Course: BSc Biotech Sem-I

Subject: Fundamentals of Biotechnology

Unit - 1

The Office of Technology Assessment of theUnited States Congress (dismantled in 1995)defined biotechnology as “any technique thatuses living organisms or substances from thoseorganisms, to make or modify a product, toimprove plants or animals, or to developmicroorganisms for specific uses.”

Biotechnology has been identified as one of thefrontline technologies today being developed andused to understand and manipulate biologicalmolecules for applications in medical, agricultural,industrial and environmental sectors of thenational economy.

Biotechnology is a priori an interdisciplinarypursuit.

In recent decades a characteristic feature of thedevelopment of science and technology hasbeen the increasing resort to multidisciplinarystrategies for the solution of various problems.

The term multidisciplinary describes a quantitativeextension of approaches to problems thatcommonly occur within a given area.

It involves the marshalling of concepts andmethodologies from a number of separatedisciplines and applying them to a specificproblem in another area.

Unlike a single scientific discipline,biotechnology can draw upon a wide array ofrelevant fields, such as microbiology,biochemistry, molecular biology, cell biology,immunology, protein engineering,enzymology, classified breeding techniques,and the full range of bioprocess technologies.

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A biotechnologist can utilise techniques derivedfrom chemistry, microbiology, biochemistry,chemical engineering and computer science.

Biotechnologists must also aim to achieve a closeworking cooperation with experts from otherrelated fields, such as medicine, nutrition, thepharmaceutical and chemical industries,environmental protection and waste processtechnology.

Biotechnology has two clear features: itsconnections with practical applications andinterdisciplinary cooperation.

As stated by McCormick (1996), a former editorof the Journal Bio/ Technology: ‘There is no suchthing as biotechnology, there are biotechnologies.’

There is no biotechnology industry; there areindustries that depend on biotechnologies fornew products and competitive advantage.’

Plant agriculture

13%Animal agriculture

8%

Chemical/Food 5%

Others

4%

1%Energy/Environment

Healthcare

69%

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Plant agriculture

13%Animal agriculture

8%

Chemical/Food 5%

Others 4%

1%Energy/EnvironmentHealthcare

69%

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Bioprocess technologyHistorically, the most important area of biotechnology(brewing, antibiotics, mammalian cell culture, etc.),extensive development in progress with new productsenvisaged (polysaccharides, medically importantdrugs, solvents, protein-enhanced foods). Novelfermenter designs to optimise productivity.

Enzyme technologyUsed for the catalysis of extremely specific chemicalreactions; immobilisation of enzymes; to create specificmolecular converters (bioreactors). Products formedinclude L-amino acids, high fructose syrup, semi-synthetic penicillins, starch and cellulose hydrolysis,etc. Enzyme probes for bioassays.

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Waste technologyLong historical importance but more emphasis is now beingplaced on coupling these processes with the conservationand recycling of resources; foods and fertilizers, biologicalfuels.

Environmental technologyGreat scope exists for the application of biotechnologicalconcepts for solving many environmental problems(pollution control, removing toxic wastes); recovery ofmetals from mining wastes and low-grade ores.

HealthcareNew drugs and better treatment for delivering medicines todiseased parts. Improved disease diagnosis, understandingof the human genome – genomics and proteomics,information technology.

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Renewable resources technology

The use of renewable energy sources, in particularlignocellulose, to generate new sources of chemical rawmaterials and energy – ethanol, methane andhydrogen. Total utilisation of plant and animalmaterial. Clean technology, sustainable technology.

Plant and animal agriculture

Genetically engineered plants to improve nutrition,disease resistance, maintain quality, and improveyields and stress tolerance will become increasinglycommercially available. Improved productivity etc. foranimal farming. Improved food quality, flavour, tasteand microbial safety.

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Essential to the understanding of biosafety isthe recognition and appreciation of the terms‘hazard’ and ‘risk’.

In the context of health and safety, the hazardcan be a substance, object or situation with apotential for an accident or damage, and therisk is the likelihood that this will occur.

Simply put, a hazard is something with thepotential to cause harm, while risk defines thechance of an individual or the environmentbeing harmed by the hazard.

Pathogenicity: the potential ability of living organismsand viruses (natural and genetically engineered) to infecthumans, animals and plants and to cause disease.

Toxicity and allergy associated with microbialproduction.

Other medically relevant effects, e.g. increasing theenvironmental pool of antibiotic-resistantmicroorganisms.

Problems associated with the disposal of spent microbialbiomass and the purification of effluents frombiotechnological processes.

Safety aspects associated with contamination, infection ormutation of process strains.

Safety aspects associated with the industrial use ofmicroorganisms containing in vitro recombinant DNA.

Class 1

Microorganisms that have never been identifiedas causative agents of disease in humans andthat offer no threat to the environment.

Class 2

Microorganisms that may cause human diseaseand that might therefore offer a hazard tolaboratory workers. They are unlikely tospread in the environment. Prophylactics areavailable and treatment is effective.

Class 3

Microorganisms that offer a severe threat to thehealth of laboratory workers, but a comparativelysmall risk to the population at large. Prophylacticsare available and treatment is effective.

Class 4

Microorganisms that cause severe illness in humansand offer a serious hazard to laboratory workersand to people at large. In general effectiveprophylactics are not available and no effectivetreatment is known.

Class 5

Microorganisms that offer a more severe threat tothe environment, particularly to animals andplants, than to people. They may beresponsible for heavy economic losses.National and international lists and regulationsconcerning these microorganisms are alreadyin existence in contexts other thanbiotechnology

Bioterrorism has been defined as the intentional orthreatened use of viruses, bacteria, fungi or toxinsfrom living organisms or agents to produce deathor disease in humans, animals and plants (Centerof Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA).

Within the armory of weapons of massdestruction, biological weapons are consideredmore destructive than chemical weapons,including nerve gases, since with a biologicalattack it is never known when the contaminantshave been removed.

Potential biological agents have been assigned tothree categories (Centre of Disease Control andPrevention, Atlanta, USA).

Category A: agents include the most serious –smallpox, anthrax, plague, botulism, tularaemia andviral haemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola

Category B: agents have a similar potential for large-scale dissemination but generally cause less seriousillnesses – typhus, brucellosis and food poisoningagents such as Salmonella and E. coli 0157

Category C: agents include novel infectious diseases,which could emerge in future threats.

Unlike nuclear and chemical weapons, biological weapons are relatively easy and cheap to produce and manufacture, and can also be used on a small scale. In this way small countries and terrorist organisations might easily acquire biological weapons.

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) signed in 1972was the first agreement among nations that declared anentire category of weapons to be off-limits and now has 154state parties or treaty members.

All those who have signed have agreed ‘not to develop,produce, stockpile or acquire biological agents, toxins andweapons-delivery mechanisms of types and qualities thathave no justification for prophylactic properties and otherpeaceful purposes’.

If a nation should proceed to develop biological weapons itwill be violating international law.

The implementation of the new techniques will bedependent upon their acceptance by consumers.

As stated in the Advisory Committee on Scienceand Technology (1990) report Developments inBiotechnology: ‘Public perception of biotechnologywill have a major influence on the rate anddirection of developments and there is growingconcern about genetically modified products.Associated with genetic manipulation are diversequestions of safety, ethics and welfare.’

Public understanding of these new technologiescould well hasten public acceptance.

The Eurobarometer poll, Europeans and Biotechnology in2005, confirmed that most Europeans supported medicalapplication of biotechnology when there were clearbenefits for human health and also industrialapplications. However, they were still expressingscepticism towards agricultural biotechnology.

Surprisingly, consumers were more supportive of theuse of GM plants for the production of medicines andpharmaceutical products. Stem cell research wasstrongly supported.

A dominant feature of public perception ofbiotechnology is the extraordinary low and naivepublic understanding of the genetic basis of life andevolution.

Does genetic engineering get a biased press coverage?

• India is one of the emerging economies in the World.• Shifting focus to one of the most promising industry of the

future: Biotechnology• Bio-diversity of India will be an advantage for Biotech

companies.• Vast reservoir of scientific human resource with reasonable

cost, wealth of R&D institutions, centers of academicexcellence in Biosciences

• Vibrant Pharmaceutical Industry and fast developing clinicalcapabilities collectively point to promising biotech sector

• Over 300 companies and 241 institutions use some form ofbiotechnology in agricultural, medical or environmentalapplications.

Quite nascent stage

• Vast growth and opportunity

• Over 300 registered biotechnology companies, out of which ~100 in are modern biotech sector

– Twelfth most successful biotechnology sector in the world as measured by number of companies

– 96 enterprises exclusively as Biotech companies, [after Australia (228) and China (136)]

Vaccines (new generation and combinations)

–Bharat Biotech, Bharat Serum, Biological E,Haffkine Bio-Pharmaceutical, Panacea, Pfizer,Serum Institute of India, Shanta Bio-techniques,Smithkline Beecham and Wockhardt

Therapeutics

–Biocon, Eli Lilly and Wockhardt

Diagnostics

–Bharat Biotech, Qualigens Diagnostics, SpanDiagnostics, J. Mitra and xCyton Diagnostics

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•Set up joint venture companies to locally manufacture the product

•Collaborative research

•Contract research

•Contract manufacturing

•Technology transfer

•Marketing arrangement for bio-supplies (appoint distributor/agent)

•Clinical research

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DBT (started in 1985) is developing policy for India

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

Department of Science and Technology (DST)

Association of Biotechnology Led Enterprise (ABLE)

Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC)

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READING IMAGES

Elements of biotechnology by P K Gupta

Biotechnology by B D Singh

Principles of Biotechnology by Dr. A J Nair

Biotechnology by John E. Smith (5th Ed.)

1-3: Biotechnology by John E. Smith (5th Ed.)