AWF Conservation inPractice Papers

AWF's Experience in the Management of Fisheriesin Two Southern African Landscapes

Henry Mwima and Jimmiel Mandima

July 2005

The African Wildlife Foundation,

together with the people of Africa,

works to ensure the wildlife and

wild lands of Africa will

endure forever.

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About this paper series

The AWF Conservation in Practice Paper Series has been designed to disseminate to partners and theconservation community, key lessons learnt and experiences from AWF's African Heartlands Program. Thisseries aims to share current work, what lessons have been learnt in order to provide examples that can beadopted by other conservation organizations and players to improve conservation action world wide.

About the Authors: Dr. Henry Mwima is the Program Director for the Zambezi Center and is based in Lusakawhile Jimmiel Mandima is the Heartland Coordinator, Zambezi Heartland and an aquatic ecologist.

This paper has been reproduced with permission. Copyright: From Freshwater Ecoregions of Africa andMadagascar by World Wildlife Fund. Copyright © 2005 World Wildlife Fund. Reproduced with permissionof Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Editorial Team: Dr. Helen Gichohi,Dr. Philip Muruthi, Prof. James Kiyiapi, Dr. Patrick Bergin, Joanna Elliottand Daudi Sumba.

This series is coordinated by Daudi Sumba. For more information, please contact publications@awfke.org

Cover photo: The aquatic resources working group showing fish catch after a fishing expedition

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Table of Contents

Introduction

Four Corners TBNRMA and Zambezi Heartland

Heartland Conservation Planning

Conservation Targets

Interventions Strategies

Aquatic Resources Working Group

Multi-institutional Partnerships

Acknowledgements

Literature Cited

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AWF Experience in Management of Fisheries in Two Southern Africa Landscapes

Introduction

The African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) is theleading international conservation organizationfocused solely on the African continent. For morethan 40 years, AWF has concentrated its efforts onbuilding the capacity of Africa’s people andinstitutions to manage natural resources and toprotect the unique and rich biodiversity of theAfrican continent. From the day AWF was foundedin 1961, it has recognized that Africa’s wildliferesources and ecosystems are key to the futureprosperity of Africa and its people. Over the pastfive years AWF has established the AfricanHeartlands Program; an integrated approach toconservation and development in selected, large,wildlife-rich landscapes, or “Heartlands”, which offerboth ecological and economic viabilityfor the long term.Heartlands are large, cohesiveconservation landscapes, which arebiologically important and have thescope to maintain healthy populationsof wild species and natural processeswell into the future. AWF currentlyworks in eight Heartlands coveringparts of eleven countries in central,eastern and southern Africa(Botswana, Democratic Republic ofCongo, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia,Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania,Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe; seeAfrican Wildlife Foundation HeartlandsMap—figure 1. Each Heartland formsa sizeable economic unit in whichtourism and other natural resource-based activities can contributesignificantly to local livelihoods. MostHeartlands include a combination ofgovernment lands (such as nationalparks), community-owned lands, andlands held privately. In these vast

conservation landscapes, which frequently crossnational boundaries, AWF works with a broad rangeof local partners to improve natural resourcemanagement and conservation practices andmitigate threats to valuable resources. The numberof Heartlands will increase with time and resourcesto encompass other geopolitical areas and ecosystemsof Africa. (Muruthi, 2003).As the Heartland Program has developed, aquaticresources – rivers, wetlands and fishes – have takencenter stage as priority conservation targets. Thiscomes as no surprise given for example that two ofAWF’s priority landscapes, the Four CornersTransboundary Natural Resources Management(TBNRM) area and Zambezi Heartland, are spreadover 6 of the 8 countries that share the Zambezi RiverBasin, and the ecological cores of both Heartlands –

Figure 1: African Heartlands Map

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the parks estates – are dependent on the waters ofthe Zambezi River and its tributaries. Waters of theZambezi, Chobe, Kwando-Linyati system, Kafue,Okavango Delta, the Luangwa and numerous othersmall tributaries and the reservoirs along theZambezi support a thriving tourism industry,commercial, subsistence and recreational fisheries,and important commercial crop cultivation underirrigation. All these activities have direct and indirectimpacts affecting the health status of the aquaticresources in the area. On the basis of wide andextensive consultations with stakeholders in the sites,AWF is working with partners to identify and mitigatethreats to water resources in the Zambezi Basin andto develop best practices that will enable local peopleto sustainably utilize and benefit from these aquaticresources.

This paper describes how AWF has applied itsHeartland Conservation Process (HCP)1 inidentifying conservation targets and related threatsin these two landscapes, anddiscusses experience gained in themanagement of fisheries resources.

Four Corners TBNRM Area andZambezi Heartland

AWF promotes landscape levelconservation in the Four CornersTBNRM area and ZambeziHeartland. A brief description of thetwo landscapes is given below:

Four Corners TBNRMThe Four Corners TBNRM areacovers approximately 220,000 km2

including the eastern Caprivi Stripin Namibia, Ngamiland inBotswana, Hwange District inZimbabwe and parts of southern andwestern Provinces in Zambia (Seefigure 2). The Zambezi River is the

major drainage system and forms the core of theFour Corners TBNRM area ecosystem. NationalParks and Wildlife Reserve in the area include Chobeand Moremi in Botswana; Mamili, Mudumo andBwabwata in Namibia; Mosi-Oa-Tunya and SiomaNgwezi in Zambia; and, Hwange and Zambezi inZimbabwe. National Parks and other protected areas(Safari Areas, Game Management Areas, ForestReserves, Conservancies and Moremi WildlifeReserve) constitute about 50% of the total area. TheFour Corners TBNRM area is a prime wildlife andtourism area and is one of the most importantterrestrial and fresh water ecosystems in Africa.

Zambezi HeartlandThe Zambezi Heartland covers an area ofapproximately 39,000 km2, consisting of 6,500 km2

National Parks, 4,900 km2 Game Management Areas(GMAs), 11,000 km2 Safari Areas, and the rest areopen communal areas (See The Zambezi HeartlandMap – Figure 3). In addition to the biologically diverse

Figure 2: Four Corners TBNRM Area

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terrestrial wildlife and plant resources, the ZambeziRiver and its tributaries are an important habitatfor freshwater fish resources including the tigerfish(Hydrocynus vittatus), lungfish (Protopterus annectensbrieni), and a wide variety of cichlid (tilapias) andcyprinid species, some of which are local endemicsand rare species.

Heartland Conservation Planning

In April 2000 and June 2001, AWF held planningmeetings for the Zambezi Heartland and FourCorners TBNRM area respectively. These meetingsbrought together different stakeholders representinglocal people, wildlife agencies, private sector andNGOs to come and identify conservation targets,the threats to these targets and the related threatabatement strategies. AWF considers this as a verycrucial stage to conservation work in every Heartland(AWF, 2003).

Conservation Targets

Using this planning process, AWF and partnersidentified the following conservation targets for boththe Four Corners TBNRM area and Zambezi

Heartland: river systems, wetlands, wildlife corridors,habitat complexes, native fishes, endangered and /or threatened species and species assemblages. Thewater-related conservation targets are describedbelow:

River SystemsThe key conservation target isthe Zambezi River and itstributaries. The Zambezi is oneof Africa’s great rivers with over1.4 million km2 of watercatchment area. The river, itstributaries, wetlands andriparian habitats constitute themajor natural resourcecomponent that drives the FourCorners TBNRM areaecosystem. Along its entirestretch, the river is naturallydivided into three sections – theUpper Zambezi from the sourceto Victoria Falls, the MiddleZambezi downstream from

Victoria Falls to Cahora Bassa in Mozambique, andthe Lower Zambezi from Cahora Bassa to the Deltaat the Indian Ocean in Mozambique.The Upper Zambezi is separated from the lowersections by a natural barrier –Victoria Falls - so fishspecies composition is different from those in thelower sections of the river. Likewise, the MiddleZambezi has been largely modified by the creationof artificial reservoirs at Kariba, Kafue and CahoraBassa Gorges. The dams created artificial barriersthat are permanent and the resultant riverfragmentation prohibits migration of fishes alongthe river channel during breeding runs (WorldResources Institute, 2003). The Lower Zambezi issubsequently affected by the altered flood regimefrom upstream damming which inf luences theviability of aquatic fauna and flora that utilize thefresh-brackish-seawater habitat continuum.

Figure 3: Zambezi Heartland

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AWF and partners identified the following threatsfor this conservation target: altered flow regime,habitat loss, siltation, eutrophication and point sourcepollution.

WetlandsChobe/Kwando/Linyanti/Liambezi, ZambeziFloodplain (East Caprivi), Okavango Delta,Kazungula floodplains, Kazuma depressions, dambosand pans are critical to the maintenance and naturalfunctioning of the river systems and constituteimportant habitats for aquatic and terrestrialbiodiversity. These systems are critical as foci for

specialized aquatic biodiversity, and also as watering

points for wildlife in the entire landscape. Some of

these unique vleis, pans and swamps are the onlyhabitats for rare aquatic species like the lungfish(Protopterus annectens brieni). Recent scopingassessments revealed that these habitats arethreatened by encroachment from agriculture andhuman settlements, in addition to generaldeforestation.AWF and partners identified the following threatsfor this conservation target: falling water table,altered species composition and structure, habitatdegradation, loss of aquatic species diversity andhabitat destruction.

Native FishesFish are a major aquatic resource in terms of theircontribution to the biological diversity of the riversystem and their role in commercial, sport andsubsistence fishing. The basin’s riparian countrieshave a significant proportion of their freshwater fishcatch coming from the Zambezi River and itstributaries. Fish provide a significant percentage ofprotein to the Zambezi Basin states with, for instance,the Barotse Floodplain fisheries in the UpperZambezi supporting about 300,000 people (Chenje,2000). Demand for fish has continued to rise as aresult of population growth. Fisheries sectors ofBotswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and

Zimbabwe rely on the Zambezi River and itstributaries contribute substantially to their nationaleconomies. For example, the commercial offshorepelagic fishery for the freshwater sardine(Limnothrissa miodo - locally called kapenta) on LakeKariba yielded 30,000 tons of fish worth US$55million in 1993 (Chenje, 2000). AWF and partnershave identified population decline and altered speciescomposition and structure as threats to native fishes.There is subsistence fishing along the stretch of theZambezi River from Upper Zambezi to the Delta.Most fishers are from communities settled along theriverbanks that, in addition to the traditionalsubsistence crop agriculture and market gardening,carry out fishing as a livelihood strategy. In theMiddle Zambezi, this is prevalent along the Kafue,Luangwa and the Zambezi rivers on the Zambianand Mozambican sides, and to a lesser degree, onthe Zimbabwean side. The proliferation of touristlodges along the river has also seen an increase inrecreational fishing by tourists.

The Chobe, Okavango, Caprivi and Barotsefloodplain aquatic habitats support rich speciesdiversity. The whole Zambezi River system is endowedwith a rich fish fauna whose species are not all known.A basin-wide inventory of fishes of the Zambezi Riverand its tributaries (excluding Lake Malawi) totals 239known species (Skelton, 1998). Recent surveys doneby AWF and partners (Aquatic Resources WorkingGroup – ARWG- and the South African Institute ofAquatic Biodiversity- SAIAB) suggest that there arepossibly about 20 more species to be added mainlyfrom the headwater streams in northwestern Zambia,most of which are not yet described. Research onthese species is still ongoing (Denis Tweddle, pers.comm.).Globally, 20% of all freshwater fish species are nowthreatened or endangered because of dams and waterwithdrawals that have destroyed or degraded free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrived (Ricciardi& Rasmussen, 1999). The mighty Zambezi River isno exception to this threat as it is impacted by two of

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Southern Africa’s largest hydrological schemes –Kariba and Cahora Bassa (see figure 3). Furtherthreats to fisheries resources include poor landhusbandry, erosion and deposition of silt in riversand streams that destroy breeding grounds. Chemicalpollution from agricultural activities and urbansettlements cause eutrophication resulting inproliferation of invasive weeds, hence deoxygenatingof bottom waters.

Intervention StrategiesIn addition to identification of conservation targetsand threats, AWF and partners identifiedintervention strategies (AWF, 2000; 2001). Twointervention strategies have proved to be very usefulin strengthening collaboration in the managementof fisheries resources: establishment of an AquaticResources Working Group and multi-institutionalpartnerships in the Four Corners TBNRM areas andZambezi Heartland respectively. These strategies arediscussed below:

Aquatic Resources Working Group

As part of the Four Corners TBNRM Initiative, AWFundertook a consultative process through which weidentified partners and mechanisms for supportingprojects aimed at joint and improved managementof shared fisheries resources and to bolster sharedwater resources collaboration between fresh waterfish scientists, government officials and conservationnon-governmental organizations (NGOs). Thisculminated in the establishment of the AquaticResources Working Group (ARWG). Subsequently,the Southern African Development Community(SADC) formally recognized ARWG as the workinggroup to address management of shared fisheriesresources in the Four Corners TBNRM area.ARWG membership consists of representatives offisheries authorities in the four countries (Botswana,Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe) participating in theFour Corners TBNRM Initiative, as well as arepresentative of the SADC Inland Fisheries Sector

Technical Coordinating Unit (IFSTCU) and theSouth African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity(SAIAB). The group members also sit on the SADCInland Fisheries Technical Committee, which, underthe auspices of the IFSTCU, plans and implementsstrategies for regional cooperation in themanagement of shared aquatic resources. Theworking group is comprised of seasoned andexperienced fisheries biologists and ecologists, who,amongst themselves, have over 30 years experiencein fisheries ecological monitoring.The group’s primary goal is to implement theprovisions of the SADC Fisheries Protocol whoseunderlying values are to promote collaboration inthe management of shared fisheries resources andinformation exchange in the region. To this effect,AWF and it partners are working towardsstandardization of monitoring systems, surveys of fishbiodiversity and socio-economic aspects, andestablishment of a GIS database. When fullyunderway the ARWG will contribute significantly toa more efficient planning of conservationinterventions. (Please reference other AWFfreshwater essay here)

Multi-institutional Partnerships

In recognition of the pool of expertise available inthe sub-region, AWF sought to work with institutionsthat would extend and complement its conservationactivities. AWF has established multi-institutionaltechnical teams to implement its work on monitoringwater resources in Zambezi Heartland. Key partnersinclude:

Lake Kariba Research Station (ULKRS),University of ZimbabweLake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute(LKFRI), Zimbabwe Parks and WildlifeManagement AuthorityZambia Department of Fisheries (DoF)Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ)Zambezi River Authority (ZRA), and

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Tchuma Tchato Community-based NaturalResource Management (CBNRM) ProgramStaff in Mozambique

AWF has been coordinating field activities ofrepresentatives from the above institutions. Thisstrategy facilitated transboundary collaborationamong institutions whose previous managementactivities were driven by national agendas. As theimpacts of many management decisions within theZambezi basin transcend national boundaries, themulti-institutional management of these sharedwaters offers the best opportunity to improve theviability of its resources for the benefit of wildlifeand the people of the region. This strategy has provedto be very useful in bringing people with diverseexpertise from different countries to work togetherin conserving the shared fisheries resources.Furthermore, smaller groups have emerged and areinteracting in generating information necessary forformulating joint freshwater resources managementstrategies. For example, fisheries ecologists fromULKRS and DoF teamed up with the AWF ProjectOfficer in August, 2003 to work on the following:

(i) Assess the variety of fish species present indifferent habitats through experimentalgillnetting,

(ii) Assess the relative abundance of the species, and(iii) Measure key water quality parameters to assess

the nutrient status of the aquatic systems in theLuangwa River.

The team sampled species from three sites, 35 kmaway from the confluence with the Zambezi Riverand the Luangwa, a major tributary. A total of 14fish species, representing eight families, wererecorded. Catches were dominated by Schilbeintermedius (butter catfish), Labeo altivelis, Hydrocynusvittatus (tigerfish), Brycinus imberi, Distichodus schengaand Synodontis zambezensis. Such surveys improveunderstanding of the distribution and abundance ofspecies within the Zambezi ecosystem which willcontribute to more targeted management plans aswill water quality results when they become available.

The pooled resources and expertise provided by theinternational collaboration extended the scope of thesurveys and the sharing of results will extend theirimpact across borders. Such internationalcollaboration represents a vital step towardstransboundary conservation management.

Acknowledgements

The United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment – Regional Center for SouthernAfrica, the Netherlands, Directorate-General forInternational Cooperation (DGIS), and the FordFoundation are acknowledged for their financialsupport to the activities addressed in this essay. Thework described in this essay would not have beenpossible without the efforts of our partners fromARWG, SAIAB, ULKRS, LKFRI, DoF, ECZ, ZRAand Tchuma Tchato CBNRM Program. We wouldalso like to acknowledge our AWF colleagues: JoannaElliot, Helen Gichohi, Harry van der Linde, PhilipMuruthi, Elodie Sampéré and David Williams fortheir insights and invaluable remarks in the processof preparing this essay.

References Cited

African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) AfricanHeartlands Program. www.awf.org/heartlands.AWF, Washington D.C., USA.

African Wildlife Foundation (AWF). 2000. AWFHeartland Conservation Planning Report:Participatory Scoping Meeting. Zambezi Heartland.Internal document.

African Wildlife Foundation (AWF). 2001. AWFHeartland Conservation Planning Report:Participatory Scoping Meeting. Four CornersTransboundary Natural Resources ManagementArea. Internal document.

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African Wildlife Foundation (AWF). 2003.Heartland Conservation Process (HCP): Aframework for effective conservation in AWF’sAfrican Heartlands. Internal document. AWF,Washington, D.C., USA.

Chenje, M (2000) (Ed). State of the EnvironmentZambezi Basin 2000. SADC/IUCN/ZRA/SARDC,Maseru/Lusaka/Harare, ISBN 1-77910-009-4, 334p.

Muruthi, P (2004). African Heartlands: A science-based and pragmatic approach to landscape-levelconservation in Africa. In: WWF (2004), TerrestrialEcoregions of Africa and Madagascar, Island Press,Washington DC.

Ricciardi, A. and J. B. Rasmussen (1999). Extinctionrates of North American freshwater fauna.Conservation Biology, pp 1220-1222.

Skelton, P (1998). Complete Guide to the FreshwaterFishes of Southern Africa.

World Resources Institute (2003). Watersheds ofthe World CD product of IUCN – The WorldConservation Union, International WaterManagement Institute, The Ramsar ConventionBureau and the World Resources Institute (IWMI)ISBN 1-56973-548-8.

Endnotes1 HCP is a bespoke science-driven participatory conservation

planning, implementation and monitoring process developed by

AWF with help from The Nature Conservancy.

This Pub-licationis fundedby theNether-landsMinistryof For-eign Af-fairs/Di-rectorateGeneralfor Inter-nationalCoopera-tion(DGIS).

This Pub-licationis fundedby theNether-landsMinistryof For-eign Af-fairs/Di-rectorateGeneralfor Inter-nationalCoopera-tion(DGIS).

This Publication is funded by the NetherlandsMinistry of Foreign Affairs/Directorate Generalfor International Cooperation (DGIS).

www.awf.org

© 2005 African Wildlife Foundation

This document was produced by AWF’s Program teamwith assistance from DGIS

For more information, please contact publications@awfke.org

The Four Corners TBNRMA was supported by