Available Written Available Written Sources and their Sources and their

limitations and limitations and strengthsstrengths

Including: Including: ancient writersancient writers,, graffiti graffiti, and , and

official inscriptionsofficial inscriptions..

Ancient WritersAncient Writers There are a small number of ancient texts containing There are a small number of ancient texts containing

information and evidence on Pompeii and Herculaneum, information and evidence on Pompeii and Herculaneum, most of which focus solely on certain aspects of the towns, most of which focus solely on certain aspects of the towns, such as such as Natural History Natural History by Pliny the Elder. The most famous by Pliny the Elder. The most famous literary sources are the letters written to Tacitus by Pliny literary sources are the letters written to Tacitus by Pliny the Younger, which contain his own eyewitness account of the Younger, which contain his own eyewitness account of the eruption of Vesuvius. The amount of information the eruption of Vesuvius. The amount of information gathered from the varied texts along with graffiti and gathered from the varied texts along with graffiti and inscriptions found is enough to learn a useful amount on inscriptions found is enough to learn a useful amount on both Pompeii and Herculaneum.both Pompeii and Herculaneum.

StraboStrabo Strabo was a famous and successful Greek geographer and Strabo was a famous and successful Greek geographer and

historian his text of historian his text of Geography Geography often relies on other sources, often relies on other sources, however is still very useful in regards to information on however is still very useful in regards to information on geography. The information included in Strabo’s text covers geography. The information included in Strabo’s text covers the Mediterranean and different portions of Britain, the Mediterranean and different portions of Britain, therefore providing information on the cities of Vesuvius. therefore providing information on the cities of Vesuvius.

‘‘Next is the Herakleian Fortress (Herculaneum) on the Next is the Herakleian Fortress (Herculaneum) on the headland that juts out into the sea and wonderfully catches headland that juts out into the sea and wonderfully catches the breezes of the south-east wind. This makes the the breezes of the south-east wind. This makes the settlement a healthy place to live. Both this place, and the settlement a healthy place to live. Both this place, and the one after it, Pompeia (Pompeii) past which flows the Sarnus one after it, Pompeia (Pompeii) past which flows the Sarnus river.’river.’

The strength of this source is that it provides reliable The strength of this source is that it provides reliable information on the landinformation on the land

The limitation of The limitation of Geography Geography is that Strabo gathered much of is that Strabo gathered much of his information from other written sources.his information from other written sources.

SenecaSeneca A former tutor to Nero and one of his eventual advisors, the A former tutor to Nero and one of his eventual advisors, the

philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca wrote many literary philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca wrote many literary works including a significant one on natural phenomena. In works including a significant one on natural phenomena. In this work he provides an account of the AD62 earthquake.this work he provides an account of the AD62 earthquake.

‘‘Lucilius, best of men, I have heard that Pompeii, the Lucilius, best of men, I have heard that Pompeii, the famous city in Campania, has been levelled by an famous city in Campania, has been levelled by an earthquake which has also shaken the nearby regions….It earthquake which has also shaken the nearby regions….It happened in the Nones of February in the consulship of happened in the Nones of February in the consulship of Regulus and Verginius. It devastated Campania which had Regulus and Verginius. It devastated Campania which had never been safe from this calamity, but still had never been never been safe from this calamity, but still had never been damaged and so many times had only experienced fear.”damaged and so many times had only experienced fear.”

The strength of this source is that Seneca was a successful The strength of this source is that Seneca was a successful and powerful man with access to information.and powerful man with access to information.

The limitation is that he is not an eyewitness. The limitation is that he is not an eyewitness.

Pliny the YoungerPliny the Younger The most famous and significant literary source in regards to The most famous and significant literary source in regards to

the eruption of Vesuvius were the letters of Pliny the Younger the eruption of Vesuvius were the letters of Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitius. According to Haraldur Sigurdsson, ‘in to the historian Tacitius. According to Haraldur Sigurdsson, ‘in the field of science Pliny’s letter..will remain classics as the the field of science Pliny’s letter..will remain classics as the first eyewitness report of an explosive volcanic eruption so first eyewitness report of an explosive volcanic eruption so powerful that is it repeated on our planet only about once in a powerful that is it repeated on our planet only about once in a thousand years.’ thousand years.’

‘‘Now, as the ships drew near, ashes were falling hotter and Now, as the ships drew near, ashes were falling hotter and thicker, Now pumice and blackened stones, charred and thicker, Now pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by fire…Now it was daylight elsewhere but here it was cracked by fire…Now it was daylight elsewhere but here it was a night blacker and denser than any other night.’ Pliny.a night blacker and denser than any other night.’ Pliny.

The strength of Pliny’s letters is that he was an eyewitness, The strength of Pliny’s letters is that he was an eyewitness, and as a educated man had the skills to record what he saw.and as a educated man had the skills to record what he saw.

The limitations are that he wrote the letters 25 years after the The limitations are that he wrote the letters 25 years after the event, and it is clear that glorifying his uncle in them was event, and it is clear that glorifying his uncle in them was important to him.important to him.

Pliny the ElderPliny the Elder Gauis Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder, had a successful Gauis Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder, had a successful

military career as well as political, therefore he was appointed by military career as well as political, therefore he was appointed by emperor Titus as commander of the fleet at Misenum. He was a emperor Titus as commander of the fleet at Misenum. He was a well educated man and had an interest in natural events. Pliny well educated man and had an interest in natural events. Pliny was an ancient writer who composed his work called was an ancient writer who composed his work called Natural Natural HistoryHistory, which covered many topics and was the only author to , which covered many topics and was the only author to include a table of contents within his work. The value in his work include a table of contents within his work. The value in his work ‘lies in the fact that he records what was believed at the time.’ ‘lies in the fact that he records what was believed at the time.’ This major work was so vast that it was comprised in 37 books, This major work was so vast that it was comprised in 37 books, and covered topics such as the fresh produce of the region, the and covered topics such as the fresh produce of the region, the gardens of Pompeii, medicinal plants and more. gardens of Pompeii, medicinal plants and more.

The strength of this source is that Pliny was a powerful and The strength of this source is that Pliny was a powerful and experienced man who is noted for his interest in nature, and experienced man who is noted for his interest in nature, and sought out much of his information first hand.sought out much of his information first hand.

The limitation of Pliny is that he was supposedly an ‘uncritical The limitation of Pliny is that he was supposedly an ‘uncritical compiler’.compiler’.

GraffitiGraffiti Like modern times, graffiti has been seen in Pompeii and Like modern times, graffiti has been seen in Pompeii and

Herculaneum, and evidence of this still exists on the Herculaneum, and evidence of this still exists on the remains of the buildings of the towns, carved into the remains of the buildings of the towns, carved into the surface ‘with stylus, iron nail, wooden splinter or tooth surface ‘with stylus, iron nail, wooden splinter or tooth pick.’ The opinions of a wide range of people taking pick.’ The opinions of a wide range of people taking residence in Pompeii and Herculaneum can be seen residence in Pompeii and Herculaneum can be seen through their graffiti, men women and children recorded through their graffiti, men women and children recorded their feelings on a number of aspects of their life. Gambling their feelings on a number of aspects of their life. Gambling debts, love messages, gossip and poetry have all been debts, love messages, gossip and poetry have all been found in the form of graffiti.found in the form of graffiti.

Graffiti: PoetryGraffiti: Poetry Among the many different types of graffiti that was carved Among the many different types of graffiti that was carved

in numerous places around Pompeii and Herculaneum there in numerous places around Pompeii and Herculaneum there was poetry. The poets of the era were often quoted, and was poetry. The poets of the era were often quoted, and some people, like Tiburtinis, even wrote their own poetry some people, like Tiburtinis, even wrote their own poetry around town. Tiburnitis wrote on the wall of the Odeon, around town. Tiburnitis wrote on the wall of the Odeon, ‘What happened? After drawing me helplessly into the fire, ‘What happened? After drawing me helplessly into the fire, O my eyes, now your cheeks run with tears. But the tears O my eyes, now your cheeks run with tears. But the tears cannot put out the flames. They spread across your face cannot put out the flames. They spread across your face and darkness comes to the spirit.’and darkness comes to the spirit.’

The strength of this source shows the popularity of poetry.The strength of this source shows the popularity of poetry.

Graffiti: OutburstsGraffiti: Outbursts The Basilica was the court of law in Pompeii and found on The Basilica was the court of law in Pompeii and found on

the walls of the Basilica was some graffiti of a more sinister the walls of the Basilica was some graffiti of a more sinister nature. ‘Chius, I hope your piles are chafed once more, that nature. ‘Chius, I hope your piles are chafed once more, that they may burn worse than they’ve burnt before.’ ‘Samius to they may burn worse than they’ve burnt before.’ ‘Samius to Cornelius: Go hang yourself.’ This provides an insight into Cornelius: Go hang yourself.’ This provides an insight into how insults and threats were possibly delivered in ages how insults and threats were possibly delivered in ages past.past.

This source shows one of the ways citizens of Pompeii This source shows one of the ways citizens of Pompeii expressed themselves.expressed themselves.

Graffiti: Love MessagesGraffiti: Love Messages Throughout Pompeii there is much evidence of love written Throughout Pompeii there is much evidence of love written

on the city walls. One such piece of graffiti is one mans on the city walls. One such piece of graffiti is one mans expression of his torment. ‘If you can but wont. Why do you expression of his torment. ‘If you can but wont. Why do you put off the pleasures of our meeting. Why do you build up put off the pleasures of our meeting. Why do you build up my hopes and then tell me to return tomorrow? In this way my hopes and then tell me to return tomorrow? In this way you force death upon me. Because you force me to live you force death upon me. Because you force me to live without you. Certainly it will be a kind action that puts an without you. Certainly it will be a kind action that puts an end to my suffering.’end to my suffering.’

This shows one way that citizens of Pompeii coped with This shows one way that citizens of Pompeii coped with their heartache.their heartache.

Graffiti: Erotic and Explicit Graffiti: Erotic and Explicit MessagesMessages

There have been messages found throughout Pompeii of a There have been messages found throughout Pompeii of a more erotic and explicit nature. These were, unsurprisingly, more erotic and explicit nature. These were, unsurprisingly, found on the lavatory and brothel walls. ‘May I always and found on the lavatory and brothel walls. ‘May I always and everywhere be as potent as I was here.’ everywhere be as potent as I was here.’

In Herculaneum there was a message found in the House of In Herculaneum there was a message found in the House of the Gem, on the lavatory wall. ‘Apollinaris, the physician of the Gem, on the lavatory wall. ‘Apollinaris, the physician of the Emperor, Titus, had a good shit here.’the Emperor, Titus, had a good shit here.’

This source demonstrates a cheekier side to the citizens of This source demonstrates a cheekier side to the citizens of Pompeii.Pompeii.

Official InscriptionsOfficial Inscriptions It is said that Pompeii ‘may be likened to one vast archive.’ It is said that Pompeii ‘may be likened to one vast archive.’

Most of the inscriptions that have been found in Pompeii Most of the inscriptions that have been found in Pompeii are graffiti, however there have been official inscriptions are graffiti, however there have been official inscriptions found on marble, bronze and stone through the city. Much found on marble, bronze and stone through the city. Much of the official inscriptions that have been found are of the official inscriptions that have been found are dedicatory, such as Eumachia, a rich priestess of Venus, dedicatory, such as Eumachia, a rich priestess of Venus, dedicated the building of Eumachia to the Julio-Claudian dedicated the building of Eumachia to the Julio-Claudian dynasty. There are also epitaphs found on tombs and civic dynasty. There are also epitaphs found on tombs and civic charters found of plates that have been placed upon public charters found of plates that have been placed upon public buildings.buildings.

DedicationsDedications One variety of official inscriptions found in Pompeii and One variety of official inscriptions found in Pompeii and

Herculaneum are dedications. Located in the Forum of Herculaneum are dedications. Located in the Forum of Pompeii was the Building of Eumachia, on the exterior of Pompeii was the Building of Eumachia, on the exterior of which were found two dedications. One of which was to which were found two dedications. One of which was to Romulus, who was the mythical founder of Rome after the Romulus, who was the mythical founder of Rome after the Gods chose him to rule in favour of his brother Remus. The Gods chose him to rule in favour of his brother Remus. The other is to Aeneas, a legendary hero who is the family of other is to Aeneas, a legendary hero who is the family of the Augustus family. the Augustus family.

The strength of these dedications is showing who the hero The strength of these dedications is showing who the hero of the era were. of the era were.

The weakness is that they do not offer much else.The weakness is that they do not offer much else.

Electoral InscriptionsElectoral Inscriptions The political figures who lived in Pompeii and Herculaneum The political figures who lived in Pompeii and Herculaneum

had gain support and become known so that they could had gain support and become known so that they could become popular enough to be voted in. One way of doing become popular enough to be voted in. One way of doing so was to leave slogans around town. ‘Vesonius Primus so was to leave slogans around town. ‘Vesonius Primus urges the election of Gnaeus Helvius as aedile, a man urges the election of Gnaeus Helvius as aedile, a man worthy of public office.’ The actual candidate did not sign worthy of public office.’ The actual candidate did not sign their own slogans, rather their supports such as family and their own slogans, rather their supports such as family and friends. Even though women could not vote, they still friends. Even though women could not vote, they still influenced the voting by many of them signing. influenced the voting by many of them signing.

The strength of these is that they give us an insight into a The strength of these is that they give us an insight into a way of gaining popularity by politicians.way of gaining popularity by politicians.

The weakness is that this sources provides us with a narrow The weakness is that this sources provides us with a narrow field of information.field of information.

Public NoticesPublic Notices Written with a brush in either black or red in white walls Written with a brush in either black or red in white walls

were a number of public notices. These were mostly were a number of public notices. These were mostly painted by proffesionals on the exterior of houses, although painted by proffesionals on the exterior of houses, although they could be painted on any building. Before written upon they could be painted on any building. Before written upon the walls had to be whitewashed with lime, then after dark the walls had to be whitewashed with lime, then after dark they would be wrote upon with moonlight and an oil lamp. they would be wrote upon with moonlight and an oil lamp. Usually people were employed to do this, however Usually people were employed to do this, however sometimes individuals did it themselves, ‘Scripsit Aemilis sometimes individuals did it themselves, ‘Scripsit Aemilis celer singulus ad lunam’ this inscription is a boast by celer singulus ad lunam’ this inscription is a boast by Aemilis Celer that he wrote it himself by moonlight.Aemilis Celer that he wrote it himself by moonlight.

The strength of public notices is that it demonstrates some The strength of public notices is that it demonstrates some opinions of the time as well as some events that took place.opinions of the time as well as some events that took place.

The weakness is that most of the writings of from before The weakness is that most of the writings of from before the eruption of AD 79.the eruption of AD 79.

AdvertisementsAdvertisements Advertisements were painted across many walls in Pompeii Advertisements were painted across many walls in Pompeii

and Herculaneum. One of the most successful property and Herculaneum. One of the most successful property owners in Pompeii before the eruption of Vesuvius, Julia owners in Pompeii before the eruption of Vesuvius, Julia Felix, wrote this advertisement, ‘In the property of Julia Felix, wrote this advertisement, ‘In the property of Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius, elegant thermal baths for refined Felix, daughter of Spurius, elegant thermal baths for refined people, shop with lodgings above and apartments on the people, shop with lodgings above and apartments on the first floor to let for five years from 1first floor to let for five years from 1stst August until 1 August until 1stst August August of the sixth year. The contract may be renewed by mutual of the sixth year. The contract may be renewed by mutual agreement after five years have passed. agreement after five years have passed.

The strength is that it provides evidence of one way they The strength is that it provides evidence of one way they sales and deals were advertised.sales and deals were advertised.

The weakness is that it only provides information on the The weakness is that it only provides information on the initial advertisement and none on the actual deal initial advertisement and none on the actual deal afterwards.afterwards.