avishai wool lecture 12 - 1 introduction to systems programming lecture 12 file systems

Avishai Woollecture 12 - 1

Introduction to Systems Programming Lecture 12

File Systems


Long-term Information Storage• Computers have long-term storage devices (hard

disks, floppy disks, tapes, CDROM, DVD)

• The hardware & disk-driver expose a block interface: “read/write 512 bytes from block NN”

• This is too crude for most applications. • Next level of organization: organize the disk into

Files


What is a File?• A computer file is a collection of information that can be

identified and referenced in its entirety by a unique name. [Wikipedia]

• Unlike the disk, files can:– Get created, deleted, and renamed– Grow larger and smaller

• The OS maintains the mapping between files and storage units

• This work is done by an OS component called a “File System”


File Names

• Unix– long file names (255 bytes)– include special characters– case sensitive (Avishai.txt != avishai.txt)

• MS-DOS– file name = 8 chars, ‘.’, 3-char extension– case insensitive (Grades.txt, grades.txt, GRADES.txt,

all the same file)


File Structure• In Unix, Windows, a file has no structure (that the OS

knows about). It is just a sequence of characters.• A file can use part of a disk block

• A program can impose its own organization inside a file.• OS does not know where the lines start/end!• Conventions for text files:

– Unix: lines end with “Line feed” (LF; 0x0A)

– DOS/Windows: lines end with “Carriage return + line feed” (CR+LF, 0x0D 0x0A)


File Access• Sequential access

– Read all bytes, in order, from the beginning– Cannot jump around (too much) – can rewind or back up– Efficient: disks are optimized for this access pattern

• Random access– Read bytes in any order– Essential for data base systems– OS maintains a “file marker” for open files – this is the

offset to the next byte to be read– “Seek” system call moves the file marker


File AttributesW

indo

ws

Win

dow

s


File operations / system calls

• Create

• Delete

• Open

• Close

• Read

• Write

• Append

• Seek

• Get attributes

• Set attributes

• Rename


Hierarchical Directory Systems


Path Names

• Absolute path name:– Unix: /usr/home/yash/teaching/isp.txt– Windows: c:\My Documents\teaching\isp.txt

• Relative path name– use the “current directory” as a starting point– “.” (dot) for “this directory”– “..” (dotdot) for “parent of this directory”– if current directory is /usr/home/yash/research:

• ../teaching/isp.txt is the same file as


A Unix Program Using File System Calls (1/2)Called by “copyfile abc xyz”


A Unix Program Using File System Calls (2/2)


Memory-Mapped Files

• Some operating systems allow another interface:char *p = mmap (filename, …)

• Maps the contents of the file to a memory area

• Now p[0], p[1], … are the bytes of the file (implicit open & read of the whole file)

• p[3] = ‘a’ puts the character ‘a’ into the file

munmap (…)• Write the file to back to disk and close


Under the hood

• mmap() call does not read the file.

• Makes the file the “backing store” of the pages of the memory area

• Accessing the memory area causes page-faults that bring the data into or out of memory

• munmap() flushes all the pages to disk


Properties of memory-mapped files• Can’t extend the file –

– On Unix the length is specified in the call to mmap() – Operating system determines exact semantics

• Can be used to share memory between processes:– Both processes mmap() the same file– See each other’s changes to the content– Need concurrency control: semaphore, mutex, etc…

• Dangerous to access a file via mmap() and fread() at the same time: – Contents are unpredictable until munmap() !


File System Implementations


A possible file system layout

Structure of disk on all PCs

Internal structure of a partition of a Unix file-system


Basic disk organization

• MBR = Master Boot Record. Sector 0 of the disk. Contains the initial program loaded at power-up.

• Partition table = divides the physical disk into logical disks (C:, D:, etc)

• Each partition is viewed as a sequential array of numbered blocks, modeling the physical sectors


Files: Contiguous allocation

(a) Contiguous allocation of disk space for 7 files(b) State of the disk after files D and E have been removed


Properties of contiguous allocation

• Simple: need to keep start position and size

• High performance: to read whole file, just one seek followed by sequential reads

• But: over time disk becomes fragmented.

• A good design for CD-ROM and DVD: write once, file sizes known in advance.


Files: linked list

The links are on the disk (using block numbers)


Properties of linked-list files

• No fragmentation

• but:– sequential access within a file slows down if file

blocks not consecutive– random access very slow (how to do “fseek to byte

100,000 in this file?”)


Linked list: File Allocation Table

Keep the list links in a separate table in memory


Properties of a FAT

• Random access much better: linked list is in memory so no need to do disk access for every link

• but: – whole FAT needs to be in memory to be efficient– FAT can be large


i-nodes


Properties of i-nodes

• Instead of a global file table, each file’s i-node keeps track of its own blocks.

• Only need to keep i-node in memory if the file is open.

• Total memory (RAM) needed proportional to (size of i-node) x (max number of open files)


Example file systems


The MS-DOS file system

• File names 8+3 (UPPERCASE)

• No ownership: all files accessible to user

• Maintained via a File Allocation Table (FAT)

• Attributes:– read-only– hidden– system– archive


The MS-DOS directory entry

• Time is inaccurate: 2 bytes = 65536, but 86400 seconds per day

• Date uses 7-bit for year, starting 1/1/1980. Runs out in 2107

• First-block-number: index into FAT, with 64K entries

• 10 bytes (of 32) unused!


FAT-12/16

• Block (also called cluster), multiple of 512 bytes.

• FAT-12: 12-bit block addresses, 512-byte blocks– largest partition: 4096 x 512 = 2MB. OK for floppy

• For disks, MS allowed blocks of 1KB, 2KB, 4KB. Largest partition: 16MB

• FAT-16: switch to 16-bit addresses, block size up to 32KB.– Largest partition 2GB


FAT-32

a) Win95 2nd Edition / Win98 / Win ME

b) Really FAT-28: 28-bit block addresses

c) Potentially 228 x 215 per partition, but in reality only 241 = 2TB

d) FAT itself now occupies a large RAM:a) for 2GB disk, 4KB blocks 512K blocks FAT

uses 2MB RAM.


File system compatibility• The Win95 2e / Win98 file system added:

– FAT-32– long file names

• But needed to allow older MS-DOS & Win95 to read directories (backward compatibility).

• Result:– every file has 2 names (one 8+3, one long)– directory entries needed to be patched– Try “dir /x” in a cmd window to see…– Still case-insensitive under the hood…


The Unix V7 file system


The Classical Unix file system• Invented with Unix V7 for PDP-11 (1970’s)• 14-character names• all ASCII chars except ‘/’ and NUL (0x00)• every file has a 2-byte i-node number

– at most 64K files per file-system

• Allows some weird filenames: – “ ” (an empty space)– “ ” (a “newline” character)


A UNIX V7 directory entry


Reminder: Disk organization


A UNIX i-node

Max file size: d direct pointers, n indirect pointers p/block Blocksize * (d + n + n2 + n3)


The steps in looking up /usr/ast/mbox


BSD Improvements

• File names extended to 255 chars

• Divide disk into cylinder groups, try to keep i-node and file close together to avoid long seeks.

• Use 2 block sizes, one for large files, one for small files.

• Similar improvements also in the Linux file system (ext2).


The Win2000 (NTFS) file system


NTFS• Designed from scratch• Not compatible with Win95 / Win98• Usually 4KB blocks (clusters)• Blocks referred to by 64-bit numbers

• Main data structure: Master File Table (MFT)• Each MFT entry describes a file or directory• MFT entry = 1KB• MFT is a file, can be anywhere on disk


Block runs

• Idea: blocks of a file often sequential on disk

• A “run” is a set of consecutive blocks that belong to the same file

• No need to keep pointer to each block:– Enough to keep start/length of each run


An MFT record for a 3-run, 9-block file

MFT


Concepts for review• File• File name• File structure• Sequential access /

Random access• File attributes• Hierarchical directories• Path names• Memory-mapped files

• Master boot record (MBR)

• Partition table• Contiguous block

allocation• File allocation table

(FAT)• i-node• NTFS• MFT