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Author: Smith, Marcy, M

Title: The Psychological Impact of Relational Aggression on Adolescent Females

The accompanying research report is submitted to the University of Wisconsin-Stout, Graduate School in partial

completion of the requirements for the

Graduate Degree/ Major: MS School Counseling

Research Adviser: Carol Johnson, Ph.D.

Submission Term/Year: Summer, 2012

Number of Pages: 26

Style Manual Used: American Psychological Association, 6th

edition

I understand that this research report must be officially approved by the Graduate School and

that an electronic copy of the approved version will be made available through the University

Library website

I attest that the research report is my original work (that any copyrightable materials have been

used with the permission of the original authors), and as such, it is automatically protected by the

laws, rules, and regulations of the U.S. Copyright Office.

STUDENT’S NAME: Marcy Smith DATE: 7/12/2012

ADVISER’S NAME: Carol Johnson, Ph.D. DATE: 7/12/2012

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----

This section to be completed by the Graduate School This final research report has been approved by the Graduate School.

___________________________________________________ ___________________________

(Director, Office of Graduate Studies) (Date)

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Smith, Marcy M. The Psychological Impact of Relational Aggression on Adolescent Females

Abstract

Relational aggressive behaviors are the strategies used to socially sabotage relationships,

social status and self- esteem of others. This type of bullying is on the rise. In the past, this type

of aggressive behavior was widely associated with physical aggression. Now that more females

are engaging in bullying, relational aggression is the preferred form of bullying for many

adolescent girls. Spreading gossip, starting rumors, and excluding peers is an effective way to

damage and manipulate others while remaining behind the scenes.

Victims of this type of bullying may have long-term ramifications which could also lead to

psychological damage. In addition to emotional distress, many girls experience physical

symptoms including headaches, stomach issues, fatigue and sadness. The patterns of relational

aggression found in cyber relationships are in the form of intimidation, harassment, and threats.

These are commonly occurring online and through cell phone texting. School counselors,

parents, and teachers need to know the kinds of behavior girls are using to be covertly aggressive

toward others.

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my husband Matt for his patience and support through this process.

Thank you for being my rock and always encouraging me to follow through. I would also like to

thank my son Joshua for much needed comic relief and little toddler hugs during the stressful

moments.

I would like to extend a huge thank you to my thesis advisor Carol Johnson, for her

insight, flexibility, and compassion. Writing my thesis became much more achievable with your

help and guidance. Thank you to all of my professors. I have learned so much more than I could

have ever imagined and thank you all for that. A special thank you to Carol, Barb, and Denise as

you have all been so kind, supportive and understanding through my longer than usual graduate

school experience. I would also like to thank Amy Gillett for being a great teacher and for

getting me off to a good start on my research.

Thank you also to my good friend and amazing school counselor, Liz Pukrop. You have

helped me so much though this entire journey and are a true example of the school counselor I

hope to become. Thank you to all of my friends for their encouragement along the way. I am so

grateful to be surrounded by such wonderful people.

Lastly, I would like to thank my Mom, Dad, and brother Paul. You have all been there

for me through everything and I greatly appreciate all of the love and support you have given me

throughout this experience. Mom, thanks for always reminding me that everything happens for a

reason and for always listening when I needed someone to talk to.

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Table of Contents

.................................................................................................................................................... Page

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................2

Chapter I: Introduction ....................................................................................................................5

Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................8

Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................9

Assumptions and Limitations of the Study ..........................................................................9

Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................9

Chapter II: Literature Review ........................................................................................................11

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………11 Relational Aggression ........................................................................................................11

Psychological Impacts .......................................................................................................13

Forms of Relational Aggression ........................................................................................16

Chapter III: Summary, Discussion and Recommendations ...........................................................21

Summary ............................................................................................................................21

Discussion ..........................................................................................................................22

Recommendations ..............................................................................................................23

References ......................................................................................................................................25

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Chapter I: Introduction

Relational aggression has been around for years; however, recent movies, books, and

news stories are reminding society of how serious the issue really is. “First identified in 1992, it

is the heart of the alternative aggressions, and for many girls an emotionally wrenching

experience” (Simmons, 2002, p. 43). According to The Ophelia Project (2006), “relational

aggression encompasses behaviors that harm others by damaging, threatening to damage or

manipulate one's relationships with his/her peers, or by injuring one's feelings of social

acceptance” (p. 1). In adolescent girls this is often in the form of gossip, rumor spreading, or

ignoring others. Simmons (2002) further explained “relationally aggressive behavior is ignoring

someone to punish them or get one’s own way, excluding someone socially for revenge, using

negative body language or facial expressions, sabotaging someone else’s relationships, or

threatening to end a relationship unless the friend agrees to a request” (p. 21).

It is evident that relational aggression can have many definitions. It is important to have

a clear understanding of these behaviors, because they are often overlooked and mistaken for the

typical behavior of adolescent girls. This type of behavior can be extremely damaging to girls

and it may lead to long-term ramifications. The American Psychological Association found that

“victims of physical and relational bullying are at risk for adjustment difficulties later in life…

some women who were bullied as girls say they became stuck in the victim’s role” (cited in

Garinger, 2006, p. 236). The psychological impact that relational aggression has on these girls is

an issue that researchers are beginning to study, and findings can vary due to the relationship the

victim has with the bully. Relational aggression will often take place within a friendship, and

therefore can lead to more intense psychological ramifications. Crick and Nelson (2002) found

“evidence that peer victimization within the group context, both relational and physical, is

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related to numerous serious adjustment difficulties including social problems (e.g., peer

rejection), internalizing problems (e.g., depression), and externalizing problems (e.g., lack of

self-restraint)” (p. 600). Relational aggression within the peer group is extremely common, as it

is easy for girls to find faults with their friends because they know so much about each other.

Simmons (2002) wrote, “The lifeblood of relational aggression is relationship…the closer the

target to the perpetrator, the more cutting the loss” (p. 43). When writing her book, Simmons

(2002) interviewed many teenage girls. She wrote that one eighth grade girl explained relational

aggression by a friend as “meanness that can stay with you for your entire life…it can define

who you are” (p. 43). This is just one example of the many ways this type of girl bullying can

affect an individual.

In addition, many teenage girls participate in relational aggression and bullying-type

behaviors as a result of pressure from a peer they admire. This peer is often the leader of the

group and relational aggression occurs when a follower does not comply with the leaders needs

(Simmons, 2002). Time and again, girls feel pressure to be accepted and can behave negatively

in order to achieve the desired acceptance. Olthof and Goossens (2008) found “children’s desire

to be accepted by bullying children motivates them to behave in similar ways to elicit the bullies’

acceptance” (p. 42). During adolescence, many girls have a fear of being alone, and often will

strive to do whatever it takes to be accepted within a desired group (Simmons, 2002). Much of

this behavior stems from a low self-image, and therefore girls feel they need to be accepted by

their peers in order to feel good about themselves. This can lead to a spiral effect within peer

groups with the number of followers becoming greater and greater. Often girls do not even

realize how hurtful they can be to one another until the bullying gets out of control. This can be

extremely damaging and if left uncontrolled, it can lead to catastrophic consequences.

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Unfortunately relational aggression is prevalent in even more ways in today’s society

because of the increasing accessibility to cell phones and the Internet. Pronk and Zimmer-

Gembeck (2010) noted, “Patterns of relational aggression may be growing even more complex

primarily due to the use of text messaging and social networking” (p. 176). Text messaging and

the Internet have provided teenagers with additional ways to express their aggression, and have

become popular bullying tools for many adolescents, especially girls. The majority of this type of

bullying is taking place in the homes, as teachers tend to monitor computer and cell phone use

more closely in the schools.

Often girls will gossip and spread rumors about their peers through text messages and

social networking sites. Girls do this as an alternative to confronting victims face-to-face, and

often the messages are much worse than what would have been said in person. Being invisible

gives a sense of confidence to the bully. Garinger (2006) reported, “The distance between bully

and victim on the internet is leading to an unprecedented and often unintentional degree of

brutality, especially when combined with a typical adolescent’s lack of impulse control and

underdeveloped empathy skills” (p. 239). Words can easily become misinterpreted and images

can be altered using computer software. Many teenagers are unaware of the ever-lasting impact

these messages can leave on an individual’s life.

Along with emotional distress, many girls involved in relational aggression also

experience physical symptoms. In fact, “both aggressors and targets report experiencing

headaches, stomachaches, fatigue, trouble sleeping, loss of appetite, and unexplained crying”

(The Ophelia Project, 2006, p. 2). It is important for parents and teachers to watch for these

symptoms, and ask if they may be linked to relational aggression. Teenagers are hesitant at

times to tell adults about the problems they are experiencing, but the physical symptoms can be

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much more obvious. Relational aggression is on the rise and action needs to be taken to empower

girls to think and act on their own. Parents and teachers can provide these girls with information

and tools necessary to help them combat relational aggression. Girls also need to be held

accountable for their actions.

Statement of the Problem

“Can’t we all just get along?” This is a statement often heard in society. If only it were

that easy. In reality, bullying is on the rise in our schools; especially girl bullying. Whether it

takes place in person, in writing, through text messages, or the Internet, girl bullying also known

as relational aggression, is becoming a serious problem – one that shouldn’t be taken lightly.

Often times the girls who are doing it do not even see what is wrong with their behavior. There

are always a plethora of excuses for trying to make their actions seem justified. The most

common forms of relational aggression appear to be spreading gossip and rumors, texting cruel

words, and forming exclusive groups on Facebook that tell others to stop talking to an individual.

The girls who are doing these things seem to have a goal to get as many followers as they can

behind them.

If more action is not taken soon against relational aggression, both the victims and the

bullies may be at a serious risk. Some of these girls do not stop until it is too late. Parents and

teachers must be proactive when it comes to relational aggression, so they are able to help

prevent it before it ever begins. It is crucial not to assume that “girls are just being girls.” This

is a serious issue with serious consequences and it will not go away on its own. Therefore, the

problem is, how do counselors educate students about the hazards of relational aggression?

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to review literature on the psychological impact of relational

aggression on adolescent females. The focus will be on the types of relational aggression most

prevalent with middle school females and the psychological impact it may have on them. This

research will include a review of literature from available resources during the summer of 2012.

Assumptions and Limitations of the Study

It is assumed that adolescent girls engage in bullying. While girls tend not prefer

physical violence it is further assumed that girls use covert means to harass and intimidate their

victims. Another assumption of this research is that resources on relational aggression and the

psychological impacts on middle school girls will be available for review.

A limitation of this study is that while bullying occurs for both genders, this study will be

limited to the bullying specific to relational aggression of middle school adolescent girls. A final

limitation is the amount of time and resources available to the researcher during the summer of

2012. Some articles and research may have been overlooked.

Definition of Terms

For a better understanding of the information presented in this literature review, a list of

commonly used terms has been provided.

Covert Aggression. A non-physical form of aggression. It is often psychological in

nature and can go unnoticed by a casual observer. Acts can include intentionally ignoring or

excluding someone (Simmons, 2002).

Electronic bullying. Involves using electronic devices either directly or indirectly to

insult, threaten, harass, or intimidate another person (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007).

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Gossip. Within relational aggression, gossip is rumor spreading, building alliances

against others, or indirectly harming the victim (Simmons, 2002).

Overt Aggression. Largely physical and verbal in nature overt aggression can include

pushing, intimidating, and name calling (Keown-Bomar, n.d.)

Relational Aggression. Behaviors that harm others by damaging, threatening to damage

or manipulate one's relationships with his/her peers, ignoring with the intent to hurt another

person, or injuring one's feelings of social acceptance (Simmons, 2002; The Ophelia Project,

2006).

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Chapter II: Literature Review

Introduction

Relational aggression has many definitions and can be seen in various forms. Most

commonly it is non-physical aggression that takes place between girls, often through gossip,

rumor spreading, ignoring, and peer rejection. These behaviors, along with others commonly

associated with relational aggression, were reviewed in this study. Relational aggression

between members of the peer group and the psychological impact it has on the adolescent female

is also discussed. Information on social networking, cyber bullying, the Internet, and text

messaging, as they have provided an additional venue for relational aggression between females

is included in this chapter. Relational aggression can have serious social, emotional, physical,

and psychological effects. The emotional and physical symptoms are discussed, and effective

preventative strategies are also included in this chapter.

Relational Aggression

In the past, aggression was most commonly associated with physical interactions between

boys. In the 1990’s research began to surface on relational aggression, and this time, the focus

was on girls. Relational aggression can be seen in many forms. Researchers have different ways

of defining relational aggression; however, two researchers, Remillard and Lamb (2005), found

“relationally aggressive acts include sarcastic verbal comments, speaking to another in a cold or

hostile tone of voice, ignoring, staring, gossiping, spreading rumors, “mean” facial expressions,

and exclusion, all acts aimed to damage the target’s social status or self-esteem” (p. 221). These

behaviors encompass the typical behaviors seen with relational aggression. The bully will often

engage in these behaviors as a way of isolating a peer or when intentionally trying to end a

friendship.

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According to Raskauskas and Stoltz (2007), relational aggression occurs most frequently

during adolescence. The more visible physical forms of bullying diminish slightly after

elementary school and the less detectable indirect forms of bullying begin to take form.

Relational aggression often continues into high school, with the transition into high school being

one of the most significant times. Adolescents consider bullying to be one of the biggest issues

in their lives (Kevorkian & D’Antona, 2008). Coloroso (2004) found that “86% of children

between the ages of twelve and fifteen said that they get teased or bullied at school-making

bullying more prevalent than smoking, alcohol, drugs, or sex among the same age group” (p. 12).

Adolescents’ personalities are continuing to develop, along with an increased understanding of

sarcasm and overtones. This can lead to a more advanced and cruel use of relational aggression.

Adolescents also begin to disclose increasingly more information about themselves to their

peers. If a friendship ends, this information can be used as a weapon for the bully (Prinstein,

Boergers, & Vernberg, 2001). Unfortunately bullies even gain popularity as they get older, as

aggression begins to be viewed less negatively. Victims of relational aggression, in turn, often

experience increased peer rejection and fewer friendships (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007).

This can be extremely damaging to adolescent females, as this is already a time in their

lives where they experience a great deal of change physically, emotionally, and mentally. Girls

are trying so hard to figure out who they are and are desperately just trying to fit in with their

peers. Relational aggression only magnifies these struggles and adds a fear of never feeling

accepted (Coloroso, 2004).

The two behavior categories most commonly associated with relational aggression are

covert and overt behaviors. Covert behaviors can be very subtle in nature. These can include

eye rolling, turning away from someone to exclude them, gossip, rumor spreading, sharing

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secrets, and peer pressure. They often go unnoticed by adults because they are so difficult to

detect (Keown-Bomar, n.d.). Sometimes the victims may not even realize it is happening until it

has gone on for some time. Adolescents can be cruel to one another and it often gets overlooked,

especially when it is within a peer group. A girl may want to be friends with someone so badly

she may not even realize she is being bullied by them. Some girls may realize it, but choose not

to do anything about it, because they fear it may ruin the friendship (Kevorkian & D’Antona,

2008; Simmons, 2002). Others just go along with it to keep the focus off them. It is important

for adults to provide girls with guidelines for appropriate behavior within friendships, so they are

able to take preventative measures against relational aggression.

Overt behaviors are usually easier to identify. These include passing notes, bumping or

elbowing another girl, text messages and posting messages online, name calling, intimidation,

and humiliation (Keown-Bomar, n.d.). Even though these behaviors are more noticeable, they

can still go undetected. Some girls have positive reputations with adults, so they feel they can

get away with these behaviors without adults suspecting them. Adults should be aware of this,

and never just assume that girls behave the same in all social venues.

Psychological Impacts

The importance of peer relationships continues to increase as girls move into

adolescence. Many girls place a great deal of importance on having desirable peer relationships,

but the social and emotional impact on development is crucial as well (Raskauskas & Stoltz,

2007). Raskauskas and Stoltz (2007) found “positive peer relationships are related to successful

identity formation of adolescents, their sense of self-worth, healthy self-esteem, and developing

skills for romantic relationships” (p. 564). Hightower also noted that healthy peer relationships

can be linked to elevated mental health later in life (cited in Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007).

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Bullying within these peer relationships can begin as early as preschool, when social

relationships start to form, and it can continue into adulthood. The psychological impacts

relational aggression leaves on the victim can be devastating (Simmons, 2002). Some of the

most prevalent symptoms include depression, anxiety, and a lack of interest in activities. Other

common short-term effects include sleep disorders, nervous habits, frequent crying, and digestive

problems (Winkler, 2005). All of these can greatly impact an adolescent’s socioemotional

functioning (Keown-Bomar, n.d.; Pronk & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2010). It can also lead to

adjustment difficulties later in life (The Ophelia Project, 2006).

Some adults who have been bullied during adolescence reported more negative feelings

toward themselves, and higher levels of loneliness than those who were not victimized (Winkler,

2005). Of course some children who are bullied grow up to become well-rounded, happy adults.

It just depends on the individual’s experience and the severity of the aggression. Also, Prinstein,

Boergers, and Vernberg (2001) found that if the victim has one or more close friends, he or she is

less likely to experience the same repercussions from relational aggression. They seek support

from their friends and are able to bounce back more quickly if their social and emotional needs

have been met (Prinstein, Boergers, & Vernberg, 2001).

Often the effects of relational aggression may take awhile to surface. Some girls endure

substantial bullying before they feel they have had enough and the emotional or physical

symptoms can sometimes go unexplained. Common coping strategies for girls are to keep their

feelings to themselves, seek social support, engage in wishful thinking, and self-blame

(Remillard & Lamb, 2005). Rarely do any of these mechanisms actually help the victim. They

may offer a temporary escape, but if continued, could make the psychological impacts of

relational aggression even more severe. Winkler (2005) noted “a survey by the British

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organization Kidscape said that 20 percent of victims of bullying reported at least one attempt to

kill themselves” (p. 37). This is important for parents, teachers and school counselors to know.

It is also noteworthy that both the victim and the bully may experience the ramifications

of bullying. Much of the focus in today’s research is on the impact bullying has on the victim,

but the bully is often experiencing issues of her own (Simmons, 2002). For example, Simmons

(2002) found, some girls bully because they feel unaccepted by their peers. They think it will

help to make others feel the same way they do. They do not want to be the only one who is

feeling left out of a group. This type of behavior can lead to several social, mental, and

emotional issues for the bully. Problems in school, externalizing problems, adjustment

difficulties, and social issues later in life are all common consequences that many bullies face

(Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007). Bullies are often punished more frequently in school and at home,

which can lead to more destructive forms of behavior (Winkler, 2005). Victims and bullies share

the need for power and security from their peer relationships, and victims of bullying are highly

likely to become bullies themselves because of these similarities (Simmons, 2002). Victims of

relational aggression may include the bully, victim, or the bystander depending on the various

relationships they have throughout their life (Dellasega & Nixon, 2003).

In many cases of relational aggression, low self-esteem is often the underlying reason that

adolescents bully, and victims tolerate being bullied. It appears that both the bully and the victim

may suffer from low self-esteem, and as a result, subject themselves to this behavior (Dellasega,

2005). If this low self-esteem continues throughout adolescence, and the relational aggression

continues, it could lead to similar interactions in adulthood. Dellasega (2005) noted, “women

who grew up in aggressive and violent situations or who learned to interact with others in

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particular ways as children are more likely to use those same behaviors to relate to others

throughout life” (p. 12).

There are effective methods used to assist girls in these situations. Adults can help girls

to develop positive relationship skills and encourage them to participate in self-esteem boosting

activities, and in turn, this may help reverse the psychological impact of relational aggression

(Neal, 2009). It is also important to provide the victim and the bully with support and education

following the incident. Garinger (2006) found that empowering the victim by strengthening her

self-esteem has proven to be an effective strategy against relational aggression. Providing the

bully with education about respect and empathy has also been found to be beneficial (Coloroso,

2004). That’s why school counselors may wish to include this information in classroom

guidance lessons.

Forms of Relational Aggression

Relational aggression can be displayed many different ways when it comes to the social

interactions of adolescent females. As discussed previously, there can be more subtle forms,

known as the covert behaviors and the more direct forms, known as the overt behaviors. Both

forms can be equally as damaging in their delivery. In fact, the type of verbal bullying found

within relational aggression, is the most widespread form of bullying across both genders. About

70% of reported bullying incidents are verbal in nature (Coloroso, 2004). This can include name

calling, gossip, spreading false and malicious rumors, defamation of character, racist or sexual

comments, and demeaning remarks. All of these actions can dehumanize the target and make it

even easier for the bully to attack (Coloroso, 2004).

Girls tend to be fairly social and if their ability to do so is hindered, it can be

overwhelming for them. Many girls grow up learning the importance of limiting the emotional

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expression of anger and are taught to maintain pleasant relationships with others (Crothers, Field,

& Kolbert, 2005). Crothers, Field, and Kolbert (2005) found that “because directness and overt

confrontation are not consistent with a feminine gender identity, girls adhering to such standards

are forced to use manipulative and covert means of expressing anger, resolving conflict, and

establishing dominance” (p. 349). Many will turn to non-verbal gestures as a means of

communication with their peers. Simmons (2002) further described this type of indirect

aggression: “In a social world where anger is not spoken, reading body language becomes an

important way for girls to know each other’s feelings. Yet the practice can have grave

consequences” (p. 48).

This is where the spiral effect can begin, as if just one girl within the peer group resorts to

these non-verbal gestures as a way of communicating her message negatively, then others are

likely to follow her lead. Silence can even intensify the conflict. It can leave both the bully and

the victim wondering how the other truly feels. Sometimes the victim may not even know why

the bully is upset with her in the first place (Simmons, 2002). It is important for girls to

recognize the damaging harm from indirect relational aggression. Counselors and teachers may

wish to include conflict resolutions in the curriculum that includes the topic of relational

aggression.

Another form of bullying that has been on the rise over the past few years is cyber

bullying. This type of bullying takes place through text, photo, video messaging, instant

messages, email, Facebook, and other social networking sites. It has become a popular way for

bullies to taunt the victim without having to do it face-to-face (Kevorkian & D’Antona, 2008).

The home phone and cell phone have been used as bullying devices for years. For example, one

girl will call another on the phone and get her to talk about a third girl that is actually listening

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silently on the line. This is known as “three ways” and often the girl who was called has no idea

this is taking place (Dellasega & Nixon, 2003). Raskauskas and Stoltz (2007) found that

adolescents repeatedly feel powerless when they are bullied through electronic methods. They

feel there is nothing that can be done and it becomes difficult for them to see an end to the

anonymous harassment.

Adolescents are increasingly gaining more and more access to technology, and as a

result, have turned it into an additional venue for bullying. Also, the bullying can become even

more severe, as technology enables the bully to send the hurtful information to more people than

ever before (Kevorkian & D’Antona, 2008). Now children are not even free from bullying in

their own homes. They may be harassed each and every day and at all hours. This can lead to

even more damaging effects to the victim (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007).

Relational aggression is taken to a whole new level now that cyber bullying has

unfortunately become so popular with adolescents today. The Girls Scouts of America surveyed

over a thousand girls ages thirteen to eighteen and found that 58 percent of girls are more

knowledgeable about computers than their own parents, and have used this knowledge to break

the rules of their home computer use (cited in Dellasega & Nixon, 2003). These same girls also

admitted they have sent angry emails to their peers and are meaner online than they would be if

talking to the same person face to face (Dellasega & Nixon, 2003). There have been news

stories of girls taking pictures of other girls in the locker room with their cell phones, and then

sending the pictures to students throughout the school. This can be extremely traumatizing for

an adolescent girl who may already feel self-conscious about her body. The last thing she would

most likely want is an unflattering picture of her passed electronically around the school

(Dellasega & Nixon, 2003; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007).

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Facebook has been another popular source for girls to bully their peers. For example,

girls are setting up groups in which only pretty girls can join. Others have started groups called

“Nerds” and have posted pictures of their classmates they feel belonged in that category. The

victims sometimes do not even find out until much later and the impact it has on them becomes

more severe. Adolescents need to be reminded of the consequences that could take place as a

result of cyber bullying. Once something is posted online or sent in a text, it is permanent and

cannot be taken back. This is why it can be exceedingly damaging to the victim, but can also

lead to more severe consequences for the bully. Now, if bullying occurs on the Internet or in text

messages, it may be traced back to the original source and the bully will no longer remain

anonymous (Garinger, 2006). Also, many girls do not realize that online harassment is

considered a crime, and if a girl is eighteen she could face criminal charges (Dellasega & Nixon,

2003).

Law enforcement, parents, and educators are also discovering they need to be more

thorough in gathering information from adolescents who have experienced relational aggression.

It now has to expand beyond the school, and encompass all areas of the adolescent’s life (Pronk

& Zimmer-Gembeck, 2010). Cyber bullying occurs more often after school hours, as many

schools block social networking sites and prohibit the use of cell phones on school property.

Even though these rules are in place, cyber bullying is still happening. It is vital that teachers

and parents talk to their children about appropriate use of the Internet and cell phones, so they

are able to help protect the victims of relational aggression.

School counselors are educational leaders who want to protect the victims of relational

aggression. School counselors may need to add updated information in the classroom guidance

lessons that includes relational aggression and the use of social media to harass or threaten other

20

students. Some schools have even invited local law officials who are experts and up to date in

laws regarding cyber bullying. The experts can share the legal and ethical consequences

regarding students who harass others online or through text messages. Too many students have

taken their lives because they felt they had no other choice but to attempt suicide. It is important

that there are tip lines to report covert bullying. Well-informed staff members and parents who

take the child’s concerns into consideration and follow-up to make sure all students feel safe and

welcome at school will be critical to the success of reducing relational aggression.

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Chapter III: Summary, Discussion and Recommendations

Summary

This chapter includes a summary of the literature reviewed in Chapter Two and also a

discussion of the literature presented in this review. Recommendations for further research in

the field are given, with an emphasis on parent and professional involvement. Further research is

recommended in order to develop a thorough understanding of the psychological impacts

relational aggression has on the adolescent female.

The literature reviewed has presented relational aggression as a critical issue in today’s

society. The focus of this paper was on relational aggression and the impact it has on the

adolescent female. In the past, the term “aggression” was widely associated with physical

behavior between boys. Over the past 30 years, research on relational aggression has become

more prevalent and the attention has turned to the adolescent female (Remillard & Lamb, 2005).

The main characteristics of relational aggression include exclusion, rumor spreading, gossip,

sarcastic verbal comments, eye rolling, and other behaviors done intentionally to harm others

(Dellasega & Nixon, 2003; Keown-Bomar, n.d.; Remillard & Lamb, 2005; Simmons, 2002).

Researchers explored and defined the differences between covert and overt aggression,

when used under the umbrella of relational aggression. It was found that most of the behaviors

associated with relational aggression fall under the covert aggression subcategory. Some of the

behaviors most commonly associated with this type of aggression include eye rolling, sharing

secrets, and peer pressure (Keown-Bomar, n.d.). Overt behaviors, on the other hand, are often

easier to identify, and these may include passing notes, posting messages online, name calling,

and intimidation (Keown-Bomar, n.d.). Both types of aggression can be equally as damaging to

the victim (Simmons, 2002).

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Short-term and long-term psychological impacts that relational aggression has on the

adolescent female were also reviewed. It was found that the short-term effects typically include

loneliness, depression, low self-esteem, and anxiety (Keown-Bomar, n.d.; Pronk & Zimmer-

Gembeck, 2010; Simmons, 2002). The symptoms can range from mild to severe and can also

lead to adjustment difficulties later in life (The Ophelia Project, 2006). Similarly, girls who

experience aggressive behaviors in adolescence often display similar behaviors into adulthood

(Dellasega, 2005). It was also found that adults who have been victimized in adolescence may

have more negative feelings toward themselves than those who were not bullied (Winkler, 2005).

Cyber-bullying is one of the various forms of relational aggression. With an emphasis

placed on how common and convenient it is to use electronic bullying, it was found to be a

continuing concern of adolescents, parents, and educators. Raskauskas and Stoltz (2007) defined

electronic bullying as bullying that used electronic devices such as cell phones and computers, to

insult, threaten, harass, or intimidate another person. This form of relational aggression can be

particularly damaging to the victim because of the twenty-four hour availability to electronics,

lack of supervision, and the anonymous harassment by the bully (Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007).

This harassment is often more severe because of this, and so are the effects on the victim.

Discussion

The available literature reviewed thus far indicated relational aggression is an ongoing

issue among adolescent girls in today’s society. Most researchers agree that relational

aggression is the most prevalent during the adolescent years (Coloroso, 2004; Kevorkian &

D’Antona, 2008; Raskauskas & Stoltz, 2007). Dellasega and Nixon (2003) argued that relational

aggression actually begins at a very young age and continues throughout life. They also noted

that boys in opposite sex relationships participate in relational aggression.

23

Much of the research in this review focused on relational aggression between girls, so it was

noteworthy to come across these findings.

Also, the study by Prinstein, Boergers, and Vernberg (2001) found girls who had close

friendships were able recover more quickly from the effects of relational aggression, as they

were able to seek support from those friends. This appears to be a valuable finding in the field

and could prove to be beneficial when helping girls cope with relational aggression. Although,

after reviewing the available literature, it was found that Prinstein, Boergers, and Vernberg

(2001) generally stand alone in their findings.

In this literature review there were very few studies that focused solely on adolescent

females, as many focused on both genders and children of various ages. While this was

informative, it may have been more beneficial to this research to have completed studies solely

on large samples of adolescent girls. School counselors can benefit from this information as they

are a key person that students often trust and are willing to share their feelings. School

counselors need to know how to respond to covert relational aggression and have tools in place

to work with students and advocate for their safety. Being proactive with lessons that inform

students of the hazards of harassing others and the likely consequences are important, as well as

ways to resolve conflict and mediate relationship issues at school. School counselors need to

keep up with the latest information and know about electronic bullying so they can help identify

the bullies and assist the victims.

Recommendations

It is important for school counselors to be informed on the severity of relational

aggression and the presence it has within the schools. It is inevitable that a student, teacher, or

parent will seek the school counselor’s advice on this topic. School counselors should be

24

familiar with prevention strategies, interventions, and the psychological impacts of relational

aggression. This is a serious issue and the literature in this review has indicated that it can have

significant short-term and long-term effects on the victim and the bully. It may be advantageous

for schools to develop anti-bullying policies that include specific information on relational

aggression and its detrimental effects.

All staff within the school should receive some additional training and information on

relational aggression. This may produce the most effective results when working with the bullies

and victims involved in this behavior (Winkler, 2005). School counselors, teachers, and other

staff members need to maintain consistency when dealing with bullying issues, so that students

will feel more comfortable knowing something will be done to help them.

It is not enough to be informed on the impacts of relational aggression. It is important that

schools and parents are teaching their children about conflict resolution, empathy and healthy

relationships as well (Coloroso, 2004). This foundation is necessary in helping girls combat the

many challenges of relational aggression and in preventing future painful interactions from

occurring. Removing barriers to success for adolescent girls in the home, social events, school

and the work place should be the goal of every caring adult.

25

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