension, 58, 67
cognitive architecture, 49, 54 , 59
cognitive economy, 64 , 67
cognitive theory compared, 45 , 46, 56, 59, 64–65
coherence and contiguity principles, 60–61 , 65 , 67
compared to related theories, 45 , 46, 56, 59, 64–65
control-of-processing principle, 65
deep vs. superficial processing, 63
definitions pertinent to, 67
depictive and descriptive representations, 52–54 , 67
distinction of sensory channels on perceptual levelfrom representational channels on cognitivelevel, 59
dual-coding theory, relationship to, 54 , 55
empirical evidence for, 60–64
external representations, 52–54
future directions of research in, 65–67
instructional design implications, 64–65
internal or mental representations, 53
knowledge structures (mental models), 64 , 67
limitations, 65–67
listening comprehension, 58, 67
long-term memory, 56
mental or internal representations, 53
modality principle and modality effect, 61 , 65 , 67
multimedia effect (multimedia principle), 65 , 67
multiple memory systems, 54–56, 64
negative effects of combining text and pictures,62–64
positive effects of combining text and pictures,60–62
prior knowledge, 62
reading comprehension, 57, 62 , 67
redundancygeneral, 62–63 , 65 , 67
specific, 62 , 65 , 67
representations, see representationssensory registers, 55–56, 67
sequencing, 61–62 , 65 , 67
sound comprehension (auditory picturecomprehension), 58, 67
source of information, memory for, 64
structure mapping, 63 , 65 , 68
superficial vs. deep processing, 63
visual picture comprehension, 58, 68
working memory, 54–55 , 68
integrated model, SLA (second language acquisition)with multimedia, 471 , 478, 483
integration issues, 272 , see also split-attentionprinciple
cognitive aging, reduced integration or coordinationdue to, 341 , 344 , 345 , 348
cognitive theorycognitive processes required by, 40–41
implications of multimedia research for, 1 26
definition of integration or coordination, 348
implications of multimedia research for, 1 26
worked-out examples principle, 233 , 236, 238
working memory and long-term memory, 1 26
intelligence and achievement/performance,connection between, 105 , 1 10
Interaction Analysis for Examining SocialConstruction of Knowledge and CSCL, 264
interactionist perspective/theory, SLA (secondlanguage acquisition) with multimedia,469–471 , 473 , 483
interactive media or multimediacognitive science, 490, see also cognitive skills and
multimedia learningscripted multimedia vs., 550
interactive molecular modeling graphics technology,chemistry and multimedia learning, 421–422 ,425
interactive processing, SLA, see second languageacquisition (SLA) with multimedia
interactivity, element, see element interactivityinteractivity principle, 7
animation and, 287–288, 294
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 515 , 516,518
cognitive theory, implications for, 293
definition of interactivity concepts, 288, 295
examples of scenarios using, 288–289
instructional design implications, 293–295
limitations of research on, 292–293
survey of research on, 289–292
chemistry and multimedia learning, 410
control and interactivity distinguished, 288, 295
interest, elements providing, see motivation andinterest
internal representations, defined, 425 , 448, 462 , seealso knowledge structures; representations
Internet, see e-learning; hypermedia learninginterpretive support, guided-discovery principle, 218
intrinsic cognitive load, 27
defined, 29, 1 56
essential processing similar to, 1 70, 1 80, see alsoessential processing, techniques for managing
types of essential overload, 1 80
intuitive orimplicit vs. explicit knowledge,guided-discovery principle, 222
isolated-interacting elements instructional effect, 329,335 , 336
ITPC model, see integrated model of text and picturecomprehension
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just-in-time information presentationscognitive aging principle, 347, 348
defined, 348
guided-discovery principle, 220
KIE, 218
knowledge constructionCSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),
262–263
4C/ID-model, 76, 83 , 88
multimedia learning viewed as, 10, 1 1 , 1 2–1 3
Knowledge Forum, 380
knowledge levels of learners, see prior knowledgeprinciple
knowledge structures (mental models)active processing assumption behind cognitive
theory, 36–37
defined, 388, 463
games, simulations, and microworlds, 562
history and multimedia learning, 385 , 388
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 64 , 67
internal representations, defined, 425
long-term memory and cognitive load theory, 20–21
meteorology and multimedia learning, 431
navigational principles and mental model theory,298
physical systems, 448–449, 463
pictorial models and cognitive theory, see cognitivetheory
reading comprehension, 362
two-stage theory, 346, 349
verbal models and cognitive theory, see cognitivetheory
learner-centered approaches to multimedia learning,9–10
learner characteristics, see also individual differencesprinciple
ATI, see aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI)research
chemistry and multimedia learning, 425
CSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),253–254
experience levels, see prior knowledge principleextraneous processing, techniques for reducing, 197
gender, see gender-based differencesgoals, see goal orientationguided discovery, adaptivity of, 221
history and multimedia learning, 385–386
hypermedia, individual differences principle, seehypermedia learning
mathematics and multimedia learning, 401 , 403 ,406
metacognition and site map principle, 318
motivation, see motivationnovice vs. experienced learners, see expertise
reversal effect; prior knowledge principleolder learners, see cognitive aging principleresearch on effects of, 1 23–1 24
self-explanation principle, 275
site map principle, 318, 321
SLA (second language acquisition), see secondlanguage acquisition (SLA) with multimedia
spatial abilities, see spatial abilities of learnerssplit-attention principle, 1 45
verbal ability of learners, SLA (second languageacquisition) with multimedia, 475 , 479, 480,484
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 540
learner control issuescognitive aging principle, 196–197
e-learning and animation, 604 , 613
hypermedia learning, 576, 584
segmenting principle, 1 71–1 73 , 1 79
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 474 , 481
VR and VE, self-directed activity using, 538
learner involvement in instructional designgames, simulations, and microworlds, 559
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 539
learning outcomes, see outcomes of multimedialearning
Learning Style Inventory (LSI), 579, 584
learning styles supported by multimedia learningassumptions regarding, 103–106
hypermedia learning, 579–580
learning tasks, see tasksLevenson, William, 8
life skills training, VR and VE (virtual reality andvirtual environments), 535–536
limitations of research, see under specific topicslimited capacity assumption
Baddeley’s model of working memory compared to,45
cognitive theory, 35–36
mathematics and multimedia learning, 404
working memory, 47
working memory limitations when working withnew information, 21–23
links, explicit vs. embedded, 301–302 , 309
Lisp programming, 100, 273
listening comprehension, see auditory processinglogotypes as semiotics concept, 495
long-term memorycognitive aging principle, 342
cognitive load theory, see cognitive load theorycognitive theory, 37–38, 41–42
defined, 47, 1 30
e-learning, 595–596, 613
4C/ID-model, 75–76
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 56
integration with working memory, 1 26
prior knowledge principle, 595
representation of words and pictures in, forms of,41–42
low-knowledge learners, see prior knowledgeprinciple
LSI (Learning Style Inventory), 579, 584
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macrostructuresnavigational principles, 304 , 305 , 309
site map principle, 319
mastery goal orientation, 104
mastery methods, 100
mathematics and multimedia learning, 393–397
active processing assumption, 404
assessment, 404 , 407
cognitive theory, 404
definitions pertinent to, 407
dual coding theory (dual channel assumption), 404
dynamic graphics, 393 , 407
dynamic graphics and spoken text, 393
example of, 394 , 395
instructional design implications, 406
research on, 401–403
dynamic graphics and written text, 393
instructional design implications, 405
research on, 400–401
dynamic principle, 403
examples of, 393–397
future directions in research, 406–407
individual differences principle, 406
instructional design implications, 405–406
instructional overviews, usefulness of, 398
learner characteristics, 401 , 403 , 406
limitations of research on, 403–404
limited capacity assumption, 404
modality principle, 398, 405
multimedia principle, 405
problem-solving, 397
redundancy principle, 405
spatial contiguity principle, 405
split-attention effect, 394
static graphics, 393 , 407
static graphics and spoken text, 393
instructional design implications, 405
research on, 398–400
static graphics and written text, 393
example of, 394
instructional design implications, 405
research on, 397–398
survey of research, 397–403
transfer testingfar transfer, 402 , 403 , 407
limitations on assessment in research, 407
near transfer, 402 , 403 , 407
voice principle, 403 , 406
worked-out examples, 393–397
written text, worked examples consisting solely of,394
“Matthew Effects,” 365
meaningful building-blocks guideline, worked-outexamples principle, 237–238
meaningful learningbehavioral and cognitive activity, 1 4–1 5
4C/ID-modelcognitive architecture and, 75–77
implications of model for, 77
goal or outcome of multimedia learning, 1 3–1 4
long-term memory, structure of knowledge in, 20
memory, see also long-term memory; sensory memory;working memory
cognitive theory and types of memory stores, 37–38,45
4C/ID-model, 75–76
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, multiple memory systems usedin, 54–56, 64
mental animation (inference of movement in staticdiagrams), 450, 454–456, 461–462 , 463
mental effort, impact of multimedia learning on, 102
mental models, see knowledge structuresmentors used in multimedia history learning, 380
menus in hypermedia, 302–303 , 305–307
meta-analytic studies, 100
metacognition, 1 27
defined, 322
site map principle, 318, 322
strategies, metacognitive, 36
metaphorscognitive skills and multimedia learning, 495 , 496,
497
hypermedia learning, 575 , 578
meteorology and multimedia learning, 429–431
animation used to explicitly teach meteorologicaldynamics, 437–440
cognitive theory, implications for, 441–442
comprehension of weather mapsexamples of multimedia learning in meteorology,
431–434
research on, 434–436
definitions pertinent to, 444
dynamics in meteorology, research on providingstudents with explicit information about,437–440
examples of, 431–434
future directions in research, 444
instructional design implications, 442–444
knowledge structures (mental models), 431 ,434–436
limitations of research, 440–441
predictive tasksimportance of visual processing for, 430
research on comprehension for purposes of, 436
survey of research, 434–440
visual processingexamples of weather maps requiring visual
interpretation, 431–434
importance of, 429–431
microworlds, see games, simulations, andmicroworlds
mindful abstraction, 76
mixed media, see also modality principle; redundancyprinciple
animation, audio narration used to explain, 604
e-learning, 598–601 , 604
hypermedia learning, 575–576
mathematics, see mathematics and multimedialearning
physical systems, see physical systems andmultimedia learning
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modality principle, 6, 1 47–1 48
additivity, lack of evidence for, 1 52
animation principle, 292
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 515 , 516, 518
chemistry and multimedia learning, 410
cognitive aging, 344 , 345
cognitive load theory, 27, 1 48, 1 52
cognitive theory, implications for, 1 78
complex learning, 598–599
definitions pertinent to, 1 56, 1 70, 613
e-learning, see e-learningelement interactivity, 1 54
essential processing, techniques for managing,169–1 71 , 1 74
definition of modality principle for purposes of,1 70
example of modality technique, 1 74
limitations and future directions, 1 80
research using modality techniques, 1 77–1 78, 1 80
split-attention principle, relationship of modalityeffect to, 1 81
theoretical rationale, 1 70
evidence for, 1 50–1 52
example of technique, 1 74
expertise reversal effect, 1 54
extraneous cognitive overload, 1 80
4C/ID-model, 78, 85 , 87, 88
future directions in research, 1 80
hypermedia, 570
image principle, distinguishing from, 513–514
independent visual and auditory processing systems,evidence for, 1 49–1 50, 1 5 1
instructional design implications, 1 53–1 55 , 1 79
integrated model, 61 , 65 , 67
limitations of research, 1 80
mathematics teaching, 398, 405
physical systems and multimedia learning,460–461
prior knowledge principle, 1 78, 331
redundancy principle, 1 54
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 480
split-attention principle, 1 47, 1 52–1 53 , 1 54 , 1 81
summary of results of research, 1 77
survey of research, 1 77–1 78
theoretical rationale for, 1 70
working memory capacity, expansion of, 1 47
model tracing, 100
modeling and model progressiongames, simulations, and microworlds, 558, 563
guided-discovery principle, 220, 224
modular solutions, worked-out examples principle,238
Molecular Workbench, 415–416
MOOs (Multi User Dimension Object Orientedenvironments), 252 , 259, 265
motion pictures, see filmmotivation and interest
APAs and interest hypothesis, see animatedpedagogical agents (APAs)
CSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),253 , 258, 260
false assumptions about, 101–103
animated agents providing motivation,106–108
goal orientation and motivation, 104
games, simulations, and microworlds, 560
history and multimedia learning, 381–383
implications of multimedia principle research forcognitive theory, 1 27
instructional design, 596
reading and multimedia learning, 363 , 364 ,365–366, 368
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 538
movies, see filmMulti User Dimension Object Oriented environments
(MOOs), 252 , 259, 265
multimediadefined, 1–2 , 49, 98
reading, defined in context of, 357–359
multimedia instruction, defined, 2 , 3
multimedia instructional messages, 32 , 47
multimedia learning, 1–1 5 , see also more specificentries
active learning, 1 4–1 5
advantagesover single media, 271–272
separated from instructional method used, 100
assumptions about, see assumptions aboutmultimedia learning
defined, ix, 2 , 1 5 , 50, 1 1 8
difficulties of, 271–272
information acquisition, viewed as, 10, 1 1 , 1 2
knowledge construction, viewed as, 10, 1 1 ,1 2–1 3
learner-centered approaches, 9–10
older learners, significance for, 348
outcomes or goals, 1 3–1 4 , see also outcomes ofmultimedia learning
rationale for, 3–6, 31
research-based approach, importance of, ix–xiresearch basis for, 6–7
response strengthening, viewed as, 10–1 1
role of theory in, 32
technology-centered approaches, 8–9
multimedia learning hypothesis, 1
multimedia presentation, 2
multimedia principle, 6, 1 1 7–1 1 8
chemistry and multimedia learning, 410
cognitive theory, 31 , 47, 1 25–1 28
definitions pertinent to, 1 29
false assumptions about greater learning benefitsfrom multimedia, 98–101
future directions in research, 1 28–1 29
instructional design implications, 1 24–1 25
instructional effectiveness, 1 21–1 22
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 65 , 67
mathematics and multimedia learning, 405
research foundations, 1 20–1 24
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 479, 480
theoretical foundations, 1 1 8–1 20
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multiple representations and cognitive skills, seecognitive skills and multimedia learning
music, use of, 600
National Science Education Standards, 41 1
National Science Foundation, 425
National Standards for History, 377
navigational principles, 7, 297–298
complex text defined for purposes of, 298
concept maps, 303–307, 308
content representationsdefined, 298, 309
global content representations, 299–300, 308
hypertext systems, see subhead “hypertextsystems,” this entry
print media, role in, 298–300
search tasks, role in, 305–307
tabular presentation of types of, 305
definitions pertinent to, 309
hypertext systems, 300–309
comparison of concept maps and menus, 303–305
concept maps, 303–307, 308
defined, 300, 309
links, explicit vs. embedded, 301–302 , 309
menus, 302–303
search tasks, comparison of contentrepresentation performance in, 305–307
links, explicit vs. embedded, 301–302 , 309
menus in hypermedia, 302–303 , 305–307
print media, 298–300, 308
search tasks in hypermedia, 305–307
semantic groupings for menus, 302
site maps, see site map principlestructural properties of texts, 298–299, 304
surface representation, 298
theoretical basis, 298
near transferdefined, 407, 613
e-learning, 593 , 597, 613
mathematics and multimedia learning, 402 , 403 ,407
network concept maps in hypermedianavigational principles, 303–307
site map principle, 316
No Child Left Behind Act, scientifically-basedresearch requirement of, 590
non-directive support, guided-discovery principle,217
novice vs. experienced learners, see expertise reversaleffect; prior knowledge principle
older learners, see cognitive aging principleoperational simulations, 591 , 605 , 613
outcomes of multimedia learning, 1 3–1 4
guided-discovery principle and assessmentproblems, 222
history and multimedia learningdefinition of learning outcomes, 387
limitations of research, 383–384
remembering and understanding as learningoutcomes, 1 3–1 4
over-learning, 1 22
part-task practice as component of 4C/ID-model, seefour-component instructional design model
participatory design approach, virtual reality (VR) andvirtual environments (VE), 539
parts-whole sequencing, see segmenting principlepedagogical agents, see animated pedagogical agents;
image principleperformance or achievement
assessing, see assessmentintelligence, connection between, 105 , 1 10
performance-oriented learners, 104
persona effect, APAs (animated pedagogical agents),51 1–51 2
personalization principle, 6, 201 , 203
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 515 , 516,518
cognitive load, social cues adding to, 210
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 491
cognitive theory, implications for, 209
defined, 201 , 21 1
example of, 203
independent variable limitations, 210
instructional design implications, 209
research regarding, 206–207, 210–21 1
scripts, personalized and nonpersonalized, 204 ,205
tabular summary of research results, 206
philosophy, multimedia principle’s basis in, 1 1 8
physical systems and multimedia learning, 447–448,462
animated diagrams, 451–452
dynamic events understood from, 456–458
reasons for lack of effectiveness of, 457–458
static structure understood from, 454
three-dimensional objects, ability to display, 451 ,454
ways to make animation more effective,458
apprehension principle, 458
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) research,457
cognitive skills, 492
contiguity principle, 460
definitions pertinent to, 448, 462
diagramsanimated diagrams, see subhead “animated
diagrams,” this entryrelationship between verbal materials and,
452–453 , see subhead “relationship betweendiagrams and verbal materials,” this entry
schematic, 453
static diagrams, see subhead “static diagrams,” thisentry
understanding and learning from diagrams only,453–458
dual coding theory, 459
dynamic eventsanimated diagrams portraying, 456–458
static diagrams used to display, 454–456
knowledge structures (mental models), 448–449,463
media and modalities used, 460–461
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physical systems and multimedia learning (cont.)mental animation (inference of movement in static
diagrams), 450, 454–456, 461–462 , 463
meteorology, see meteorology and multimedialearning
prior knowledge, effect of, 458
relationship between diagrams and verbal materials,452–453
content relations, 459–460
format relations, 460–461
representationsdefined, 449, 462
theoretical framework, 448, 449
types of, 449–453
resemblance principle, 458
schematic diagrams, 453
single medium or display, 448, 449
spatial abilities of learners, 455 , 457
static diagrams, 450–451
dynamic events understood from, 454–456
graphic devices used to communicate dynamicevents in, 456
illustrations of, 450, 451
schematic, 453
static structure understood from, 453–454
three-dimensional objects, 454
survey of research ondiagrams only, 453–458
multimedia presentations, 459–462
theoretical framework, 448–449
three-dimensional objectsability of animated graphics to display, 451 , 454
static diagrams of, 454
verbal materials, 452
relationship between diagrams and, see subhead“relationship between diagrams and verbalmaterials,” this entry
understanding and learning from multimediapresentations, 459–462
weather, see meteorology and multimedia learningpictures, processing of, see visual processingPLATO, 9
play theory, 561
PPPersona agent, 107
practice opportunities, incorporation of, 610
pre-training principle, 6, 169–1 71 , 1 73–1 74
cognitive theory, implications for, 1 78
defined, 1 70, 1 80
example of, 1 73–1 74
future directions in research, 1 80
instructional design implications, 1 79
limitations of research, 1 80
prior knowledgeeffect of prior knowledge on results of
pre-training techniques, 1 76
pre-training as means of providing, 1 70
summary of research results, 1 76
survey of research, 1 76–1 77
theoretical rationale for, 1 70
predictive tasks in meteorologyimportance of visual processing for, 430
research on comprehension for purposes of, 436
presentation modes view of multimedia presentation,2
presentation of multimedia, 2
print medianavigational principles, 298–300, 308
reading theory, 357–359
printed/digital words, visual processing of, see readingcomprehension
prior knowledge principle, 7, 325–328
animation principle, 292 , 293 , 329
assessment issues, 335
ATI (aptitude-treatment interaction) research,1 27–1 28, 1 29, 332
central executive function keyed to structure ofprior knowledge, 1 26
cognitive aging principle, 342 , 347
cognitive load theory, 331
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 499, 500
cognitive theory, implications for, 333–334
concept maps in hypermedia, 304 , 305
CSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),253 , 258
definitions pertinent to, 335
element interactivity, 330
essential processing and essential overload, 1 74 , 1 76,1 78
example of, 326–328
expertise reversal effect, see expertise reversal effectextraneous processing and extraneous overload, 190,
197
false assumptions about multimedia learning, 105
future directions in research, 335
guided-discovery principle, 218, 221
history and multimedia learning, 385
hypermedia learning, 577–578
imagination effect in instruction, 330, 336
instructional design, 595 , 596, 597
instructional design implications, 334–335
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 62
isolated-interacting elements instructional effect,329, 335 , 336
learner characteristics, research on effects of,1 23–1 24
learner control and segmenting principle, 1 79
limitations of research, 332–333
modality principle, 331
modality principle research, 1 78
multimedia principle and, 1 1 8
physical systems and multimedia learning, 458
pre-training principleeffect of prior knowledge on results of
pre-training techniques, 1 76
pre-training as means of providing, 1 70
reading and multimedia learning, 357
schemas, 333
self-explanation principle, 275
site maps, see site map principleSLA (second language acquisition) with
multimedia, 473 , 475
split attention and, 1 40, 328
summary of research results, 329
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survey of research, 328–332
theory behind, 333
transfer vs. retention testing, 316
worked-out examples principle, 331–332 , 334
working memory and long-term memory, 595
probe recall tasks, modality principle research using,1 49
problem-solvingCSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),
256
expertise reversal effect, worked-out examples vs.problem-solving, 165 , 231 , 331–332
ill-structured or wicked problems, 256, 265
mathematics and multimedia learning, 397
worked examples vs., see worked-out examplesprinciple
procedural information as component of4C/ID-model, see four-componentinstructional design model
psychological theory, navigational principles based in,298
qualitative vs. quantitative rationale for multimedialearning, 4 , 5
qualitative vs. quantitative research in games,simulations, and microworlds, 560–561
radio as revolutionizing learning, 8
random generation and effectiveness testing(inquiry-based learning), see cognitive loadtheory
rationale for multimedia learning, 3–6
reading and multimedia learning, 355–356
comprehension issues, see reading comprehensioncongruity of media presentations, 363 , 364
decoding, 356, 359–361 , 367
future directions in research, 365–366
instructional design implications, 365–366
limitations on research, 356–357, 366
motivation and interest, 363 , 364 , 365–366, 368
multimedia defined in context of reading,357–359
pictures and content, relationship between, 363
printed vs. digital text, 357–359
prior knowledge principle, 357
semiotics, 365 , 367
theoretical views regardingbottom-up vs. top-down process, 356
cognitive flexibility theory and readingcomprehension, 362
critical stance, helping readers develop, 368
multimedia, definition of, 357–359
richness of, 367
reading comprehension (processing of written, printedor digital words)
cognitive flexibility theory, 362 , 367
cognitive theory, 44
critical approach to texts, developing, 361 , 362 ,364 , 368
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 57, 62 , 67
knowledge structures (mental models), 362
mathematics, use of written words to teach, 393 , seealso mathematics and multimedia learning
physical systems, use of written materials to teach,452
relationship between verbal and nonverbal signs(text and pictures), 493–498
research on, 361–365 , 368
spoken vs. written word processing, see modalityprinciple
receptive e-learning, 592–593 , 594 , 613
redundancy principle, 6, 1 59–160
additional information, presentation of (coherenceprinciple), 160
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 510, 515 , 516,518
cognitive aging, 343 , 344
cognitive load theory, 27, 160–161 , 165
counterintuitiveness of, 1 59, 166
defined, 1 59, 167
e-learning, 599–601 , 614
element interactivity, 166
evidence from research for, 161
expertise reversal effect, centrality to, 165
extraneous audio, omission of, 599–601
extraneous processing, techniques for reducing,1 83–1 86, 1 88
cognitive theory, implications for, 195–196
definition of redundancy principle for purposesof, 1 84 , 198
example of redundancy techniques, 1 88
instructional design implications, 196–197
limitations and future directions of research, 197
subset of Sweller’s redundancy principle, 193
survey of research on, 192–193
tabular summary of research results, 193
theoretical rationale, 1 86
type 1 extraneous overload, 1 85–1 86
first use of term, 161
4C/ID-model, 78, 82 , 89
historical background and periodic rediscovery, 1 59,165
identical information presented in different media(Mayer’s redundancy effect), 160
instructional design implications, 165–166
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension
general redundancy, 62–63 , 65 , 67
specific redundancy, 62 , 65 , 67
mathematics and multimedia learning, 405
modality principle, 1 54
revision, need for, 166
schemas, 166
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 480
split-attention principle, 1 39, 1 43 , 1 45 , 162–163
variations on, 160
working memory, 160–161
reflection principle, APAs (animated pedagogicalagents), 518
reflective support, guided-discovery principle, 218
regulatory processes and guided-discovery principle,216, 218
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relevancy of multimedia materials, importance of,1 24–1 25
remembering vs. understanding, 1 3–1 4 , see alsomemory; transfer and retention testing;understanding
representationsanimation principle supporting visualization and
mental representation processes, 288
chemistry and multimedia learning, 410–41 2 , 418,425
cognitive science and multiple representations, seecognitive skills and multimedia learning
cognitive theory, five forms of representation in,41–42
external representations, defined, 425 , 462
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 57
channels of representation, 55
depictive and descriptive representations, 52–54 ,67
distinction of sensory channels on perceptuallevel from representational channels oncognitive level, 59
forms of representation, 52–54 , 55 , 67, 68
internal representations, defined, 425 , 448, 462 , seealso knowledge structures
navigational principlescontent representations, see navigational
principlessurface representation, 298
physical systems, see physical systems andmultimedia learning
type 3 extraneous overload and representationalholding, 1 86, 198
research, see also under specific topicsassumptions about multimedia learning not
supported by, 97–98, see also assumptionsabout multimedia learning
basis for, 6–7
design issues, see design of research studiesimportance of approach based on, ix–xiNo Child Left Behind Act, scientifically-based
research requirement of, 590
resemblance principle, physical systems andmultimedia learning, 458
response strengthening, multimedia learning viewedas, 10–1 1
retention testing, see transfer and retention testingrevision not counting as redundancy, 166
rote learning, 1 3–1 4 , 20
SAPs (systematic approaches to problem-solving),4C/ID-model, 74 , 79, 82 , 83
scaffolding, 100, 105
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 500
CSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),262–263 , 265
defined, 388, 614
e-learning via simulations, 608, 609, 61 1 , 614
guidance tools, 217–219, 224 , see alsoguided-discovery principle
history and multimedia learning, 378, 383 , 388
prior knowledge principle, instructional designimplications of, 334
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments), 538
schemascentral executive for working memory, functioning
as, 25
cognitive theory (Mayer) compared, 41 , 45
defined, 29, 1 56
e-learning, 595 , 596, 597, 614
4C/ID-model, 75–77
pre-training principle, 1 70
prior knowledge principle, 333
redundancy principle, 166
relations between long-term and working memory,24 , 25
structure of knowledge in long-term memory, 21
Scientific Discovery as Dual Search (SDDS) model,guided-discovery principle, 223
scientific discovery learning, 21 5 , 225 , see alsoguided-discovery principle
scripted vs. interactive multimedia, 550
SDDS (Scientific Discovery as Dual Search) model,guided-discovery principle, 223
search tasks in hypermedia and navigational principles,305–307
second language acquisition (SLA) with multimedia,467–469
acquisition vs. learning of language, 468, 484
advance organizers, 469
defined, 483
instructional design implications, 481
research on, 475–476
annotations, 472 , 473–474 , 483
apperception, 470, 471–472 , 483
assessment, 478, 481 , 483
auditory processing, 472 , 478, 483
cognitive approach, 468
cognitive theory, 471 , 479–480
coherence principle, 480
comprehensible inputdefined, 483
future directions in research, 482
interactionist perspective, 469–471
limited nature of research on, 478
survey of research on, 471–472
comprehensible outputdefined, 483
future directions in research, 482
instructional design implications, 481
interactionist perspective, 469–471
research on, 476–477
constructivism, 468
CSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),259
definitions pertinent to, 483
design of research studies, 477
dual coding theory, 472
example of, 469
future directions in research, 482–483
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hypermedia learning, 576
individual differences principle, 479, 480
input and output competencies, 467, see alsosubheads “comprehensible input” and“comprehensible output,” this entry
definitions of input and output, 483 , 484
interactionist perspective, 469–471
instructional design implications, 480–482
intake/integration of information, 475–476
integrated model, 471 , 478, 483
interactionist perspective/theory, 469–471 , 473 , 483
interactive processingcomprehensible output research on, 472–475
definitions pertinent to, 483
future directions in research, 482
interactionist perspective, 469–471
survey of research on, 472–475
learner characteristicsindividual differences principle, 479, 480
prior knowledge, 473 , 475
spatial ability of learners, 472 , 475 , 479, 480, 484
learner control, 474 , 481
limitations of research, 477–479
materialsauthentic materials, need to use, 477, 479, 483
future directions in research, 482
limitations on research, 479
modality principle, 480
multimedia principle, 479, 480
organizational issues, 472–475
prior knowledge, 473 , 475
redundancy principle, 480
sociocognitive approach, 468
spatial ability of learners, 472 , 475 , 479, 480, 484
structural approach of behavioral psychology, 468
survey of research, 469–477
theoretical frameworks, 467–468
cognitive theory, 471 , 479–480
constructivism, 468
dual coding theory, 472
interactionist perspective/theory, 469–471 , 473 ,483
limitations of research without, 478
sociocognitive approach, 468
structural approach of behavioral psychology, 468
verbal ability of learners, 475 , 479, 480, 484
seductive detaildefined, 614
distractive qualities of, 596
social cues creating, 209
segmenting principle, 6, 169–1 73
cognitive aging, parts-whole sequencing tocounteract, 345–347, 348
cognitive theory, implications for, 1 78
defined, 1 70, 1 80
example of, 1 71–1 73
4C/ID-model, part-task practice as component of,see four-component instructional design model
future directions in research, 1 79–1 80
instructional design implications, 1 79
learner control issues, 1 71–1 73 , 1 79
limitations of research, 1 79–1 80
self-pacing principle and 4C/ID-model, 83
summary of research results, 1 75
survey of research, 1 74–1 76
theoretical rationale for, 1 70
self-directed activity in VR and VE (virtual reality andvirtual environments), 538
self-explanation principle, 7, 1 4 , 271–272
analysis of research results, 279–282
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 516
content areas, 275
defined, 272
example of self-explanation in multimedia, 277–278
explaining to others vs. self-explaining, 276–277
4C/ID-model, 78, 83 , 89
high-quality vs. low-quality explanations, 273 , 275 ,278–279
instructional design implications, 282–284
learner characteristics, 275
prior knowledge, effect of, 275
spontaneous self-explaining, effectiveness of,273–274
summary of research results, 280, 281 , 282
survey of research, 277–279, 282
trainable learning strategy, effectiveness as, 274–275
worked-out examples principle, 232–234 , 238, 239,242
self-pacing principle, 4C/ID-model, 78, 83 , 87, 89
self-regulation and cognitive skills, 500
semantic groupings for menus, effectiveness of, 302
semioticscognitive skills and multimedia learning, 494–496,
502
defined, 502
reading theory, 365 , 367
sensory deficits and cognitive aging principle, 341
sensory memorycognitive aging principle, 342
cognitive theory, role in, 37–38
defined, 47, 1 30
dual coding theory, 47
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 55–56, 67
pictures, processing of, 42
representation, forms of, 41–42
spoken words, processing of, 43
sensory modalities view of multimedia presentation, 2
sensory overload, 99, 102
sequencing principlee-learning and animation, 604
4C/ID-model, 77–79, 89
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 61–62 , 65 , 67
sequencing tasks in multimedia history learning, 382 ,388
Sherlock, 607, 609
SICUN, 491–492
signaling principle, 6, 1 83–1 86, 1 87
animation principle, 292 , 295
chemistry and multimedia learning, 410
cognitive aging, 343 , 344
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signaling principle (cont.)cognitive theory, implications for, 195–196
defined, 1 84 , 198
example of, 1 87
4C/ID-model, 78, 85 , 87, 89
future directions in research, 197
instructional design implications, 196–197
limitations of research, 197
summary of research results, 192
survey of research, 192
theoretical rationale for, 1 85–1 86
type 1 extraneous overload, 1 85–1 86
worked-out examples principle, 235
signs as semiotics concept, 494 , 502
simplifying conditions method, worked-out examplesprinciple, 240
SimQuest, 216–217
simulations, see games, simulations, and microworldssingle user virtual environments (SVEs), 527, 528,
536
site map principle, 7, 313–315 , see also concept mapsadaptive site maps, 322
advance organizers, 316, 322
assimilation theory, 319
cognitive flexibility theory, 320, 321
cognitive theory, implications of research for,319–320
Construction-Integration Model, 319–320, 321
defined, 313
definitions pertinent to, 322
examples from National Zoo web site, 314–315
future directions in research, 321–322
goal orientation, 317, 318, 321
graphic vs. linguistic maps, 318–319
incidental learning, 321
instructional design implications, 320–321
learner characteristics, 318, 321
limitations of research, 318–319
macrostructures, 319
metacognition, 318, 322
prior knowledge principlecognitive theory, implications of research for, 319,
320
future directions in research, 321
instructional design implications, 321
limitations of research, 318
survey of research, 316, 317
purpose of site map, 313
size of hypertext, effect of, 321
survey of research, 315–318
situated learning using CVEs (collaborative virtualenvironments), 530
situation modelsdefined, 322
navigational principles, 298, 304 , 309
site map principle, 319, 322
situative theory of multimedia learning in chemistry,410–41 2 , 426
SLA, see second language acquisition (SLA) withmultimedia
SMV:Chem (formerly 4M:Chem), 41 2–414 , 423
social agency theory, 202 , 209
social cues, 201 , see also image principle;personalization principle; voice principle
cognitive load added by, 210
cognitive theory, implications for, 209
cooperation principle, 202
defined, 21 1
dependent measure limitations, 210
examples of, 202–205
flow chart, 203
future directions in research, 210–21 1
importance of, 202
independent variable limitations, 210
instructional design implications, 209
limitations of research, 210–21 1
summaries of research results, 206, 207, 208
survey of research, 205–209
task environment limitations, 210
theory behind, 202
transfer vs. retention testing, 206, 210
social skills training using VR and VE, 536–538
sociocognitive approach to SLA (second languageacquisition) with multimedia, 468
sociocultural and social cognitive theory, 248–249,265–266
sound comprehension, see auditory processingSourcer’s Apprentice, 378, 379
sourcing heuristic, history and multimedia learning,377, 388
spatial abilities of learnersanimation principle, 292
chemistry and multimedia learning, 421 , 425
extraneous processing and extraneous overload, 190,197
hypermedia learning, 578–579, 580
mathematics and multimedia learning, 401
multimedia principle and effect of, 1 24
physical systems and multimedia learning, 455 , 457
shortcut tasks, 532 , 533
SLA (second language acquisition) withmultimedia, 472 , 475 , 479, 480, 484
VR and VEs used to investigate and train, 532–535 ,538, 540
spatial contiguity principle, 6, 1 83–1 86, 1 89
cognitive aging, 343 , 344
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 491
cognitive theory, implications for, 195–196
defined, 1 84 , 198
example of, 1 89
future directions in research, 197
instructional design implications, 196–197
instructional effectiveness of multimedia principle,1 21
limitations of research, 197
mathematics and multimedia learning, 405
split-attention principle, 1 40, 195
summary of research results, 194
survey of research, 193–195
theoretical rationale, 1 86
type 2 extraneous overload, 1 85 , 1 86
Spearman’s “g” and working memory, 1 26
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split-attention principle, 6, 1 35
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 510, 51 2 , 513 ,514 , 517
cognitive load theory, 26, 29, 1 35 , 1 40, 1 41 , 1 42 , 1 45
contiguity principle, 1 40, 1 43–1 44
defined, 1 35
definitions pertinent to, 1 46
different content areas, validity over, 1 37–1 41
direct comparison of integrated with non-integratedinformation, 1 40
e-learning, applicability to, 1 41–1 43
print materials alone vs. computer media alone,1 42–1 43
print materials alone vs. print and computermedia, 1 41–1 42
element interactivity, 1 41 , 1 42 , 1 45
4C/ID-model, see four-component instructionaldesign model
importance of integrated information, identificationof, 99, 1 40
instructional design implications, 1 45
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 60, 61 , 62 , 63 , 65 , 68
learner characteristics, 1 45
mathematics and multimedia learning, 394
mental integration required by learners, 1 37
modality principle, 1 47, 1 52–1 53 , 1 54 , 1 81
physical integration of materials, importance of,1 37, 1 45
prior knowledge, effect of, 1 40, 328
redundancy principle, 1 39, 1 43 , 1 45 , 162–163
research survey, 1 37–1 41
spatial contiguity principle, 1 40, 195
temporal contiguity principle, 1 43–1 44 , 195
temporal split-attention principle, 4C/ID-model,78, 84
temporal vs. physical splitting/integration of sourcematerials, 1 43–1 44
types of materials causing split attention, 1 36
worked-out examples principle, 232 , 233
spoken word processing, see auditory processingStanford Project, 356
static graphicsdiagrams, see diagramshypermedia learning, 576
mathematics, see mathematics and multimedialearning
physical systems, see physical systems andmultimedia learning
step-by-step presentation of worked-out examples,237
“streaming” or transient information, 4C/ID-model, 83
“strengthening” concept, 4C/ID-model, 76, 77, 86,89
structural approach to SLA (second languageacquisition) with multimedia, 468
structural properties of texts and navigationalprinciples, 298–299, 304
structure-emphasizing guideline, worked-outexamples principle, 236–237, 242
structure mapping, integrated model of text andpicture comprehension, 63 , 65 , 68
structure of information in hypermedia learning,572–573 , 585
students, see entries at learnerstyles of learning supported by multimedia learning
assumptions regarding, 103–106
hypermedia learning, 579–580
superficial vs. deep processing, integrated model oftext and picture comprehension, 63
support, learner need for, 109–1 10, 1 23
supportive information as component of4C/ID-model, see four-componentinstructional design model
surface representation and navigational principles,298
SVEs (single user virtual environments), 527, 528,536
symbols as semiotics concept, 494 , 502
synchronous e-learning, 591–592 , 61 1 , 614
synchronous vs. asynchronous tools in CSCL(computer-supported collaborative learning),250, 264 , 266
systematic approaches to problem-solving (SAPs),4C/ID-model, 74 , 79, 82 , 83
systematization assumption, cognitive skills andmultimedia learning, 492
tables, charts, and figuresactive learning, pumps animation frames illustrating
cognitive vs. behavioral, 4 , 5
animation and interactivity, 291
APAs (animated pedagogical agents)cognitive model for multimedia learning with, 51 1
summary of research results, 517
chemistry and multimedia learningChemDiscovery (formerly ChemQuest), 419
ChemSense, 417
Connected Chemistry, 415
Molecular Workbench, 416
SMV:Chem and 4M:Chem, 413
cognitive aging declines and possible compensatorystrategies, 344
cognitive skills and multimedia learningmodel of relationship between internal and
external representations, 493 , 497
semiotics perspective, 495
triadic and dyadic models of signs, 494
cognitive theory, 33
cognitive processes required by, 41
different types of materials, processing of, 33
memory stores, 37, 45
narrated animation on lightning formationrepresentation used in experiments in, 33
representation, five forms of, 42
underlying assumptions, 34
coherence principleadded text samples, 1 86
separated presentation, 1 87
summary of research results, 191
type 1 overload scenario, 1 85
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tables, charts, and figures (cont.)definition of multimedia, multimedia learning, and
multimedia instruction, 2
e-learninganimation, use of, 603
collaborative, synchronous or asynchronous, 592
complex visual content explained with audionarration, 599
conceptual simulations, 606
directive, 591
extraneous audio, omission of, 600, 601
guided-discovery principle, 595
operational simulations, 591
receptive, 593
solo, 591
three factors shaping learning landscape, 597
troubleshooting tasks, 607
essential processing management techniquesbreakdown of lightning script into segments, 1 72
learner control and segmentation, 1 72
selected frames illustrating pre-trainingtechniques, 1 73 , 1 75
summary of research results, 1 75 , 1 76, 1 77
type 1 and type 2 essential overload scenarios,load-reducing strategies for, 1 71
extraneous processing, techniques for reducingadded text samples illustrating coherence
principle, 1 86
emphasized text samples illustrating signalingprinciple, 1 88
overload scenarios, 1 85
summaries of research results, 191 , 192 , 193 , 194 ,196
4C/ID-model, 73 , 78
games, simulations, and microworldssimple simulation, 553
simulation/game, 557
ThinkerTool microworld, 555
guided-discovery principle and computer simulationlearning environment, 217
image principle, summary of research results, 208
information acquisition, multimedia learningviewed as, 1 1
instructional designtechnology-centered vs. learner-centered
approaches to, 10
three factors shaping learning landscape,597
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension
bird migration pictures, 50
representational channels, 55
knowledge construction, multimedia learningviewed as, 1 1
mathematics and multimedia learningdynamic graphics and spoken text, 395
static graphics, 394
written text, worked examples consisting solelyof, 394
meteorology and multimedia learning, weather mapused in, 431
modality principleresearch results, summary of, 1 77
type 2 overload scenario, 1 71
navigational principlestypes of content representations, 305
types of link presentation, 301
outcomes or goals of multimedia learning,remembering and understanding as, 1 3
personalization principlescripts, personalized and nonpersonalized, 204 ,
205
summary of research results, 206
physical systems and multimedia learningsingle medium or display, 449
static diagrams, 450, 451
pre-training principleresearch results, summary of, 1 76
selected frames illustrating, 1 73 , 1 75
type 1 overload scenario, 1 71
prior knowledge principlemultimedia vs. diagram-only instructional
formats, 326, 327
summary of research results, 329
redundancy principle, extraneous processingtechniques
integrated presentation, 191
selected frames, redundant and non-redundantpresentations, 1 89
summary of research results, 193
type 1 overload scenario, 1 85
response strengthening, multimedia learning viewedas, 1 1
segmenting principlebreakdown of lightning script, 1 72
learner control, 1 72
research results, summary of, 1 75
type 1 overload scenario, 1 71
self-explanation principle, results of research on,280, 281 , 282
shortcut tasks and spatial cognition, 532 , 533
signaling principleemphasized text samples, 1 88
summary of research results, 192
type 1 overload scenario, 1 85
SLA (second language acquisition) with multimediaintegrated model, 471
interactionist model, 470
picture annotation, 470
social cuesflow chart, 203
image principle, summary of research results, 208
personalization principle, scripts and summary ofresults, 204 , 205 , 206
voice principle, summary of research results, 207
spatial contiguity principleintegrated presentation, 191
separated presentation, 1 87
summary of research results, 194
type 2 overload scenario, 1 85
split-attention principle, worked examplesillustrating, 1 36, 1 37, 1 39
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temporal contiguity principlesummary of research results, 196
type 3 overload scenario, 1 85
voice principle, summary of research results, 207
VR and VE (virtual reality and virtualenvironments)
attributes of VR as subset of VE attributes, 530
collaborative user environments (CVEs), 529
constructivist mainstream learning environmentsand domain-specific knowledge, 531
desktop systems, 527
everyday life skills training, 535 , 536
head-mounted display/devices (HMDs), 527
single user environments (SVEs), 528
social skills training, 537
spatial cognition training, 533 , 534
worked-out examples principle, 231 , 233
tasksCSCL tasks, see computer-supported collaborative
learning4C/ID-model
learning tasks, see four-component instructionaldesign model
part-task practice as component of, seefour-component instructional design model(4C/ID-model)
predictive tasks in meteorologyimportance of visual processing for, 430
research on comprehension for purposes of, 436
probe recall tasks, modality principle research using,1 49
social cues and task environment limitations, 210
teachers and teaching, see entries at “instruct . . . ”technology-centered approaches to multimedia
learning, 8–9, 10, see also computertechnology
television as revolutionizing learning, 8
temporal contiguity principle, 6, 1 83–1 86, 190
cognitive aging, 343 , 344
cognitive theory, implications for, 195–196
defined, 1 84 , 198
example of, 190
future directions in research, 197
instructional design implications, 196–197
instructional effectiveness of multimedia principle,1 21
limitations of research, 197
split-attention principle, 1 43–1 44 , 195
summary of research results, 196
survey of research, 195
theoretical rationale, 1 86
type 3 extraneous overload, 1 85 , 1 86
tests as form of assessmentCSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),
262
transfer and retention, see transfer and retentiontesting
textbasesdefined, 309, 322
navigational principles, 298, 299, 304 , 309
site map principle, 319, 322
theorybasis in theory and research for multimedia
learning, 6–7
cognitive aging principle, 342–343
cognitive flexibility theory, see cognitive flexibilitytheory
cognitive load theory, see cognitive load theorycognitive science, see cognitive skills and multimedia
learningcognitive theory, see cognitive theorycoherence principle, 1 85–1 86
constructionist learning, VR and VE (virtual realityand virtual environments), 530, 531 , 539
constructivism, see constructivismCSCL (computer-supported collaborative learning),
248–249, 254 , 263
different levels of, 71 , 86
essential processing, techniques for managing,1 70–1 71
Explanatory Coherence, Theory of, 263
extraneous processing, techniques for reducing,1 84–1 86
games, simulations, and microworlds, 561–562
guided-discovery principle, 222–223
history and multimedia learning, 376–377, 384
hypermedia learning, 570–571 , 584
importance of theory-grounded and research-basedapproach, ix–xi
integrative model, see integrative model of text andpicture comprehension
mental model construction, two-stage theory of,346, 349
multimedia principle, theoretical foundations of,1 1 8–1 20
navigational principles based in psychologicaltheory, 298
physical systems and multimedia learning, 448–449
pre-training principle, 1 70
prior knowledge principle, 333
reading and multimedia learning, see reading andmultimedia learning
redundancy principle, 1 86
role in multimedia learning design, 32
segmenting principle, 1 70
signaling principle, 1 85–1 86
site map principle research, implications of,319–320
SLA (second language acquisition), see secondlanguage acquisition (SLA) with multimedia
social agency theory, 202 , 209
social cues, 202
spatial contiguity principle, 1 86
temporal contiguity principle, 1 86
worked-out examples principle, 230
ThinkerTools, 551 , 554 , 555 , 563
thrashing (floundering), 1 10
three-dimensional objectsability of animated graphics to display, 451 , 454
static diagrams of, 454
TICCIT, 9
time required to learn, methods reducing, 100, 1 1 1
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time variations, generalizability of multimediaprinciples over, 610
training variability and cognitive aging principle, 348,349
training-wheels principle, 4C/ID-model, 78, 81 , 87,89
transfer and retention testing, see also far transfer; neartransfer
animation and video, effects of use of, 1 22
APAs (animated pedagogical agents), 51 2
cognitive theory, 32 , 1 25
essential processing, techniques for managing, 1 74 ,1 78
extraneous processing, techniques for reducing, 1 87,190
instructional effectiveness of multimedia principle,empirical foundations for, 1 21 , 1 22
mathematics, see mathematics and multimedialearning
prior knowledge principle, 316
rationale for multimedia learning, 3
remembering and understanding as learningoutcomes, 1 3–1 4
self-explanation principle, 4C/ID-model, 83
social cues, research on, 206, 210
VR and VE, transfer of training to real world from,534 , 535 , 542
transformative processes and guided-discoveryprinciple, 216, 218
transmission view of multimedia learning, 1 2
triadic vs. dyadic chains, cognitive skills andmultimedia learning, 494
tutors, see entries at “instruct . . . ”two-stage theory of mental model construction, 346,
349
UCD (user-centered design) in VR and VE (virtualreality and virtual environments), 539
understandingcognitive load theory
relations between long-term and workingmemory, 25
structure of knowledge in long-term memory,20
learning with, see meaningful learningremembering vs., 1 3–1 4
user-centered design (UCD) in VR and VE (virtualreality and virtual environments), 539
variability in sequencing of training problems,cognitive aging principle, 348, 349
variability principle, 4C/ID-model, 78, 80, 89
VE, see virtual reality (VR) and virtual environments(VE)
verbal ability of learners, SLA (second languageacquisition) with multimedia, 475 , 479, 480,484
verbal models and cognitive theory, see cognitivetheory
verbal processing, see also reading comprehensioncognitive theory, see cognitive theory
mathematics, use of written or spoken words toteach, 393 , see also mathematics andmultimedia learning
physical systems, use of verbal materials to teach,see physical systems and multimedia learning
relationship between verbal and nonverbal signs(text and pictures), 493–498
visualizer vs. verbalizer learning preferences, 580
video, research on effectiveness of, 1 22–1 23
virtual reality (VR) and virtual environments (VE),525–526
assessment, 540
attributes of VR as subset of VE attributes, 529, 530
augmented reality systems, 526
cognitive skills and multimedia learning, 500, 501
constructionist learning, 530, 531 , 539
constructivism, 529, 530, 531
CVEs (collaborative user environments), 527, 529
defined, 541
mainstream learning environments anddomain-specific knowledge, 530, 531
social skills training, 536, 538
definitions pertinent to, 525 , 541
desktop systems, 526, 527, 540
domain-specific knowledge, 529–531
educational applications, 528–529
everyday life skills training, 535–536
future directions in research, 540–541
growing feasibility of use of, 75
guided-discovery principle, 538
hardware, 526
HMDs (head-mounted display/devices), 526, 527
instructional design, 539
learner characteristics and individual differencesprinciple, 540
learner involvement in instructional design, 539
life skills training, 535–536
limitations of research on, 538–539
mainstream learning environments, 529–531
modality principle research, 1 78
motivation and interest, 538
participatory design, 539
projected systems, 526
rehabilitation, used for, 531
scaffolding, 538
self-directed activity, 538
situated learning using CVEs, 530
social skills training, 536–538
software, 526
spatial cognition assessment and training, 532–535 ,538, 540
special needs education, 531
SVEs (single user environments), 527, 528, 536
time delays, 540
total or partial immersion, 526, 529, 540
transfer of training, 534 , 535 , 542
UCD (user-centered design), 539
user participation, 527
visual processinganimation principle supporting, 288
auditory processing vs., see dual coding theory
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cognitive aging and sensory deficits, 341
cognitive theoryintegration of verbal and pictorial models, 40–41
organization of selected images, 40
pictorial models, see cognitive theorypictures, processing of, 42–43
selection of relevant images, 39
complex visual content explained with audionarration, 598–599
e-learning, 598–599
hypermedia learning, 576
integrated model, visual picture comprehension, 58,68
mathematics, graphics and written words used toteach, 393 , see also mathematics andmultimedia learning
meteorology and multimedia learningexamples of weather maps requiring visual
interpretation, 431–434
importance of visual processing to, 429–431
relationship between verbal and nonverbal signs(text and pictures), 493–498
spoken vs. written word processing, see auditoryprocessing; modality principle; readingcomprehension
verbalizer vs. visualizer learning preferences, 580
VLE (virtual learning environments), see virtual reality(VR) and virtual environments (VE)
voice principle, 6, 201 , 204
cognitive load, social cues adding to, 210
cognitive theory, implications for, 209
defined, 201 , 21 1
example of, 204
independent variable limitations, 210
instructional design implications, 209
mathematics and multimedia learning, 403 , 406
research regarding, 207–208, 210–21 1
tabular summary of research results, 207
VR, see virtual reality (VR) and virtual environments(VE)
The Way Things Work, 456
weather, see meteorology and multimedia learningwicked (ill-structured) problems, 256, 265
WISE, 218, 220
worked-out examples principle, 7, 229–230
anticipative reasoning, 234 , 237, 238
cognitive aging principle, 348
cognitive load theory, 26, 230, 240
conceptually-oriented equations, 238
constructivism, 239, 240
content area relevance, 241
defined, 230
definitions pertinent to, 242
discovery-based approach compared, 332
dual coding theory, 235
easy-mapping guideline, 235–236
error-triggered learning, 240
expertise reversal effect, 165 , 231 , 331–332
faded examples, 238–239, 335
future directions in research, 240–242
help guidelines (instructional explanations),234–235
initial skill acquisition, 238–239
instructional designimplications, 239–240
requirements, 232–238
integration issues, 233 , 236, 238
limitations of, 240–242
limitations of research, 240–242
mathematics and multimedia learning, 393–397
meaningful building-blocks guideline, 237–238
modular solutions, 238
multiple solution procedures, showing, 240
preference of learners for worked-out examples, 230
prior knowledge principle, 331–332 , 334
prompts, 234 , 239, 241 , 242
self-explanation elicitation, 232–234 , 238, 239, 242
signaling principle, 235
simplifying conditions method, 240
split-attention effect, 232 , 233
step-by-step presentation, 237
structure of problem, emphasizing, 236–237, 242
survey of research, 230–232
working memoryactive processing assumption of cognitive theory, 47
aging, effect of, 342 , see also cognitive agingprinciple
capacity, see cognitive capacitycognitive load theory, see cognitive load theorycognitive theory, 37–38, 1 26–1 27
defined, 47, 1 30
dual coding theory, 47
e-learning, 595–596, 614
4C/ID-model, 75–76
implications of multimedia principle research for,1 26–1 27
independent visual and auditory processing systems,evidence for, 1 49–1 50, 1 5 1
integrated model of text and picturecomprehension, 54–55 , 68, 1 26
integration with long-term memory, 1 26
limited capacity assumption, 47
modality principle and expansion of capacity, 1 47
pictures, processing of, 42
printed words, processing of, 44
prior knowledge principle, 595
redundancy principle, 160–161
representation of words and pictures in, forms of,41–42
Spearman’s “g” and, 1 26
spoken words, processing of, 44
World-Wide Web (WWW), see e-learning;hypermedia learning
written words, processing of, see readingcomprehension
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), 471
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