AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN JAPANSolutions for Greater Safety, Improved Environmental Performance and Increased User Convenience

Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Since its introduction more than a century ago, the automobile

has been in a state of continuous development in response to

society’s needs and expectations. It continues to evolve today in

line with contemporary requirements, not only as a vital element

in global economic activity as a means of commercial and

passenger transport, but also as a means of enhancing people’s

lives.

As a result of its constant evolution, the automobile is today a

comfortable and convenient means of transportation that offers

greater safety than ever before and significantly reduced

environmental impact, in addition to highly improved

operational performance.

Particularly in the areas of safety, environmental performance

and user convenience, major progress has been made thanks to

breakthroughs in vehicle-based electronic technologies, engine

technologies and in the information and communication

technologies that underpin ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems).

Advanced and expanded applications are expected in the future.

The purpose of this booklet is to introduce and explain these

state-of-the-art technologies, focusing on those which are

currently in application in Japan. Developments or applications

anticipated for the near future are discussed or referred to

briefly.

We hope this publication will increase the general

understanding of readers in regard to contemporary automotive

technologies and their advancement and application by the

Japanese automobile industry.

Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc. (JAMA)

March 2008*

TABLE OF CONTENTSINTRODUCTION

I. OVERVIEW OF AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGIES CURRENTLY IN APPLICATION IN JAPAN ……………………………1

Timeline for the Introduction in Japan of Automotive Technologies for Greater Safety,

Improved Environmental Performance and Increased User Convenience (1993-2008) ………………………………………………………1

Automotive Technologies Currently in Application (In-Vehicle View) …………………………………………………………………………3

II. TECHNOLOGIES FOR GREATER SAFETY ………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

A. Active Safety Technologies

1. Driver Assist Technologies …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

Electronic Stability Control (ESC) / Driver Inattention Warning / Tire Pressure Monitoring /

Adaptive Cruise Control / Lane Deviation Warning & Lane-Keeping Assist

2. Visibility-Improving Technologies …………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

Adaptive Front-Lighting System (AFS) / Automatic Levelling / Night Vision Monitoring /

Vehicle Perimeter Monitoring / Blind-Corner Monitoring

3. Brake Technologies …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8

Collision-Mitigation Braking System / Brake Assist / Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)

B. Passive Safety Technologies

1. Occupant Protection Technologies …………………………………………………………………………………………………………9

Active Head Restraint / SRS Side Airbag / SRS Curtain Airbag / Seatbelt Technology (Seatbelt

Pretensioner, Seatbelt Force Limiter, Pre-Crash Seatbelt) / Vehicle Compatibility / ISOFIX Anchorage

2. Pedestrian Protection Technology ………………………………………………………………………………………………………11

Pedestrian Protection Vehicle Design / Automatic Pop-Up Hood

III. TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE ……………………………………………………12

1. Technologies to Reduce Exhaust Emissions ……………………………………………………………………………………………12

Catalyst Technology (Gasoline Engines, Diesel Engines: Urea-SCR, NOX Catalytic Converters) /

EGR / DPFs / Fuel Injection Technology (Common-Rail Fuel Injection)

2. Technologies to Increase Fuel Efficiency …………………………………………………………………………………………………15

High-Efficiency Engine Technologies (In-Cylinder Direct Injection Engine, Variable Valve Timing) / Technologies to Reduce Power Loss

(Reduction of Engine Friction Loss, Electric Power Steering) / Reduction of Aerodynamic Drag / Reduction of Rolling Resistance /

Reduction of Vehicle Weight / Technologies to Improve Powertrain Performance (CVT, Automated Manual Transmission) / Idling

Prevention

3. Alternative-Energy /Next-Generation Vehicles …………………………………………………………………………………………18

Hybrid Vehicles / Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles / Fuel Cell Vehicles / Electric Vehicles / Hydrogen Vehicles /

Natural Gas Vehicles / Clean Diesel Vehicles / Diesel-Alternative LPG Vehicles

4. Other Alternative Fuels ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………21

CTL/GTL Fuels / Biodiesel Fuel / DME / Bioethanol

IV. HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES ……………………………………………………………………………………………22

Front & Rear Underrun Protection / Speed Limiters / Digital Tachographs / Rollover Mitigation

V. MOTORCYCLE TECHNOLOGIES ………………………………………………………………………………………………………23

Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) / Dual Combined Braking System / Motorcycle Airbags

VI. TECHNOLOGIES FOR INCREASED USER CONVENIENCE ………………………………………………………………………24

Park Assist / Automatic Closing / Smart Keys / Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) / Smart Highway Toll Stations /

HELPNET TM (Emergency Call System) / Vehicle Information and Communication System (VICS)

VII. DRIVING THE AUTOMOTIVE FUTURE ………………………………………………………………………………………………27

ASV Technologies / ITS Technologies / Advanced Car Navigation Systems / Telematics

*Publication date of original text (in Japanese; English version published November 2009)

19971996199519941993 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

1 2

I. OVERVIEW OF AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGIES CURRENTLY IN APPLICATION IN JAPAN

Tech

no

log

ies

for

Gre

ate

r S

afe

tyTe

chn

olo

gie

s fo

r Im

pro

ved

En

vir

on

me

nta

l Pe

rfo

rma

nce

Tech

no

log

ies

for

Incr

ea

sed

Use

r C

on

ven

ien

ce

-Automatic pop-up hood-Active drive assist (ADA) using stereo image recognition-Motorcycle airbags

-SRS (Supplemental Restraint System) rear-seat airbags-Active limited slip differential (LSD)-Inter-vehicle distance warning

-Impact-absorbing vehicle body/ High-strength cabin-Adaptive cruise control-Low-tire-pressure warning-Impact-sensing auto door unlock

-Vehicle perimeter monitoring-Electronic stability control (ESC)

-Electronic brake-force distribution (EBD)

-Adaptive front-lighting system (AFS)-Pre-crash seatbelts (retracting on automatic emergency braking)-Collision-mitigation braking system

-Preview control of hydraulic active suspension

-Motorcycle anti-lock braking system (ABS)-Right-and-left power distribution-Discharge headlamps-SRS side airbags

-SRS curtain airbags-Active head restraints-Lane deviation warning-Navigator-based gearshift control (ATs only)-Pedestrian protection vehicle design-Four-bag air suspension (large vehicles)

-Run-flat tires-Lane-keeping assist

-Night vision monitoring-Rollover mitigation (large vehicles)-Speed limiters (large vehicles)

-BHD (biodiesel) hybrid buses-Synthetic diesel-fuelled experimental vehicle

-Mirror cycle engine -Common-rail fuel injection-Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

-Hybrid passenger cars-Fuel cell vehicles [development]

-Idling prevention for passenger cars-Natural gas (CNG) hybrid buses-Electronically-controlled fuel injection for motor-driven cycles (50cc engines)-Idling prevention for motorcycles

-Fuel cell hybrid large buses-Fuel cell mini-vehicles-Variable-cylinder engine-Ultra-wide low-profile single tires (large vehicles)

-Trucks with CNG engines-Hybrid electric vehicles-High-pressure, variable-rate injection-NOX-reducing three-way catalyst-Pressure-accumulating diesel hybrid buses-Idling prevention for large vehicles

-Nickel-metal hydride battery- operated electric vehicles-Lithium-ion battery-operated electric vehicles-In-cylinder direct-injection engine

-Natural gas mini-vehicles-Continuously variable transmission (CVT) for large-capacity engines-Digital tachographs (large vehicles)

-Capacitor hybrid trucks

-Series hybrid buses-NOX-reducing urea-selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for diesel vehicles-Fuel cell motorcycles-Hybrid motor-driven cycles

-Fuel cell vehicles [type approval]

-Eight-speed automatic transmission (AT)-Automated manual transmission (AMT) for motorcycles

-Smart highway toll stations (for ETC users exclusively) [launch of wide-scale operation]

-Bird’s-eye-view car navigation

-Expanded ICT* applications in car navigation *ICT=Information & communication technologies-Electronic toll collection (ETC) [trial launch]

-HDD-operated car navigation -In-vehicle terrestrial digital tuner

-Vehicle Information and Communication System (VICS)-compatible car navigation

-HELPNET TM (emergency call system)

-Smart keys-Park assist

-GPS navigation for motorcycles-ETC for motorcycles

■ Timeline for the Introduction in Japan of Automotive Technologies for Greater Safety, Improved Environmental Performance　 and Increased User Convenience (1993-2008)

3 4

■ Automotive Technologies Currently in Application (In-Vehicle View)Applications of technologies for greater safety, improved environmental performance and increased user convenience in

currently in-use passenger cars are illustrated here. (Abbreviations are spelled out on pages 1-2.)

・Three-point seatbelt

・ISOFIX anchorage (for a child safety seat)

・Split-folding seat

・Rear power seat

・Heated seat

・Electric power steering

・Plastic resin fender

・Pedestrian protection front-end design

・AFS

・Discharge headlamp

・Projector headlamp

・Automatic levelling

・Fog lamp

・Cornering lamp

・Front air dam

・Inter-vehicle distance warning

・Adaptive cruise control

・Blind-corner monitoring

・Idling prevention

・Lean-burn engine

・In-cylinder direct-injection engine

・Mirror cycle engine

・Twin camshaft

・Multi-valve engine

・Electronically-controlled fuel injection

・Variable valve timing

・Variable turbocharger

・Intercooler

・Hollow camshaft/Aluminum cylinder block

・Liquid-filled engine mount

・Common-rail fuel injection

・Hydraulic power steering

・Electric power steering

・Remote-control mirror

・Water-repellent side mirror

・Vehicle perimeter monitoring

・Head-up display

・UV-reducing glass

・IR-reducing glass

・Light-controlling glass

・Water-repellent glass

・Low-reflecting glass

・Noise-insulating glass

・Snow-melting glass

・HELPNET TM (emergency call system)

・ICT applications in navigation system

・Lane deviation warning/Lane-keeping assist

・Driver inattention warning

・Night vision monitoring

・VICS-compatible car navigation

・SRS airbags for driver’s & front passenger’s seats

・HDD-operated car navigation

・In-vehicle terrestrial digital tuner

・High-mount brake lamp

・Rear wiper

・Rear-window defogger

・Privacy glass

・UV-reducing glass

・IR-reducing glass

・Light-controlling glass

・Water-repellent glass

・Rear fog lamp

・Sensor for lateral distance between vehicles

・Rear sensor/Rear side sensor

・Rear obstacle detection (back-up monitoring)

・Emergency locking retractor (ELR) seatbelt

・Deodorizing seat fabric

・Seatbelt pretensioner & force limiter

・Pre-crash seatbelt

・SRS curtain airbag

・SRS side airbag

・Active head restraint

・Power window with jamming-prevention mechanism

・Water-repellent glass

・UV-reducing glass

・IR-reducing glass

・Disc brake

・ABS

・ESC

・Traction control

・Brake assist

・EBD

・Four-wheel steering

・Active suspension

・Electronically-controlled suspension

・Electronically-controlled air suspension

・Collision-mitigation braking system

・Studless tire

・Ultra-low-profile tire

・Economy tire

・Tire pressure monitoring

・Studless tire

・Ultra-low-profile tire

・Economy tire

・Tire pressure monitoring

・CVT

・AMT

・Eight-speed AT

・Navigator-based gearshift control (ATs only)

・Automatic air conditioning

・Hydraulic brake booster

・Intermittent wiper

・Rain-sensing wiper

・Flat wiper blade

・Anti-corrosive & anti-pitching paint

・Anti-corrosive steel sheet

・High tensile steel sheet

・Impact-absorbing vehicle body

・Compatibility vehicle body

・Three-way catalytic converter

・NOX storage-reduction catalyst

・Urea-SCR

・Diesel NOX catalyst

・Diesel particulate filter (DPF)

・Oxidation catalyst

・Disc brake

・ABS

・ESC

・Traction control

・Brake assist

・EBD

・Four-wheel steering

・Active suspension

・Electronically-controlled suspension

・Electronically-controlled air suspension

・Collision-mitigation braking system

・Aluminum hood

・Automatic pop-up hood

・Rear spoiler

5 6

A. Active Safety Technologies

1 Driver Assist Technologies

■ Electronic Stability Control (ESC)ESC is a system that automatically helps control vehicle

skidding—resulting, for example, from too sharp a turn at

relatively high speed or from a suddenly slippery road

surface—by activating braking for the individual wheels as

needed and controlling engine output to put the vehicle

back on course.

To counter understeering when taking a turn, ESC

automatically applies the brakes to the inner rear wheel and

reduces engine output. To counter oversteering, the brakes

are automatically applied to the outer wheels and engine

output is reduced, thereby maintaining stability and

keeping the vehicle on course.

■ Driver Inattention WarningThis system monitors slight lateral deviations from the

vehicle’s course or trajectory and alerts the driver through

visual and auditory warnings when such deviations occur.

The system makes use of an onboard camera and a vibration

gyrosensor (steering angle sensor) to detect lateral

deviations caused by driver inattention or, for example, a

cross wind, and warns the driver accordingly.

To avoid the risk of false alarms, system application can be

customized for individual drivers by pre-setting certain

parameters including vehicle speed.

■ Tire Pressure MonitoringThis system monitors tire air pressure and air temperature by

means of a sensor located inside each tire of the vehicle and

informs the driver when tire air pressure is low

(underinflation).

Maintaining tire pressure at appropriate levels helps prevent

the occurrence of accidents (attributable to the loss of

vehicle steerability and driving stability resulting from

underinflated tires) as well as a decline in vehicle fuel-

efficiency performance.

■ Adaptive Cruise Control (Inter-Vehicle Distance Monitoring)This technology automatically maintains a safe distance

from the vehicle ahead using radar and an onboard camera

and by controlling vehicle speed.

The radar and camera provide the data needed for

computerized calculation of the distance to the vehicle

ahead. When that distance becomes unsafe based on

real-time speed calculations, the driver is alerted accordingly

and automatic auxiliary braking is performed as needed.

■ Lane Deviation Warning & Lane-Keeping AssistWith this technology, an onboard camera monitors the road

ahead and alerts the driver with visual and auditory

warnings when the vehicle is about to deviate from its lane.

If no corrective action is taken by the driver, the

lane-keeping assist function activates steering torque

control to keep the vehicle running in its proper lane.

The lane-keeping assist function is automatically released by

the driver’s operation of the directional signals whenever a

lane change is intended.

II. TECHNOLOGIES FOR GREATER SAFETY

Vehicle-based safety technologies comprise (a) technologies for active safety to help prevent accident occurrence and (b) technologies for passive safety to mitigate injury when accidents do occur. Recent years have seen important advances in pre-crash safety intelligent technologies aimed at boosting active safety and reducing damage and injury from unavoidable collisions. Many of the following technologies were developed as a result of research conducted on the Advanced Safety Vehicle (ASV) concept.

Electronic Stability Control: How It Works

Vehicle equippedwith ESC

Vehicle not equippedwith ESC

Braking applied to inner rear wheeland engine output reduced.

Countering understeering

Adaptive Cruise Control: Radar Helps Monitor the Distance tothe Vehicle Ahead

Conditions Triggering Driver Inattention Warning

Lane-Keeping Assist

Steering torque control is activated as necessary toprevent lane deviation.

The driver is alerted to imminent lane deviation by meansof a camera monitoring the road ahead.

Yaw rate

Lateral deviation

Vehicle trajectory (x-axis)

Countering oversteering

Vehicle equippedwith ESC

Vehicle not equipped with ESC

Braking applied to outer wheelsand engine output reduced.

Area monitored Area monitored

7 8

2

Visibility-Improving Technologies

■ Adaptive Front-Lighting System (AFS)AFS assists driving at night by automatically adjusting the

orientation of the front headlamps of the vehicle, taking into

account steering angle and vehicle speed, in order to

provide better nighttime visibility.

Because AFS interlocks automatic headlamp orientation

adjustment with steering angle and vehicle speed, it is

therefore especially helpful for drivers during cornering,

when it provides a significantly wider range of visibility than

fixed headlamps.

■ Automatic LevellingThis technology automatically adjusts the up-and-down

orientation (or “pitch angle”) of the vehicle’s front headlamps

to prevent blinding the vision of the driver of an oncoming

vehicle, taking into account vehicle speed and height.

Based on those variables, front headlamp orientation is

tilted vertically, up or down, to an appropriate height for

effective, non-blinding forward illumination.

■ Night Vision MonitoringAdvanced night vision systems detect, by means of infrared

cameras, infrared radiation-emitting objects in or

approaching the vehicle’s forward path and determine

whether the “objects” are pedestrians. The driver is then

alerted accordingly, with visual and auditory information, in

order to prevent nighttime accidents involving pedestrians.

■ Vehicle Perimeter MonitoringThis technology uses cameras mounted on the vehicle’s

exterior to transmit views of the vehicle’s periphery to the

display screen inside the car. Because the cameras detect

surrounding objects/obstacles that could otherwise not be

seen by drivers, this safety feature is helpful on narrow

roads, in tight spaces, and when parking.

■ Blind-Corner MonitoringThe purpose of this technology is to help reduce accident

occurrence at intersections. When the vehicle approaches a

blind intersection or “T” junction—that is, where visibility to

the right and left is dangerously reduced—a camera with a

built-in prism mounted on the front of the vehicle transmits

views of about 20 meters (roughly 60 feet) in both directions

to the in-cabin display screen. This greatly assists the driver

in safely navigating the vehicle through the intersection.

3 Brake Technologies

■ Collision-Mitigation Braking SystemBased on the distance from and speed relative to the vehicle

ahead obtained from radar information, as well as on the

anticipated vehicle trajectory as determined by sensors

(including cameras), the system’s electronic control unit

calculates the risk of collision. When there is such a risk,

visual and auditory warnings are emitted and the driver’s

seatbelt is retracted gently a few times to alert him/her to

the imminent danger.

When the driver applies the brakes, the system activates the

brake-assist function (also referred to here as “automatic

auxiliary braking”) to reinforce the driver’s own braking

action. If the driver’s braking pressure is insufficient or if

he/she fails to apply the brakes, the system applies full

braking power, thereby reducing the speed at the time of

collision. Furthermore, the vehicle’s occupants are

effectively restrained in their seats by quickly-retracting

seatbelts (or “pre-crash seatbelts”) which also optimize

airbag deployment efficiency. In this way, the system

mitigates the impact of the collision on vehicle occupants

and on the vehicle itself, and thereby helps reduce injury

and damage.

■ Brake AssistBrake assist (BA) technology monitors the force with which

the driver depresses the brake pedal, and automatically

applies supplementary braking power as needed. When

panic braking is detected—that is, when brake pedal force

exceeding a certain level is detected—the system

automatically maximizes brake boost, thereby

strengthening the force of brake pedal depression.

When a vehicle is equipped with both brake assist and an

anti-lock braking system, the result is more rapid, and

therefore safer, emergency braking (see diagram below).

■ Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)This system automatically regulates the hydraulic pressure

applied to the brakes for all the vehicle’s wheels at the time

of sudden, heavy braking, to prevent the wheels from

locking. This allows the driver to maintain steering control

and helps ensure vehicle stability. Most automobiles today

are equipped with ABS as a standard safety feature.

Widens and extends rangeof visibility in a curve.

Widens and extends rangeof visibility at an intersection.

Example of Infrared Detection-Based Night Vision

to Assist Vehicle Drivers

Vehicle Perimeter Monitoring & Blind-Corner Monitoring

Benefits of Adaptive Front-Lighting System

Benefits of Brake Assist

Collision-Mitigation Braking Using Millimeter-Wave Radar

If the vehicle is not equipped with

BA, this comparative lag in brake

pedal force and in ABS activation

occurs. BA thus enables faster, safer

emergency braking.

Withoutbrakeassist

Withbrakeassist

ABS operational range

Bra

kin

g f

orc

e

Moderate

braking

range

Emergency

braking

range

Brake pedal forceReinforced braking

Audio alarm

Full braking

Millimeter-wave radar continuously monitors the distance to the vehicle ahead.

When the distance to the vehicle ahead narrows dangerously, visual and audiowarnings are emitted and auxiliary braking is automatically applied.

When a collision is imminent, full braking power is automatically applied andseatbelts are quickly retracted.

Forward-view

camera

Rear-viewcamera

Side-view camera

Side-view camera

9 10

■ Seatbelt TechnologySeatbelts secure vehicle occupants in their seats at the time

of a collision or an abrupt stop. Their purpose is to reduce

injury and prevent occupants from being ejected from the

vehicle.

Seatbelt pretensioners and force limiters (also called “load

limiters”) are now standard equipment. Pre-crash seatbelts

have also been introduced which work in conjunction with

the brake-assist function (or “automatic auxiliary braking”) to

hold vehicle occupants more securely in place when a

collision is unavoidable.

● Seatbelt PretensionerThe pretensioner automatically tightens the seatbelt to hold

the vehicle occupant firmly in place in a frontal collision.

A double pretensioner retracts the seatbelt both at shoulder

height and at the level of the pelvis, for even greater restraint

at the moment of collision.

● Seatbelt Force LimiterThe force limiter automatically reduces seatbelt tautness (i.e.,

lets out a little slack) when the vehicle occupant’s seatbelt has

reached a threshold level of tension as his/her torso moves

forward in a frontal collision.

A variable force limiter helps distribute the force of the

impact of a frontal collision across the occupant’s body to

reduce the risk of chest injury.

● Pre-Crash SeatbeltQuickly-retracting pre-crash seatbelts work in conjunction

with the brake-assist function to restrain occupants in their

seats when a collision is determined (by an electronic control

unit) to be unavoidable. Pre-crash seatbelts also optimize

airbag deployment efficiency.

■ Vehicle CompatibilityAdvancing vehicle compatibility involves improving the

safety performance of a vehicle in the event of a crash with

another vehicle, with a particular focus on reducing the

ability of larger vehicles to cause damage to smaller vehicles

in a collision.

In vehicle-to-vehicle crashes, it is often the case that one

vehicle sustains greater damage (usually resulting in greater

injury to its occupants) because of differences in mass, size

and geometry—including, among other factors, body shape,

ride height and bumper height. Studies in vehicle

compatibility seek to minimize injury to the occupants of

both vehicles involved in a crash through improvements to

body structure.

During vehicle development, crash tests involving a larger car

and a smaller car are rigorously carried out in order to achieve

structural compatibility that will enhance a vehicle’s collision

impact-absorbing capacity by, for example, enabling the

absorption of impact energy over surfaces rather than at

specific points.

B. Passive Safety Technologies

1

Occupant Protection Technologies

■ Active Head RestraintThis technology reduces whiplash injury to a front-seat

occupant by moving the seat’s headrest upward and

forward at the time of a rear-end collision. When such a

collision occurs, a hinge incorporated into the seatback

yields in response to the forward motion of the occupant’s

torso, allowing the seatback to move rearward and a

pressure plate inside it to move the headrest upward and

forward based on the lever principle, cradling and

protecting the occupant’s head and neck.

■ SRS Side AirbagThe SRS (Supplemental Restraint System) side-impact airbag

serves primarily to protect front-seat occupants from injuries

to the torso—specifically, to the chest and pelvis—at the

time of a side (or “lateral”) collision.

Upon detection of a lateral collision by means of a sensor,

the side airbag installed in the seatback deploys instantly.

Side airbags designed for head protection and for rear seats

have also been introduced.

■ SRS Curtain AirbagAt the time of a lateral collision, this system deploys an

airbag installed in the side of the vehicle ceiling. This airbag

instantly inflates to form a curtain between the front- and

rear-seat occupants and the side window, running the entire

length of the side of the cabin, to protect them against head

and neck injuries.

Curtain airbags also help protect vehicle occupants from

injuries caused by shattered side-window glass.

Chronology of SRS Airbag IntroductionDriver’s-seat airbags were the first to be introduced, with

dual front airbags introduced soon thereafter to protect

both front-seat occupants from injuries sustained in frontal

collisions. Airbag installation has since been extended to

the rear seats as well. Airbags are also used for occupant

protection in side collisions, as described on this page.

All of these are Supplemental Restraint System airbags,

which are designed to mitigate collision impact on vehicle

occupants restrained by seatbelts (the primary restraint

system) and are optimally effective in combination with

correct seatbelt use.

Active Head Restraint: Activation on Rear-End Collision

SRS Side Airbag & SRS Curtain Airbag

Benefits of the Seatbelt Pretensioner & Force Limiter

Pretensioner

Effect ofpretensioner

Seatbelt withpretensioner &force limiter

Restrains forward

torso movement

by retracting seatbelt

at moment of collision.

Force Limiter

Effect of force limiter

Reduces seatbelt

tautness.

Force of

impact on

torso

Forward torso movement

Conventionalseatbelt

[Schematic representation of benefits]

Examples of Incompatibility in Car-to-Car Collisions

A car with greater mass islikely to push backa lighter car.

Impact-absorbing capacitydoes not match because ofincompatible body frames.

Crumpling is likely tooccur in cars withweaker front ends.

11 12

III. TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

Examples of Front-End Vehicle Design for Pedestrian Protection

Top tether anchor

Lower anchor

ISOFIX Anchorage

Now under development, pedestrian protection-enhancing

airbags will further buffer the impact of the collision on the

pedestrian by covering hard spots and components in the

lower windshield area such as the cowl and wiper bases, as

well as the structural pillars on each side of the windshield.

■ Automatic Pop-Up HoodA sensor and an electronic control unit built into the

bumper detect a collision with a pedestrian. If necessary,

actuators instantly raise the back end of the hood, leaving a

space between the hood and the hard components

underneath it, including the engine, to reduce the force of

the impact on the pedestrian’s head.

■ ISOFIX Anchorage (for child safety seats)Established by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO), ISOFIX is an international standard for

the accommodation of child safety seats in automobiles. It

specifies the built-in anchor points to be provided in the rear

seat of a vehicle so as to enable the rapid and safe installation

of a child safety seat.

ISOFIX also sets installation standards and categories with

respect both to child seats and the provisions for their

accommodation, enabling a “universal system” for child

safety-seat installation.

The complete set of ISOFIX anchor points in the rear seat of

new cars became mandatory in Japan beginning in October

2006.

2 Pedestrian Protection Technology

■ Pedestrian Protection Vehicle DesignThis is front-end vehicle design intended specifically to

reduce injuries (particularly head and lower limb injuries) to

a pedestrian involved in a pedestrian-vehicle collision.

To reduce the force of the collision’s impact on the

pedestrian and therefore the extent of potential injury,

various provisions are made in the design of the hood,

fenders, wiper pivots and front bumper to allow for

sufficient clearance, collapsibility, or even ejection off the

vehicle.

Automatic Pop-Up Hood

Bumper

SensorActuators

Collision detection

1 Technologies to Reduce Exhaust Emissions

■ Catalyst Technology

● For Gasoline EnginesExhaust emissions are produced when fuel is burned in a

vehicle’s engine. Emissions from gasoline engines include

pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons

(HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOX).

There are two different methods for reducing these

emissions: One method is to reduce/eliminate them at the

source (namely, the engine), and the other is to eliminate

their toxicity using after-treatment technologies.

Emissions are reduced or eliminated at the source by means

of electronically-controlled fuel injection and improvements

to the engine’s combustion chamber, as well as through

greater efficiency in the combustion process itself.

Catalytic converters serve to cleanse or “purify” the engine’s

emissions. Three-way catalytic converters, which can

simultaneously perform the twin emissions-reducing

requirements of chemical oxidation and reduction, are now

the standard for gasoline engines.

Another method uses an NOX storage-reduction (NSR)

catalyst to temporarily store NOX emissions and reduce them

later.

● For Diesel EnginesDiesel engines pose a particular challenge because of the

conflicting requirements involved in controlling the NOX and

particulate matter (PM) they emit. Overcoming that

challenge has involved various measures including

combustion chamber improvements, exhaust gas

recirculation (EGR), and the introduction of advanced

fuel-injection technology.

Significant progress has been made a) in cutting NOX

emissions from diesel engines through the use of ammonia

in the chemical reduction process and b) in reducing PM

emissions with the use of filters (DPFs).

Exhaust Emissions Reduction in a Diesel Engine

Engine

Intake throttle valve

EGR cooler

Fuel

injection nozzle

Exhaust gas

temperature sensor

Differential

pressure sensor

NOX storage-reduction catalyst

& Diesel particulate diffuser

NOX &

air/fuel ratio sensor

Air flow meter

NOX &

lambda sensor

Catalyst for

EGR cooler

Collision Impact-Absorbing Features

Impact-Absorbing Hood Hinge Impact-Absorbing Cowl Collapsible Wipers

Pivots collapse easily under pressure.

Impact-Absorbing Fenders

Impact-Absorbing BumpersImpact-Absorbing HoodSpace is provided betweenthe hood and the engine toreduce head injuries; also,the frame structure on theunderside of the hood is deformable.

Filled with resin foam

Lamps

Deformablemounts

Plastic resinmakes possiblea deformableedge.

Deformableon impact

Environmental protection is a pressing global issue, and initiatives are being taken around the world to reduce the burdens imposed on the environment by human activity.In road transport, environmental protection is being promoted through the adoption of wide-ranging measures aimed at, among other objectives, improving air quality and addressing climate change through the reduction of CO2 and other emissions. Such measures include the introduction of advanced vehicle technologies to reduce exhaust emissions and increase fuel efficiency; the stepped-up development of hybrid and electric vehicles and vehicles that run on alternative sources of energy, such as fuel cell vehicles; and the development of environmentally sound biofuels.

13 14

- Urea-Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)This technology reduces the nitrogen oxides (NOX) in the

diesel engine’s exhaust emissions by performing controlled

injection of urea solution into the hot exhaust gas, which

generates ammonia. The chemical reaction between the NOX

and the ammonia reduces the NOX to harmless nitrogen (N2)

and water vapor.

This method for NOX reduction in diesel engines successfully

eliminates the NOX even when the exhaust gas temperature

is low. Moreover, the technology is cost-effective because, in

addition to its durability, it does not require the use of

precious metals.

- NOX Catalytic ConvertersThe uniqueness of this breakthrough technology is

characterized by the fact that the ammonia it uses in the NOX

reduction process is generated by the catalytic converter

itself.

NOX catalytic converters feature a two-layer structure: One

layer absorbs NOX from the engine’s exhaust gas and converts

a portion of it into ammonia; the ammonia (NH3) is then

absorbed by the other layer, which uses it to convert the NOX

remaining in the exhaust gas into nitrogen (N2). The ability of

these catalytic converters to generate and store ammonia

and efficiently reduce NOX in a lean-burn atmosphere

enables diesel engines to rival gasoline engines in

cleanliness.

■ Exhaust Gas Recirculation Technology (EGR)EGR reduces NOX emissions by recirculating a portion of the

engine’s exhaust gas and mixing it with intake air to lower the

temperature in the engine’s cylinders (because higher

combustion temperatures increase NOX formation).

In current EGR systems, the EGR valve that interlocks with the

intake throttle valve is continuously controlled by a

microprocessor for precision control of the ratio of

recirculated exhaust gas and intake air.

A system has also been developed for heavy-duty trucks,

which enables NOX reduction by cooling the hot recirculated

exhaust gas with an EGR cooler and mixing it with intake air

to further lower the temperature in the cylinders.

■ Diesel Particulate Filters (DPFs)A diesel particulate filter is a device that is used to remove

particulate matter (PM) from the exhaust gas of a diesel

engine.

In turn, the PM accumulated in the filter must also be

removed to prevent clogging—a process referred to as

“regeneration.” Regeneration is carried out by various (mostly

onboard) methods. A typical onboard method is the use of a

fuel burner to increase the exhaust temperature, thus

enabling PM combustion.

■ Fuel Injection TechnologyAdvanced fuel injection technology provides highly

sophisticated electronic control not only of the amount of

fuel injected in the engine’s cylinders (or “fuel metering”), but

also of the pressure and timing with which the fuel is

injected. The benefits of this technology are more efficient

engine performance and therefore increased fuel efficiency,

as well as reduced emissions of pollutants (NOX and PM) in

the engine’s exhaust.

● Common-Rail Fuel InjectionCommon-rail fuel injection is a technology for diesel engines

that allows a pipe-shaped central accumulator—the

common rail—to store high-pressure fuel (produced by an

engine-driven pump) and then deliver it to all the individual

injectors (of which there is one for each cylinder).

Controlled by the engine’s electronic control unit, this system

makes possible high injection pressures at all times (for finer

atomization of the injected fuel, to enhance combustion

efficiency), in addition to precision control of fuel metering

and of the timing of the fuel injections.

NOX Catalytic Converters for Diesel Engines: Schema of Operation

Exhaustgas

Cell-sealed-typeceramic honeycomb

Oxidation catalystParticulate filter with catalyst

NH3

absorptionlayer

NOX

absorptionlayer

NOx

adsorbentNOX

absorbent

NOX CO

PtNOX

absorbentPt

H2O

CO

H2O

NOX

NOX

H2

NH3 NH3 N2

N2

NH3

NOX

NOX O2

Duringlean-burn

Duringrich-burn

Duringlean-burn

Example of a Continuous Regeneration-Type DPF

Urea-SCR

Ultra high-pressurefuel injection

ECUUrea injection

(controlled)

Storage tank forurea solution

Oxidationcatalyst

Urea-SCRcatalyst

Oxidationcatalyst

Example of a Cooled-EGR System for Heavy-Duty Trucks

Turbocharger

Air intake

Intercooler

Exhaust

Sub-liftfor EGR

Exhaustcam

Exhaust valveIntake valve

High-pressurepump

Fuel tank

Common rail

Pressure sensor

Electronic control unitInjectors

Common-Rail Fuel Injection

Oxidation catalyst DPF NOX catalyst

CO/HCpurification PM removal

NOX purification

Exhaust gas

Exhaust gas from

engine

15 16

2 Technologies to Increase Fuel Efficiency

Road transport CO2 emissions represent a significant share of

CO2 emissions generated by human activity. Technologies

that boost vehicle fuel efficiency not only contribute to

energy conservation but also help counter global warming

through reductions in auto-emitted CO2; their further

advancement must therefore be pursued. The various

technologies described below are already in application.

■ High-Efficiency Engine Technologies

● In-Cylinder Direct Injection

In conventional gasoline engine systems, fuel is injected into

the intake valve (also referred to as the “cylinder port”) and

then mixed with air before the air-fuel mixture is injected into

the cylinders. In the case of in-cylinder direct injection

engines, however, fuel is sprayed directly into each cylinder’s

combustion chamber.

Extremely high-pressure (more than 20 times higher than in

conventional systems) fuel injection enables very fine

atomization of the fuel particles, which in turn enables

combustion at very high air-to-fuel ratios (air is taken in

directly into each combustion chamber): from 40- to 50- to as

high as 60-to-1. This ultra lean-burn technology thus reduces

fuel consumption.

Furthermore, direct injection of the fuel into the cylinders

allows air to be taken in with less throttling resistance, which

results in less pumping loss and, consequently, reduced fuel

consumption in this respect as well. This technology

therefore enables increased fuel efficiency and reduced

levels of CO2 emissions.

● Variable Valve Timing (VVT)

The flow of air and fuel into and out of (in the form of exhaust)

vehicle engines is controlled by valves. The engine’s energy

efficiency is affected by how long the valves open, referred to

as “valve timing.”

Optimum valve timing varies depending on engine speed

and load. Conventional engines rely on fixed valve timing

settings, which are a compromise between the variable

optimum timing settings.

VVT technology increases the engine’s energy efficiency by

providing continuously variable timing—in other words, by

automatically switching to optimum valve timing settings.

The engine’s efficiency is also affected by how much the

valves move, referred to as “valve lift.” VVT technology can

also feature valve lift control (VVT&L), which automatically

switches to optimum valve lift settings.

■ Technologies to Reduce Power Loss

● Reduction of Engine Friction Loss

Friction loss, which is a mechanical loss, occurs when the

engine’s moving metal parts—such as the pistons, crankshaft

and valves (specifically, the valves and valve seats)—rub

against each other. Friction loss results in reduced energy

efficiency.

Various measures are taken in engine design to prevent

friction loss, including the use of lighter parts (pistons, for

example) and reduction of the valve spring load. Friction can

also be reduced, particularly during engine warm-up, with

the use of low-viscosity lubricating oil, which will help reduce

fuel consumption.

Moreover, engines are now under development that will cut

fuel consumption when engine load is low not only by

closing and shutting down the operation of some intake and

exhaust valves, but also by reducing engine pumping loss

which occurs at the time of intake and exhaust.

● Electric Power Steering

With this technology, steering is assisted by an electric motor

rather than by hydraulic pressure. This boosts fuel efficiency

since the steering assistance does not place any load on the

engine.

■ Reduction of Aerodynamic Drag (Improved Aerodynamics)

In addition to reducing mechanical loss, reducing vehicle

drag is an important concern. Aerodynamic drag (that is, the

force required to push a vehicle through the air) accounts for

80 percent of total vehicle drag.

Various measures have been taken in state-of-the-art vehicle

design to improve the aerodynamics, such as ensuring that

the external surfaces between windows and panels are flush.

■ Reduction of Rolling Resistance

While aerodynamic drag accounts for 80 percent of total

vehicle drag, the rolling resistance of the tires accounts for

the remaining 20 percent.

The challenge in reducing the rolling resistance of tires is, at

the same time, to ensure optimal running performance and

riding comfort. Tires with less rolling resistance are currently

under development. For large vehicles, ultra-wide low-profile

single tires are now in use. These tires represent a new level

of tire technology, replacing the dual tires on rear wheels for

a smoother ride and improving fuel economy by reducing

unsprung mass.

■ Reduction of Vehicle Weight

Lighter vehicle weight means that less energy is required to

propel the vehicle.

Additional weight reduction will therefore enable further

increases in fuel economy. This can be achieved without

compromising safety through the use of lighter, stronger

materials such as polymers and resins in vehicle components

and by designing lighter vehicle architectures overall.

In-Cylinder Direct Injection

Example of Friction Loss Reduction Technology

Reducing Weight through Increased Use of Aluminum

Conventional fuel injector

Fuel injector fordirect injection

R&D to Improve Aerodynamics

In vehicle development, extensive studies and testing arecarried out to reduce resistance to air flow.

Variable Valve Timing: How It Works

Engine fuel efficiency and torque have been improved bysignificantly reducing the throttling resistance that used to occurwhen the throttle valve narrowed because of low engine load.

Control module ECU Engine speed and load

Ball screw

Link B

Input cam

Link A

Output cam

Rocker arm

Control cam

Control shaft

Drive shaft

Motor

[Mechanism & operational schema]

Vacuumpressure

Atmosphericpressure

Throttle control Valve lift control

Conventionalengine Variable valve timing

Combustion engine

Generator

Battery

Inverter

Electric motor

Wheel

Mechanical powerElectrical power

17 18

■ Technologies to Improve Powertrain Performance

● Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)The most common type of CVT transmits the power from the

engine to the wheels not by the shifting of actual gears but

by a pulley-and-belt system that allows stepless (or

“shiftless”) changing to an infinite number of gear ratios—or

gears as they are conventionally understood.

This technology involves two pulleys—the driving pulley

(which inputs engine power) and the driven pulley (which

outputs to the powertrain)—and a belt that connects them,

riding in a groove in the pulleys. When the cones of either

pulley move outward, the diameter of the pulley decreases

and the belt rides lower in the groove; when the cones move

inward, the diameter increases and the belt rides higher. The

varying diameters of the two pulleys in relation to each other

(i.e., their ratios) determine the gear ratio. This “continuous

variability” in power transmission enables increased fuel

efficiency.

● Automated Manual Transmission (AMT)AMTs offer the excellent fuel efficiency of manual

transmissions and the smooth shifting of conventional

automatic transmissions, the basic difference compared to

MTs being that a hydraulically-controlled automatic clutch

makes clutch operation by the driver unnecessary. Some

AMTs also offer fully automatic shifting.

Although AMT systems vary in terms of the specific

technologies they incorporate, they all offer enhanced fuel

efficiency and better shifting performance. The diagram

below illustrates one type of AMT system.

■ Idling PreventionThis technology, also called “stop-start,” reduces fuel

consumption by shutting down the engine when the vehicle

comes to a stop, thereby preventing it from idling, and

starting it up again when the driver applies the clutch.

Idling-prevention technology has been widely adopted in

Japan in transit buses and delivery trucks because of their

stop-and-go driving patterns.

Continuously Variable Transmission

The Twin Clutch-SST AMT System

Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles: How They Run and Recharge

Notes: 1. The squiggly lines in the diagrams represent electrical connections.

2. The above diagrams do not show regenerative-braking energy flows.

SeriesHybrid SystemConfiguration

ParallelHybrid SystemConfiguration

CombinedHybrid SystemConfiguration

Combustion engine Transmission

Battery

Inverter

Electric motor/Generator

Wheel

Mechanical powerElectrical power

Combustion engine

Power-splitting device(planetary gear unit)

Generator

Battery

Inverter

Electricmotor

Wheel

Mechanical powerElectrical power

How Idling Prevention Works (in a MT vehicle)

Shift to neutral.

Apply the clutch.

Apply the hand brake.

Engine Shutdown

When stopping, the engine automaticallyshuts down after the driver shifts toneutral and applies the hand brake. The engine automatically restarts afterthe driver applies the clutch.

R 2

1 3 5 7

4 6

Automaticshutdown

Automaticstart-up

Engine Restart

Engine ECU Engine

Precisecooperativeelectroniccontrol

Hydrauliccontrol system

As with MT shifting,a simple and rigid structure.

Wet multi-plate twin clutch

Odd (for 1st, 3rd, and 5th gears)

Even (for 2nd, 4th, and 6th gears)

Twin Clutch-SST ECU

Electric-only (battery) operation on short trips Virtually zero emissions

Reduced fuel consumptionHybrid operation (use of gasoline engine)in long-distance driving

Recharging units

Combustion engine

Battery

Home electricalpower outlet

Charging

3 Alternative-Energy / Next - Generation Vehicles

■ Hybrid VehiclesA hybrid vehicle uses two power sources—an internal

combustion engine and an electric motor—for propulsion.

Initially, the most common types of hybrid vehicles were the

series type and the parallel type. In a series hybrid, the

electric motor alone drives the wheels (the engine’s only job

is to generate electricity), whereas in a parallel hybrid, both

the engine and the electric motor generate the power that

propels the vehicle (the engine is the primary

power-generator, while the electric motor assists the engine

when extra power is needed). More recently, combined

hybrids incorporating the features of both the series and

parallel hybrid types have increasingly come into use.

A combined hybrid enables significantly increased fuel

efficiency and reduced emissions by using only the electric

motor at the time of start-up, as with the series type; by using

both the engine and the electric motor when more power is

needed, as with the parallel type; and, at steady cruising

speeds, by storing the extra energy produced by the engine

in the battery for later use. A special feature of combined

hybrids is that they continuously optimize both the

mechanical and electrical power flows by means of a

power-splitting device.

Hybrid vehicles also incorporate regenerative braking

technology, which recovers energy (that would otherwise be

lost) during braking and stores it in the battery, to be used

later to help move the vehicle down the road. Energy

recovery with this fuel-economizing technology can be

considerable, particularly in hybrid transit buses and other

urban work vehicles, such as delivery trucks, that perform

mostly stop-and-go driving.

■ Plug-In Hybrid VehiclesPlug-in hybrid vehicles (referred to as “PHEVs,” for “plug-in

hybrid electric vehicles”) operate on batteries that can be

recharged by hooking up to the electrical power

grid—typically, through a conventional home outlet. They

are powered exclusively by an electric motor for short trips

(and are thus highly energy-efficient for city driving), but

perform as hybrid vehicles for long-distance driving by

reverting to the use of a combustion engine.

Expansion of the electric-only travel range for these vehicles

should encourage their more widespread use in urban areas.

PHEVs offer excellent environmental performance as well as

significant reductions in overall fuel costs, particularly if they

are recharged at night when the cost of electrical power is

generally lower.

19 20

■ Fuel Cell VehiclesA fuel cell vehicle is propelled by a motor that runs on

electricity generated by onboard fuel cells assembled into a

fuel cell stack.

Fuel cells create electricity through an electrochemical

reaction. The polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell

used in automobiles generates electricity by means of a

chemical process that uses only hydrogen gas and oxygen

from the air and emits only water, producing no harmful

emissions whatsoever.

The PEM is wedged between an anode and a cathode.

Hydrogen gas is conveyed to the anode on one side, where a

platinum catalyst splits the hydrogen into positively charged

hydrogen ions, or protons, and electrons (always negatively

charged). Only the hydrogen-ion protons can pass into the

PEM and through to the cathode on the other side.

Meanwhile, the electrons follow an external circuit to the

cathode, generating electricity. At the cathode, the electrons

and the hydrogen-ion protons combine with oxygen

channelled in from the air to form water—or water vapor, to

be precise—which then flows out of the cell.

Energy loss (in the form of heat) in fuel cell vehicles is

minimal, which is not the case with conventional generators,

where the energy conversion process is accompanied by

significant mechanical/thermal loss.

The development of fuel cell hybrid vehicles (FCHVs) running

on a combination of fuel cells and batteries is currently

ongoing.

■ Electric VehiclesElectric vehicles (EVs) operate on electric power exclusively

and feature a power-generation system consisting of three

elements: an electric motor, a controller, and batteries. The

controller takes power from the batteries and conveys it to

the motor, which in turn transmits it directly to the wheels.

EVs are zero-emission vehicles. In addition, power

generation in an EV creates much less vibration than it does

in a vehicle equipped with an internal combustion engine.

The major problems previously posed by EVs were their

limited travel range and the long time they required for

battery-recharging. However, the development of batteries

with higher energy density, such as nickel-metal hydride and

lithium-ion batteries, now enables a travel range of up to 200

kilometers (120 miles). A further development is the use of a

so-called quick charger in a 200-volt power supply, which

enables a travel range of 60 kilometers after only 15 minutes

of recharging.

■ Clean Diesel VehiclesA chief merit of diesel engines is that they are more

fuel-efficient, and therefore emit fewer CO2 emissions, than

gasoline engines. This is one reason why diesel passenger

cars have, over time, steadily increased in popularity in

Europe.

Greater emissions of soot and nitrogen oxides were long

perceived to be the disadvantages of diesel engines

compared to gasoline engines. However, the overall

emissions performance of diesel engines has improved

dramatically in recent years in response to ever more

stringent regulatory requirements. Clean diesel engines now

provide significantly reduced emissions compared to

conventional diesel engines and, in comparison with

gasoline engines, considerably (up to 30 percent) greater fuel

efficiency.

■ Diesel-Alternative LPG VehiclesThe primary component of liquid petroleum gas, or LPG, is

either propane or butane, which is stored onboard a vehicle

in liquefied form.

LPG vehicles are the norm for passenger-car taxi fleets in

Japan. Because of its comparatively low cost and reduced

NOX and PM emissions, LPG is also widely used today in Japan

in small trucks, as an alternative to diesel power.

Example of an Electric Vehicle and How It Recharges

A Clean Diesel Engine

PEM Fuel Cell Energy Conversion

H2

e-

e-

H+

Hydrogen gas

(H2) induction

PEM

Anode Cathode

Electricity

H+

Oxygen(O2) induction

Water(H2O) emission

O2

H2O

Powertrain Configuration in a Fuel Cell Vehicle (Example)

A CNG-Powered Small Truck

■ Hydrogen VehiclesHydrogen vehicles are powered by hydrogen that is

subjected to combustion. (Fuel cell vehicles are also powered

by hydrogen which, without combustion, is converted into

electricity by the fuel cells—see text and diagram on

opposite page.) The hydrogen combustion process

generates only water and some nitrogen oxides (NOX); no

CO2, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons or sulfur compounds

are released.

However, major issues exist with respect to the

commercialization of hydrogen-powered vehicles for

widespread use. One problem, which of course also applies

to fuel cell vehicles, is the production and supply

infrastructure for this energy source; another problem is

posed by the need for a compact solution to the in-vehicle

storage of hydrogen.

■ Natural Gas VehiclesNatural gas vehicles, or NGVs, use either compressed natural

gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) for propulsion. Most

are CNG vehicles.

Natural gas is composed of methane and other hydrocarbon

gases. Because NGVs generate roughly 20 percent fewer CO2

emissions than gasoline vehicles, they are likely to become a

practical alternative to gasoline vehicles. NGVs also release

fewer NOX emissions and, unlike diesel vehicles, no soot,

resulting therefore in reduced particulate matter (PM)

emissions.

CNG-powered commercial vehicles—transit buses and

trucks, for example—are in relatively widespread use in

Japan, and CNG passenger vehicles and minicars have

recently been introduced to the market. CNG-powered

hybrid buses are currently under development.

A Hydrogen-Internal Combustion Engine Hybrid Vehicle

Recharging Through a Standard Power Outlet

Onboard charger

Plug-in to vehicle

Time required:100V→14 hours/200V→7 hours

“Quick Charging” Recharging Method Plug-in to vehicle

Source: Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc.

Quick chargerTime required:200V→30 minutes (80% of full capacity)

21 22

4 Other Alternative Fuels

In the interest of increased energy security and reduced

environmental impact, the following fuels have been

developed for use in automobiles as alternatives to gasoline

and conventional diesel fuel. Research on alternative fuels is

ongoing.

■ Coal-to-Liquid and Gas-to-Liquid (CTL/GTL) FuelsCutting-edge CTL/GTL technology converts carbon

monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) derived from coal and

natural gas into liquid fuels which can then be refined to

produce diesel fuel for use in conventional diesel engines. In

addition to their easy storage and handling, CTL/GTL fuels

release essentially no sulfur emissions and no aromatics

during combustion. These synthetic fuels are therefore

considered a promising alternative to petroleum-based

diesel fuel (or “petrodiesel”) and are increasingly sought after

today.

■ Biodiesel Fuel (BDF)Biodiesel fuel consists of a vegetable oil (soybean, sunflower

or rapeseed oil, for example) or animal fat feedstock which

has undergone transesterification—a chemical process to

reduce high viscosity—to produce a fuel whose properties

are similar to those of petrodiesel and that can be used in

conventional diesel engines.

In addition, research and verification tests have recently been

carried out in Japan on what is being called “bio hydrofined

diesel,” or BHD, a renewable synthetic diesel fuel. Produced

using a vegetable oil feedstock and through the application

of refinery-based hydrogenation technology, sulfur- and

aromatics-free BHD has been shown to generate fewer

tailpipe hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and

particulate matter (PM) emissions while at the same time,

after improvements in oxidative stability, performing on a par

with conventional diesel fuel.

■ Dimethyl Ether (DME)DME is a synthetic fuel produced from natural gas, coal seam

gas (also called “coalbed gas”) or biomass. It is clean-burning,

generating virtually no soot and no sulfur oxides (SOX), with

reduced emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and particulate

matter. Easy to handle, it can serve as an alternative to

conventional diesel fuel and liquid petroleum gas (LPG).

■ BioethanolBioethanol fuel is a renewable gasoline substitute that can be

produced from a wide variety of plants through a process of

decomposition into starch and sugar, fermentation, and

distillation. It is environmentally friendly and, more

specifically, carbon neutral, because the CO2 produced

during its use is balanced (or “offset”) by the CO2 consumed in

the photosynthetic growth of the plants. For this reason, CO2

emitted in bioethanol combustion has been omitted from

calculations of greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto

Protocol.

However, the production of bioethanol from food crop

feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane raises major issues

including those of food supply and appropriate land use. In

contrast, the potential for cellulosic ethanol made from waste

residues and non-food crop feedstocks is promising, and

efforts to promote its production and commercialization are

underway worldwide.

In Japan, various initiatives launched in 2007 are being

pursued across the country to promote the production and

use of bioethanol. Currently in the Tokyo metropolitan area,

bioethanol is available at 100 filling stations in

gasoline-biofuel blends. At present, however, bioethanol

content in such blends is not allowed to exceed 3 percent,

owing to the concern that if used at a higher concentration in

in-use vehicles, corrosion of vehicle parts could result.

■ Front & Rear Underrun ProtectionIn a car-to-truck collision, an underrun protection device

(UPD)—whether for the rear (RUPD) or the front

(FUPD)—prevents the car from running underneath the truck

and mitigates car occupant injury and vehicle damage by,

typically, maximizing structural energy absorption to reduce

the impact.

RUPDs have been mandatory on heavy-duty vehicles (i.e.,

whose gross vehicle weight exceeds 3.5 tons) in Japan since

1992. FUPDs for such vehicles have also been mandated by

legislation to be enforced beginning in 2011.

■ Speed Limiters By controlling fuel injection into the engine, a speed limiter

device prevents a vehicle from exceeding a pre-set maximum

velocity, even when the accelerator pedal is depressed.

In order to reduce the occurrence of serious accidents

resulting from excessive heavy-duty vehicle speed on

highways, Japan mandated the installation of speed limiters,

which allow a maximum speed of 90 km/h (55 mph) or less,

onboard all large-sized trucks, including in-use vehicles,

effective from September 2003.

■ Digital TachographsA digital tachograph automatically records vehicle

operational data (speed, time, engine RPMs, sudden

accelerations and brakings, etc.) on a memory card or other

storage device.

Digital tachographs thus facilitate data analysis, which in turn

enables the monitoring of individual vehicles’ energy use and

CO2 emissions.

■ Rollover MitigationUsing ESC (electronic stability control) sensors to detect

when a vehicle is in danger of rolling over, this technology

emits an audio warning to the driver and acts to correct the

vehicle’s position by controlling engine output and initiating

braking for wheels on both the tractor and the trailer. This

not only helps prevent trailer rollover but also mitigates

skidding and the jackknifing phenomenon.

IV. HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES

CO2CO2

CO2

CO2

CO2

CO2

CO2

Absorption

of CO2

Emission

of CO2

Supply of biofuels

Photosynthesis

Front Underrun Protection

Offsetting Vehicle CO2 Emissions with the Use of Biofuels

Rear Underrun Protection

Rollover Mitigation: How It Works

At Start of Potential Rollover

Tractor

Lateral G occurs first.

With system operation Without system operation

Trailer wheel braking

Tractor wheel braking

Reducedlateral G Uncontrolled

lateral G

Control actuation

Determination of lateral G

Trailer

Lateral G occurs later.

Stable decelerationReduction of lateral G

Example of a Digital Tachograph

23 24

V. MOTORCYCLE TECHNOLOGIES VI. TECHNOLOGIES FOR INCREASED USER CONVENIENCE

■ Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)An anti-lock braking system on a motorcycle prevents the

wheels from locking at the time of braking, ensuring stability

as the vehicle moves forward. Using sensors positioned on

both the front and rear wheels, the system’s ECU monitors

braking pressure and wheel speed and, when determining

the start of a lock-up (resulting from overbraking), causes the

ABS modulator (or “pressure modulator”) to adjust the

braking pressure on each wheel to ensure vehicle stability.

■ Dual Combined Braking SystemSo-called combined or dual combined braking systems (CBS

or DCBS) actuate a motorcycle’s front as well as rear brakes

when the rider applies either the front or the rear brake.

Monitoring the braking pressure thereby created, the ECU

calculates how much braking force should optimally be

applied to the front and rear wheels and then causes the

required amount of such force to be distributed over both

wheels. This system ensures optimum braking while

maintaining vehicle stability.

When CBS/DCBS is combined with ABS, the result is a braking

system that performs with outstanding efficiency even when

road conditions are slippery.

■ Motorcycle AirbagsMotorcycle airbags were developed for the purpose of

mitigating injuries to riders in frontal collisions. When a

frontal collision occurs, crash sensors detect acceleration

changes caused by the impact and convey that data to the

airbag ECU, which instantaneously determines whether or

not to deploy the airbag. In the event of deployment, an

electronic signal from the ECU causes activation of the airbag

inflator. The deployed airbag absorbs the rider’s kinetic

energy, preventing him/her from being thrown forward from

the motorcycle.Functional Diagram of Motorcycle ABS

Diagrammatic Representation of Ultrasonic Sensor-BasedPark Assist in Operation

How a Smart Key Works

Functional Diagram of Motorcycle CBS

Example of an Inflated Motorcycle Airbag

Ultrasonic sensors (on a forward-moving vehicle to be parked) detect

positioning of other, parked vehicles. Based on the data thereby obtained,

computer processing then identifies and targets a parking space.

Sensor-detectedpoints

Targetedparking space

When parallel parking:

Ultrasonic sensors

Sensor-detectedpoints

Targetedparking space

When reverse parking:

Ultrasonic sensors

RightSide

Discrotor

Handbrake lever

Front master cylinder

Rearmastercylinder

Rear brakecaliper

Footbrake lever

LeftSide

Discrotor

Left frontbrake caliper

PCV

Right frontbrake caliper

Front brake

Diskrotor

Rear brake

Servomechanism

Front Wheel Rear Wheel

ECU

Brake cableDamper cable

Right brake lever

Left brake lever

Hydraulic

fluid line

Front-wheelspeed sensor

Rear-wheelspeed sensor

Front - and rear-wheelinterlocking ABS modulator

Damper cable

■ Park AssistPark assist technology interfaces with electric power-assisted

steering, front and rear side sensors and a back-up

monitoring camera to enable a car to steer itself into a

parking space with no steering-wheel operation by the

driver. The driver needs only to position the vehicle, shift to

reverse, press relevant buttons on the in-dashboard, camera

image-supplied touchscreen and release the brake. The

system will disengage if the driver touches the steering

wheel or depresses the brake pedal. A visual or auditory

signal informs the driver of the completion of the parking

operation, whether parallel or reverse.

Recent advances in park assist technology have further

simplified the procedures involved in readying a vehicle for a

parallel or reverse parking maneuver. These advanced

functions automatically identify and target a potential

parking space through computer processing of

sensor-obtained data, at the same time verifying sufficient

clearance with respect to the positioning of vehicles parked

adjacent to the targeted space.

■ Automatic ClosingA motor-based mechanical system that automatically closes

vehicle doors, sliding door and trunk when these are ajar.

Automatic closing ensures that the doors and trunk are

closed gently.

■ Smart Keys“Smart key” is one among various terms for this technology,

which allows automatic unlocking and locking of vehicle

doors (by means of an electric pulse generated inside the car

key) without conventional key operations or the use of a

remote control button. It also enables electronic ignition

activation—i.e., without insertion of the key into the ignition.

When a driver carrying the car key comes within a certain distance

of the vehicle, the door is automatically unlocked by an electric

pulse generated by the key, and locked when the key-carrying

driver leaves the vehicle.

Along with technologies advancing safety and environmental protection in road transport, technologies that promote comfortable and more convenient vehicle use continue to evolve.Innovations in the area of vehicle user convenience have been made possible by advances in computer-controlled and communications technologies.

25 26

■ Electronic Toll Collection (ETC)Electronic toll collection in Japan requires the installation of

an in-vehicle device and the insertion of a card into that

device. The device communicates wirelessly with the

antenna at an ETC-equipped tollgate on a toll road and

payment is processed automatically by means of the card.

By enabling drivers to pass through tollgates without

stopping, ETC offers multiple advantages including increased

comfort and convenience for vehicle users and reduced

congestion at toll plazas, as well as the environmental

benefits derived from the resulting smoother traffic flow.

One principal benefit is a reduction in CO2 emissions, which

were estimated to have dropped by about 34 percent, or

130,000 tons a year, when the ETC use rate of 50 percent of all

expressway users nationwide was achieved in October 2005.

ETC was launched for large-scale use in Japan in March 2001.

The cumulative total number of deliveries of in-vehicle

devices exceeded 20 million units in November 2007 and

continues to rise, as does the ETC use rate which, for the week

of February 15 through 21, 2008, stood at 73.1 percent of all

expressways users nationwide. During that same period, the

ETC use rate reached 81 percent on the Tokyo Metropolitan

Expressway road network.

ETC for motorcycles has been available in Japan since

November 2006.

■ Smart Highway Toll StationsSmart highway toll stations are toll payment sites for ETC

users exclusively. In addition to reducing road congestion, a

further benefit of smart toll stations, which are unmanned, is

their reduced cost of construction and operation. This

facilitates the expanded introduction of these toll stations,

which in turn promotes greater convenience in road use.

Smart toll stations were first introduced in Japan in a pilot

program implemented by the Ministry of Land,

Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in cooperation with

local governments. The transition to their full-scale

availability in the national expressway network has been

underway since April 2007.

■ HELPNET TM (Emergency Call System)HELPNET TM is a service operating in Japan that, in the event of

an emergency involving an automobile—whether an

accident, breakdown, sudden driver incapacity or passenger

illness—enables the communication (automatic or manual)

of the vehicle’s registration data and current location to the

service’s operations center. That information is then relayed

to the police and emergency service providers with

jurisdiction in the location concerned. HELPNET’s purpose is

to reduce the interval of time between the reporting of an

emergency and the arrival on site of rescue personnel. In the

event of a collision, automatic communication of the

HELPNET user’s vehicle registration data and location is

activated by airbag inflation; in other types of emergencies,

manual communication is carried out instantaneously by

means of a one-touch device installed inside the vehicle

cabin. Other possible communication channels are via a

vehicle’s navigation system or a mobile (cell) phone.

■ VICS (Vehicle Information and Communication System) At the forefront of ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) in Japan

when it was launched in 1996, VICS uses advanced

communications technologies as well as FM multiplex

broadcasting to collect and transmit, in real time, information

on road traffic conditions, road use regulations and

restrictions, alternate routes and parking facility availability

to in-vehicle equipment enabling the display of this

information on the navigator screen in text, diagrams and

maps.

Conventional versus Smart Highway Toll Stations

Example of a VICS Information-Enhanced Navigator Screen Display

How VICS Works

ETC Use & CO2 Emissions Reduction

(x 10,000 tCO2/year)

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Prior to ETC

introduction

ETC use rate 50%

(October 2005)

An estimated reduction of approx.

130,000 tCO2/year

ETC use rate 66%

(March 2008)

Greater CO2

reductionswith

expandedrates

of ETC use

CO2

emissions

CO2

emissions

Information on traffic conditions and road use restrictions is displayed

in real time.

A conventional set-up for highway toll collection, where a toll plaza

typically services an interchange and comprises multiple tollbooths,

requires considerable land allocation and infrastructure.

Because smart toll stations can be built at points directly accessing toll

roads, they require significantly less land allocation. Construction costs

are, comparatively, also much reduced.

National road networkauthorities

Japan Road TrafficInformation Center

VICS

Center

Traffic congestion spots, estimated travel times to designated destinations, road accidents and vehicle breakdowns, road use restrictions owing to roadwork, nearest parking facility locations and vacancy status, etc.

Installed on major “ordinary” roads to transmit information on traffic conditions on these roads within about a 30-km radius of the user vehicle.

Infrared Beacons

Information provided on: Estimated travel times to designated destinations, traffic congestion spots, alternate routes, road accidents, speed limits in application, lane closures, tire-chain use warnings, parking facility locations and vacancy status, etc.

Installed on expressways to transmit information on traffic conditions on these roads within about a 200-km radius of the user vehicle.

Microwave Beacons

Information provided on:

Traffic congestion spots within a prefecture-wide radius, estimated travel times to designated destinations, road accidents and roadwork locations, road use restrictions including lane closures, speed limits in application, parking facility locations and vacancy status, etc.

Transmits a broad range of information relevant to the prefecture in which the user vehicle is located, broadcasting in FM from the dedicated central and relay stations situated in each of Japan’s 47 prefectures.

FM Multiplex Broadcasting

Information provided on:

Road traffic

information

National Police Agency(prefectural divisions)

HELPNET: How It Works

Via airbag-interlocking

device

Via in-cabinone-touch

device

Onboard Emergency

Notification

Police/Emergency

Service Providers

HELPNET Operations Center

Emergency notification

of vehicle registration

data and current location

communicated automatically

(airbag-interlocking device)

or manually (one-touch device)

1

Confirmation

of content of

emergency

notification

2

Immediate dispatch

of rescue personnel

4

Relay of content

of emergency notification3

27 28

VII. DRIVING THE AUTOMOTIVE FUTURE

Key elements in achieving sustainable mobility in the 21st century are greater safety and reduced environmental impact. In road transport, however, efforts to increase safety and decrease the environmental “footprint” involve a whole range of factors involving not only the automotive industry but also government, fuel suppliers, and vehicle users. Nevertheless, in the years ahead the expanding practical application in Japan of the continuously advancing vehicle safety, ITS and communication technologies described below is expected to play a crucial role in improving road safety and traffic flow by reducing accident occurrence and chronic congestion.

■ ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) TechnologiesIntelligent Transport Systems use cutting-edge information

and communication technologies to network data between

road users, roads (i.e., infrastructure) and vehicles for the

dual purpose of reducing road congestion—and, as a result,

CO2 emissions—and accident occurrence. In 1996 the

Japanese government formulated a comprehensive concept

for the promotion of ITS, on the basis of which it

spearheaded, as a national project, ITS development in a

number of areas. ITS developmental guidelines aim to

achieve progress with respect to (i) safety and security,

(ii) fuel efficiency and environmental protection, and (iii) comfort

and convenience. A wide range of ITS technologies and

services have therefore been energetically promoted in

parallel with the further development of ASV technologies

(see opposite page).

Many of these ITS technologies/services, including

electronic toll collection, VICS and HELPNET (see pages 25

and 26), are already in extensive use in Japan. Scheduled for

2010, meanwhile, is the practical introduction of two

intelligent communication-based emergency warning

systems—one a safe-driving support system and the other

an advanced cruise-assist system for highways/expressways

(“DSSS” and “AHS,” respectively)—that use vehicle navigation

system-integrated telematics. These and other ITS

technologies are expected to see expanded development in

the coming years.

■ Advanced Car Navigation SystemsCar navigation systems equipped with digital road maps and

integrating Global Positioning System (GPS) technology

were first introduced in Japan in 1990. Initially, these

systems used only a single CD-ROM, but subsequent

systems enabled, first, the use of multiple CD-ROMs and,

beginning in 1997, a DVD-ROM. Car navigation systems

using hard-disk drives (HDDs), which obviously have a much

larger capacity, have been commercially available since

2001.

The use of large-capacity media has made possible

considerable progress in system functions. For example, the

quality of voice guidance (for spoken directions, etc.) has

improved significantly, the 3D screen indications and search

function have become much faster, and the real-time

transmission of information on road traffic conditions has

also advanced with the use of a range of data sources,

including VICS, that enables highly accurate optimal route

guidance.

Screen displays have also become more complex. It is now

possible to customize 2D map displays, to select 3D displays

of major intersections and, with a touchscreen, to obtain an

image showing the precise perimeter of a targeted parking

space (see “Park Assist” on page 24).

Advanced car navigation systems also offer driver-assistance

features such as lane deviation monitoring, navigator-based

gearshift control, curve detection, voice recognition,

advanced lane guidance, and handsfree calling, among

other functions.

Car navigation systems will, in the years ahead, continue to

become increasingly sophisticated with further advances in

telematics.

■ Telematics“Onboard telematics” refers to the integrated application of

GPS and mobile communications technologies in

automotive navigation systems. Telematics enables an

Internet-accessing vehicle navigation system to deliver a

broad spectrum of wireless functions and services: not only

real-time traffic and weather information and route

guidance, but also automatic reporting in the event and at

the time of theft, automatic roadside assistance, remote

diagnostics in the event of vehicle breakdown (by

connecting with a diagnostics consultation service),

entertainment and shopping information, voice recognition,

e-mail and fuel-efficient driving guidance. Further

applications in various areas are anticipated in the near

future.

An HDD-Operated Car Navigation Display Screen

■ ASV (Advanced Safety Vehicle) TechnologiesIn the area of safe-driving assistance, many of the vehicle

safety technologies described in this publication and in

application in Japan today—including collision-mitigation

braking systems, lane-keeping assist systems and adaptive

cruise control systems—have been developed based on the

results of research conducted on the Advanced Safety

Vehicle concept.

The 1991 launch of the ASV project by what is now Japan’s

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism was

triggered by a Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

publication on road safety in 1990, which called for research

on and the development of “motor vehicles ‘unlikely to

cause accidents’ through their incorporation of advanced

technologies.” Currently in its fourth phase which ends in

fiscal year 2010, the project has progressed from

technological verification of onboard autonomous systems

(Phase 1) to preparations for market introduction and the

development of new technologies (Phases 2 and 3) to the

promotion of the widespread use of ASV and ITS

technologies for road-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-vehicle

communication (Phase 4).

8Active head restraint, Motorized seatbelt pretensioner

10Camera for monitoring driver alertness

14Head-up display

13

7Adaptive front-lighting system 4 5Steering control device

13Special warning light

6Infrared sensor

14

2 63Throttle control device

Vehicle position sensor

Road-vehicle/Inter-vehicle communications antenna

Infrared camera

11Occupant sensor, Seatbelt buckle switch

812

Rearward/side sensor, Sensor for lateral distance between vehicles, Obstacle sensor

2 7Navigation system

Monitor/speaker for information delivery

Computer

6Infrared sensor

9Vehicle body design for mitigating pedestrian injury, Airbag system for pedestrian protection

1 10～

12 14～

Vehicle speed sensor, Acceleration sensor

1

3 6～

Cameras for monitoring perimeters, lane deviation, etc.

1 5～

7 10Steeringsensor

1 3～

6

Brakecontrol device1 93

Sensor for monitoring distance between vehicles, Obstacle sensor

Receives and interprets sensor signals and reports to control unit.ComputerMonitor road and vehicle conditions.Sensors

Based on information received from computer, commands emission of audible warnings and display of information to driver for safe vehicle operation.

Control unit

Features of the Advanced Safety Vehicle

Principal ASV Safety Technologies Developed (Second Phase)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 14

13

12

11

10

Collision-Mitigation Braking System

Curve Detection System

Full-Range Adaptive Cruise Control

Lane Deviation Warning System

Lane-Keeping Assist System

Blind-Corner Monitoring

Adaptive Front-Lighting System

Driver Inattention Warning System

Intelligent Night Vision

Side Obstacle Warning System

Rear-End Collision Neck Injury Mitigation System

Unfastened Seatbelt Warning System (for all passengers)

Sudden Braking Warning System (for driver of vehicle in rear)

Vehicle Body Design for Mitigating Pedestrian Injury & Airbag System for Pedestrian Protection

Brake sensor

Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.Jidosha Kaikan, 1-30, Shiba Daimon 1-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-0012 Japan

Visit us at http://www.jama.or.jp/ or www.jama.org.

© JAMA. All rights reserved. Printed in Japan.

Accelerate gently to help reduce CO2 emissions.

Japan’s Minus 6% Team promotes ecodriving.