bachelor thesis - jolieke hillen - 1575689.pdf
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Smile!How to use your prof ile picture to enhance personal brand
and create a desired online image on LinkedIn.
Name: Jolieke Hillen
Student ID: 1575689
Host institution:
University of Applied Sciences Utrecht
Supervisor: Ronald Voorn
Bachelor: Communication Management
Specialisation: International Commercial
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WORD OF THANKS
I would like to thank all the people who have helped and supported me thro
assignment, and without whose help I would not have been able to complete
First of all, I want to thank my supervisor Ronald Voorn for his guidance, v
suggestions and seemingly infinite knowledge. Our discussions inspired me
subject of profile pictures and personal branding. But, mostly, I want to than
inspiring me time and time again, and helping me remember why I love this
we spoke each other, he left me full of energy and motivation.
I also want to thank my other teachers within ICC, Luc van Dijk and Anjali
who (in addition to Ronald Voorn) provided me with all the knowledge and
during my research.
A big thanks to all the people in my online network and the students of Utre
Applied Sciences, who have filled out my questionnaire. Without their help
would not exist!
Furthermore, I want to thank Bart-Jan van Os for helping me with checking
and conclusions in SPSS and statistics, Christiaan Dekker for being my spacompanion during the last year, and my close family and friends for their su
And lastly, I am forever grateful to my partner, Reijer Lomans, who has bee
strength and my mainstay throughout this whole process. Thank you for you
feedback, saving me from making false assumptions, and most importantly
wavering support and believe in me.
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SUMMARY
This thesis argues that people apply personal branding techniques in the cre
identities through personal profiles on social network sites such as LinkedIn
a desired online image of themselves. Within these personal profiles, the pr
an important role, as choosing the right picture influences the image the aud
user.
The research in this thesis focuses on how different ways of smiling in prof
influence a users online image, and how this information may be used for o
branding purposes. The main question of this thesis reads:
In what ways can different ways of smiling in profile pictures be used to enh
branding to create a desired online image on LinkedIn?
In order to provide a conclusive answer to this question, and provide reader
recommendations, the following sub questions are answered:How do peopl
images using personal branding? How do profile pictures differ in content?
network sites and how are they used? How can perceived images of users of
sites be measured? And what is the influence of different ways of smiling in
on the perceived image of users on social network sites?
A combination of a literature study and an experimental design was applied
methods. A between-group, independent experiment was conducted in the f
questionnaire. Respondents were randomly assigned into four groups. Four
the same person were used, depicting that person with different ways of sm
smiling without visible teeth, smiling with visible teeth and laughing. Each
showed one of the four photographs. The respondents were asked to answer
how they perceived the warmth and competence of the person in the picture
data were analysed in SPSS by doing an exploratory factor analysis, an anal
and a comparison of the mean scores of the photos.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ................................................................................................
1.1 Subject and relevance ...........................................................................
1.2 Main question and sub-questions .........................................................
1.3 Research methods .................................................................................
1.4 Thesis structure ....................................................................................
2. Theoretical framework ...............................................................................
2.1 How do people create online images using personal branding? ..........
2.2 How do profile pictures differ in content? ...........................................
2.3 What are social networking sites and how are they used? ...................
2.4 How can perceived images of LinkedIn or SNS users be measured? ..
2.5 What is the influence of different ways of smiling in profile pictures o
image of LinkedIn users? ...........................................................................
3. Methods ......................................................................................................
3.1 Operationalization ................................................................................
3.2 Different ways of smiling .....................................................................
3.3 Research strategy .................................................................................
3.4 Research method ..................................................................................
3.5 Design of the experiment .....................................................................
3.6 Collecting the pictures ..........................................................................
3.7 The questionnaire .................................................................................
3.8 Respondents .........................................................................................
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4.7 Conclusions ..........................................................................................
5. Discussion ...................................................................................................
5.1 Conclusions ..........................................................................................
5.2 Limitations ...........................................................................................
5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................
Appendices .....................................................................................................
Reference list ..............................................................................................
Photos used in the pre-test ..........................................................................
SPSS data and results .................................................................................
Questionnaire .............................................................................................
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1. IntroductionWe communicate with the people around us constantly; through offline and
communication, through the way we present ourselves, the way we dress, th
and the information we present about ourselves online, for example. We als
the image others have of us, so that people may see us the way we want to b
even apply marketing techniques to present ourselves in the best way possib
professional context, this is called personal branding. Social media provide
tool for personal branding, as they allow us to influence the way we present
others to a very high degree.
This thesis argues that people apply personal branding techniques in the cre
identities through personal profiles on social network sites such as LinkedIna desired online image of themselves.
1.1 Subject and relevance
Millions of people in the Netherlands use social media. LinkedIn is the wor
professional network (LinkedIn, 2015) and almost half of the entire Dutch p
has a Linkedin profile (Multiscope, 2015). It ranks #4 in the top 5 of most u
in the Netherlands and 3.8 million Dutch people use LinkedIn actively (Tur
van der Veer, 2015).
One very important part of personal profiles is the profile picture. It has bee
necessity to have a profile picture on your LinkedIn profile (Photofeeler, 2
to Abbot (2014), a profile is 14 times more likely to be viewed if it has a pro
Warner & LaFontaine (2014) argue that many users do not even connect to
without a profile picture. Furthermore, profile pictures influence other peop
a user (Pearson, 2010). Thus, for people that want to use effective personal
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example, the photo should depict a persons head and shoulders (Doyle, 20
making up 60% of the picture (Abbot, 2014). It is also important to smile, a
likely to connect to people who are smiling in their picture (Agarwal, 2012)
of these sources cite any research to substantiate their claims, or explain how
a profile picture actually influence the users online image.
The websitewww.photofeeler.comlets people rate profile pictures in terms
likability and influence factors. After analyzing 60,000 ratings, the site pres
stating that smiling with visible teeth and laughing have a positive effect on
likability, that formal dress positively affects perceived competence and inf
squinching (a combination of squinting and pinching your eyes) positively
factors (Photofeeler, 2014a, and Photofeeler, 2014b). While the research see
applied statistical analysis to the collected data, Photofeeler does not mentio
and calculations were done exactly, nor what their specific outcomes were.
stated on what grounds the choice for the three factors were made. The scie
of the research is unclear.
Within academic studies, the subject ofprofile pictures has been studied as
research has studied avatars (customized cartoon representations of the user
pictures. Some studies imply that the results for avatars may also be relevan
However, most studies focus on how photos or avatars can convey informat
users personality (Fong & Mar, 2015; Noor & Evans, 2003; Steele, Evans
Sung & Moon, 2011; Blisle & Bodur, 2010). There is little academic resea
pictures actually influence someones perceived online image.
It is not clear what influence a profile picture really has on a users perceive
how certain elements in profile pictures can be used in personal branding to
image. This thesis aims to fill a gap in academic research and to give practic
recommendations on the effect of online profile pictures on perceived imag
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with substantial recommendations, the following sub questions need to be a
1.
How do people create online images using personal branding?
2. How do profile pictures differ in content?
3. What are social network sites and how are they used?
4. How can perceived images of users of social network sites be measur
5. What is the influence of different ways of smiling in profile pictures o
image of users on social network sites?
1.3 Research methods
A combination of different research methods was used for this thesis. First o
study was conducted to investigate existing literature on the topics of person
social network sites, profile pictures and the effect of different content in pi
of this study provide a necessary theoretical framework that gives readers c
understanding of how different concepts come into play within the subject.
A quantitative research strategywas chosen to provide an answer to the ma
thesis. Since the aim is to measure the effect of smiling in a profile picture o
image of a user, it is reasonable to apply a quantitative method. Qualitative
allow objective measurement of effect sizes. Moreover, the creation of an im
else is an unconscious process. It is contradictive to research how exactly th
constructed by asking people directly why they make a certain judgment ab
all, people cannot consciously explain what happens during an unconscious
The research method that was used in the research for this thesis is the Bran
Agents Framework, or BIAF, by Kervyn, Fiske & Malone (2012). The BIA
peoples perceptions of brandson two dimensions: warmth and competence
questions on a 7-point Likert-scale. Since the image that is created by perso
processes can be considered a (personal) brandand the recommendations in
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questionnaire. Respondents were asked questions about their sex, age and le
before being shown the photograph. They were then asked to what extend th
each of the four statement of the BIAF, answering on a 7-point Likert scale.
data of the experiment were statistically analyzed using SPSS.
1.4 Thesis structure
The next chapter, Chapter 2, provides the theoretical framework of this thes
the results of the literature analysis arranged by sub question. Chapter 3 expmethods in further detail, accompanied by substantiation of the choices that
regard. Chapter 4 presents comprehensive results of the analysis of the rese
with clarifications of the exact statistical analyses that were used. Chapter 5
the reader with the conclusions and limitations of this research, followed by
recommendations for professionals looking to apply these findings for their
Lastly, a visual overview of these recommendations is provided in the form
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2. Theoretical framework
To be able to conduct an appropriate experimental research and provide a w
advice to the main question of this thesis, an exploratory literature analysis
This chapter presents the findings from this analysis for each of the five sub
2.1 How do people create online images using personal bran
In order to understand how profile pictures influence and enhance personal LinkedIn, the concept of personal branding should first be explored. This pa
different definitions and explanations of this concept, followed by a further
how impression management techniques are applied by people in order to c
images through personal branding. In addition, the roles of online media an
in this process are examined. Finally, ethical criticism on the personal brand
discussed, followed by a short conclusion of the literature analysis for this s
Personal branding
According to Shepherd (2005) personal branding is applying to people the
and branding principles originally developed for products and corporations
means personal branding comes down to marketing people instead of produ
between traditional (product) branding and personal branding, Bendisch, La
(2007) refer to the results of personal branding efforts as people brands. W
extensive work written on traditional marketingprinciples and theories, aca
dealing withpeople brandingis rather rare (compared to literature on tradit
and more theoretical than practical in nature (Bendisch et al., 2007). More
however, deal with personal branding on a very practical level. These bookKwakman, 2004; Harmsen, 2011; Harmsen, 2012; Harmsen & Rosenmller
Zwieten & van de Grift, 2009; van Zwieten, van de Haterd & Scholte, 2009
specific advice on how to apply traditional marketing techniques for their o
often do not go into much detail about the academic theories behind these id
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image they have of that person. To create a strong image, exchange, contin
and individuality are required (Bendisch et al., 2007).
Online personal branding
Online personal branding is the process of applying personal branding actio
media. This can involve different tactics, such as creating and maintaining
networking profiles, personal websites, and blogs, as well as using search e
techniques to encourage access to one's information (Labrecque, Markos &
Impression Management
One way individuals try to create or influence the image others have of them
impression management. Goffman (1959) presents this idea of impression m
through a metaphor of dramaturgy, saying life is a stage for activity. People
idealized versions of themselves instead of authentic ones. In this way, pewhat and how they present themselves to others, thus trying to influence the
others have of a person. According to Higgins (1987, as referenced in Siiba
three types of self-domains: the actual self (or how you think you are); the
you want to be, or what Goffman calls idealized self); and the ought self (ho
should be). When people are presenting an idealized version of themselves,
effectively giving a performance; an activity that occurs before an audience
influence on these observers. According to Goffman, these performances ta
specific behaviour settings, which he distinguishes into a front stage and a
front stage is where we give a performance, which means that you present
so that you embody a certain role - i.e. try to give of the right impression, so
sees you as you want to be seen. The back stage is where the performer cancharacter, i.e. where you are your authentic, not-idealized self. When diffe
role you play at a certain time) collide, conflicts can arise. Essentially, any p
back stage to another front stage. For example, when you are trying to make
business deal over your cell phone while you are at a very different (not bus
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someone wants to project and what outcome they desire. Impression constru
process of actually creating the desired impression. There are five factors th
kind of impression people try to create; (1) how you see yourself; (2) the ide
you desire and those you dont desire; (3) the constraints of the front or role
values and (5) your current social image.
Impression management techniques have proven to be effective in professio
situations. For example, impression management can have a positive effect
performance ratings (Wayne & Liden, 1995) and also seems to be able to in
future employer during a job interview (Gilmore & Ferris, 1989; Stevens &
Impression management on online media
Hogan (2010) has applied Goffmans theory of Impression Management sp
media. He proposes that, because media provide a window into the privatethe back stage is no longer private. Data is no longer addressed to a specific
Goffmans performances, but is submitted to a data repository (e.g. status u
Facebook and photos on Flickr). Since information online is accessible to a
audience - the whole Internet - there is no regulation on who can see particu
about an individual (i.e. compared to a traditional, offline back stage). In ad
argues that because online performances are recorded, the nature of the perf
altered. It now exists as an isolated object online and is no longer bound to
was present when the performance took place. Because social media sites a
space and time (which is an important aspect of Goffmans situational appr
proposes an additional exhibition approach. He calls recorded performanc
people post online artefacts, which no longer take place in a behaviour setexhibition site. Curators (the algorithms of websites) now control what a
to a particular audience, e.g. the newsfeed algorithm on Facebook.
Profile pictures as part of online personal branding
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(2006, as referenced in Siibak, 2009) also found that people select photos ac
same set of rules (or rules of conduct) that they use for assessing photos o
people read visuals, and how they create visuals to be read in desired way
strategies for online impression management (Pearson, 2010).
According to Bendisch et al (2007), the natural appearance of a person can
characteristic that adds to his or her distinctiveness, which again makes pic
on a SNS very important. Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow & Goslings (2009) h
people judge other peoples personalities based on their appearance, and tha
this based on photographs. This means physical appearance plays a large ro
impressions of others.
Critique on personal branding theories
Lair, Sullivan & Cheney (2005), propose several ethical points of critique o
personal branding. First of all, they warn that personal branding has the pot
people, saying personal branding offers a startlingly overt invitation of sel
commodification. In addition, they find that because personal branding cla
individuals can succeed as long as they find the right way to promote them
personal branding successfully), it also suggests that the reasons for failures
were unable or even unwilling to do so. Lair et al claim that most personal b
fail to take circumstances or social categories such as gender, age, race and
They conclude that personal branding does not appear to be for everyone, bu
theories dont send the message that it is.
Conclusions
Personal branding is the use of traditional marketing techniques for brandin
to create a desired image of a person in the eyes of a public. These techniqu
used on online media, by creating personal websites and blogs, creating pro
networking sites and administering techniques such as Search Engine Optim
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artefacts online in an exhibition site. Curators control what artefacts ar
which audience. Furthermore, online media do not function as traditional s
audiences (e.g. friends, family and colleagues) come together on social netw
may create conflicts between different roles or identities people try to presen
audience. Visual elements (and more specifically profile pictures) play an im
online impressions management and online personal branding techniques, b
the user understands the rules of conduct for the specific medium and by gi
characteristics that add to the distinctiveness of a personal brand.
2.2 How do profile pictures differ in content?
To better understand the effect different ways of smiling in profile pictures
someones image, it is important to explore what profile pictures are in the f
they may differ from each other in their content. This paragraph presents th
investigation.
Profile pictures in general
Most Social Network Sites encourage users to upload a profile image (usua
a picture - often of themselves- so a profilepictureis perhaps a more apt na
(2008) states that, on Facebook, a profile picture acts as the most pointed a
photographic self-presentation on the Facebook profile. It is likely that this
profile pictures on LinkedIn. On LinkedIn, the profile pictures appears on th
corner of a profile, next to their name and title (see figure 2.1). The profile p
displayed next to updates and comments made by that user.
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Figure 2.2.Example of LinkedIn search results
If a user does not choose a specific profile image, LinkedIn will
substitute a generic silhouette to appear with comments and updates(see figure 2.3). Information on a profile of a user without a profile
image will shift to the left, leaving the name and title of that person to
fill the entire top of the profile page.
According to Strufe (2010), a profile picture influences a profiles popularit
way, and profiles with a profile picture are viewed more frequently than pro
Different content
Several studies have been conducted towards different profile pictures and t
found that profile pictures differ in content in several ways. Siibak (2009) p
people tend to emphasize the things that are important to them through sele
photos. Steele, Evans & Green (2009) separate pictures in different categori
! Subject of the image (is it a photo or a drawing; depicting a person,
! Depicted body portion (face and shoulders, full body, or body witho
Fiim
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Other categories that were found include the level of physical activity of the
picture, if the photo was posed or not and appropriateness of the picture (Hu
Hambright, Portwood, Schat & Bevan, 2015). In addition, there were also d
between whether the photos are edited or not (e.g. black & white photos, cu
saturation or the use of filters). Lastly, Strano (2008) includes if someones
includes friends, family or romantic partners and if photos depict a special o
location.
Strano (2008) states that people choose profile pictures that they themselve
as attractive. He also found that people often chose humorous shots or pict
were having fun. According to Siibak (2007, as referenced in Strano, 2008)
sites were more likely to display a profile picture of themselves smiling than
course, since LinkedIn is not a dating site, we cannot automatically assume
holds true for LinkedIn users). Krmer & Winter (2008) state that people w
on a scale of extraversion often chose a different style of profile picture, e
black & white, with altered colours or with added filters. In addition, people
expectations of creating positive impressions were more likely to chose po
with serious facial expressions and a solid background, whereas people who
and high expectations of impression management often chose more experim
party pictures (Krmer & Winter, 2008).
Conclusions
Overall, users of social network services are often encouraged to upload a p
LinkedIn, this image is displayed on someones profile page and alongside
updates made by that person. Having a profile picture positively influences
number of views of a profile. Profile pictures can be distinguished into diffe
the elements they depict. Examples are how many people are in a photo; wh
or not and if yes, how; if they wear head or eye covering; if they make eye c
location were the picture was taken and if the photo was edited. Different pe
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2.3 What are social networking sites and how are they used?
Although the main question of this research focuses on the best way of usin
to create a desired image on LinkedIn, it is necessary to understand the conc
Network Sites (SNSs) and how people use them. This paragraph explores th
followed by a more in-depth review of LinkedIn within the context of this i
What are Social Network Sites
boyd & Ellison (2008) define Social Network Sites, or SNSs, as websites w
characteristics: (1) people can construct a profile within a bounded system,
connect with other users (e.g. by befriending them as on Facebook, or by
them as on LinkedIn) and (3) they can see with which users they are connec
which other users are connected to each other within the site. The fact that S
to enter into relationships with others makes them a practical tool for netwo
terms Social Network Sites and Social Networking Sites are indeed oft
interchangeably. However, since networking is usually not the sole purpose
first term is used for this study. What doesmake SNSs different from other
fact that they enable users to articulate their relationships and visuallydepic
(boyd & Ellison, 2008). The first SNSs were launched in the mid 90s. Curr
different SNSs exist. Within the Netherlands, the most widely used SNSs ar
YouTube, Google+, LinkedIn and Twitter, respectively (Turpijn, Kneefel &
2015).
How are social network sites used
Different SNSs provide different functions to their users, which influence th
are used. In order to further investigate personal branding on SNSs, and moLinkedIn, it is useful to explore how people use SNSs. This paragraph will
that, followed by a more in-depth review of LinkedIn in particular.
SNSs provide people with the means to build and maintain an online social
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Personal contacts (your friends or connections; the network you
Posts (updates about what you are doing, sharing links, photos or vi
Messaging (wall posts or quest book entries, recommendations, dire
chat)
All these elements may come into play when people form impressions of ea
Siibak (2009) found that online impression management creates an ever-pr
needing to perform oneself appropriately, and the twin need to be constantly
acceptable, or simply okay, in the context of one`s peers. People may rei
in some way in order to present themselves positively online. They can do t
emphasizing positive traits and omitting flaws. Although SNSs allow this to
is more restricted on platforms that include relationships with people you kn
Because your (online) identity is grounded in offline relationships, the amou
can stretch the truth is bound, since it might result in offline social sanctio
people tend to present profiles that are somewhat true to their offline ident
2008).
Visuals can be used in SNSs as forms of virtual impression management (P
to emphasize things users find important (Siibak, 2009). They also influenc
popularity and number of views in a positive way (Strufe, 2010).
Because SNSs include not only information provided by users themselves b
friends, people can find information about others they have recently met on
different uncertainty reductions in this process, including observing the ta
by viewing their profile, status updates and interactions with others), proact
know someone without actually confronting them (e.g. by asking others abo
actual direct interaction with the target. On social network sites, people wer
three of these techniques (Antheunis, Valkenburg & Peter, 2010). Accordin
warranting principle we trust information about someone that is generated
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What is LinkedIn and how is it used
LinkedIn is a professional SNS, aimed at professional self-promotion and b
networking. It is the fourth largest social medium within the Netherlands, w
users. 0.4 million Dutch users use LinkedIn every day (a rise of 33% compa
Within daily use, the age group of 40 to 64 years old is best represented, fol
group of 20-39 years old (Turpijn, Kneefel & van der Veer, 2015).
LinkedIn reports itself as the world's largest professional network with mo
million members in 200 countries and territories around the globe. Their m
states they aim to create economic opportunity for every member of the gl
(LinkedIn, 2015).
LinkedIn profiles take the form of an online resume, encouraging users to p
information about their current and past jobs, education, skills and experien
SNSs, users can connect to each other to create an online network. But an im
difference between how this is used on LinkedIn compared to other SNSs, i
you not only connect to people you already know, but to people you may or
Dijck, 2013). Another noticeable difference in the interface of LinkedIn is t
actively explore the direct connections of their connections (i.e. people in thnetwork) and ask to be introduced to them. Thus, the power of LinkedIn fo
not in their direct network, but their extended network 2nd
or even 3rd
degr
An algorithm computes lists of people you may know and would like to c
order to help users grow their network.
In addition to being introduced to their extended network, LinkedIn is also u
find jobs, people or business opportunities that someone in their network re
follow a company, to keep track of the accomplishments of their contacts an
congratulate them on their new jobs, to see who have viewed your profile, t
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strategy for influencing this warranting principle for your own advantage. H
be noted that it is not possible to give anything other than positive endorsem
mean that people put less trust in these endorsements, since they do not prov
Skeels & Grudin (2009) suggest that professionals may use LinkedIn differ
on where they are in their career or on the job market. Well-established pro
only use their account when they accept connections to connect. Some activ
such as old friends, to connect, but most report only excepting but never senOlder employees may use LinkedIn for recruiting purposes, for learning mo
they met or will meet, or to discuss and ask questions to other professionals
through the interest groups.
On the other side of the spectrum, people in their early-to-mid twenties usu
LinkedIn profile when they enter the job market. They mainly useLinkedIn
updated resume. For this group, LinkedIn provides an easy to create, inexpe
web page. They also start to grow their network, adding professionals that m
know, and to keep in touch with friends and acquaintances from college or
start to go their separate ways after graduation.
Others use LinkedIn more as an online alternative to filing paper business c
by connecting to people they meet at a conference, network event or profess
and as a self-updating address book, helping them to keep track of people th
advancements of their careers. Because LinkedIn provides options to occasi
connections and easily make a gesture by congratulating someone on accom
new jobs, it also enables people to keep their relationships alive.
Conclusions
Social Network Sites are websites with three distinctive functions: they let p
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be introduced to their extended network, keep track of people they know an
themselves online by means of an online, updated resume. Employers also u
post jobs, find appropriate candidates and to find out more about prospectiv
2.4 How can perceived images of LinkedIn or SNS users be m
Different studies have used different measuring methods to study the percei
users (including LinkedIn). Although some researchers have selected their o
measure the effect of photos (such as Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow & Goslin
use well-established, existing methods. In order to choose an appropriate m
present study of this thesis, it is imperative to first explore what methods ha
the past and what advantages and disadvantages they bring to the table for t
Firstly, many studies use a psychological outlook, using the Big Five scal
personality dimensions. The five dimensions include (1) openness, (2) cons
extraversion, (4) agreeableness and (5) neuroticism. Fong & Mar (2015), N
(2003) and Sung & Moon (2011) used this model to study avatars and profi
the present study is executed within the context of personal branding, this m
bad fit to the research. Personal branding, after all, does not focus exclusiv
perceive your personality, but also on how they judge your professionalism
personality is not necessarily a good indicator of professionalism or competmight not provide the right answers to the main question.
A second method that was found is impression agreement, also called se
agreement (applied by Steel, Evans & Greene, 2009). This method calcula
correlation between how somebody rates their own personality and someon
impression of that persons personality. If the impressions have a high correcorrespond with each other. Although this method is very useful in personal
whether someones actual self matches theirsocial self (Sirgy, 1982), this m
focuses only on personality dimensions. As explained in the previous parag
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explained 15% of total variance accounted for in the original study by McC
(1972). Using all three dimensions would provide a better answer about how
smiling in profile pictures affect the perceived image of LinkedIn users. Bu
respondents have to answer 18 questions about a photo, which means filling
questionnaire takes more time. Since as many respondents as possible need
short amount of time, this creates a disadvantage for using this method.
A fourth method that might be appropriate for the present study is the Brand
Agents Framework (BIAF) by Kervyn, Fiske & Malone (2012). This framew
the Stereotype Content Model, which measures two dimensions of social pe
and competence (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002). The warmth dimension
someones intentions towards others, such as helpfulness, sincerity, friendli
trustworthiness. Warmth links to whether you like someone or not. The com
dimension measures how people judge someones ability to carry out their iincludes factors like efficiency, intelligence, conscientiousness and skill, an
whether you respect someone.
The BIAF builds on the Stereotype Content Model by suggesting that cons
relationships with brands that resemble relationships between people. Con
perception of a brands perceived intentions and ability elicit distinct emotio
consumers behave towards these brands. How a brand performs on the BIA
creating and implementing brand positioning and marketing communication
Since personal branding proposes that people present themselves as brands,
appropriate to use a method that also approaches its subjects as brands. Mor
Stereotype Content Model on which the BIAF is based, is a well-established
measuringpeoplesperceived intentions and abilities. Since personal brand
line between people and brands, the BIAF seems an excellent fit for this stu
the BIAF uses only four questions, meaning respondents do not need to hav
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2.5 What is the influence of different ways of smiling in prof
the perceived image of LinkedIn users?
Although several studies have been conducted on the effect of different elem
and avatars, little academic research focuses on the effects of smiling in pho
accurately provide an answer to this sub-question, more research is need. Th
experiment was conducted to further investigate how different ways of smil
perceived image. The design and results of this experiment are provided as
this thesis, in chapters 3, 4 and 5. This paragraph summarizes the findings o
this concept.
One study that may provide a first direction for an answer to this question, i
done by Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow & Goslings (2009). They studied how
impressions are formed based on peoples appearances. Their findings impl
might try to shape others impressions of them by altering their appearance
They also suggest that some aspects of appearance are within our control, su
Thus, their research provides an indication that smiling is an element in pho
influence, and that this might affect others impressions of us.
Vernon, Sutherland, Young & Hartley (2014) studied the effect of different
influence first impressions. They found that a substantial proportion of th
impressions could be attributed to objectively defined facial features. Of the
dimensions they studied, approachability was strongly positively linked to m
shape, concluding that a smiling impression is a key component of an imp
approachability.
Other research suggests that impression agreement is higher when people w
their profile pictures (Steel, Evans & Greene, 2009). Their results indicate t
agreement was highest when people were smiling with visible teeth, with sm
i ibl h d I ddi i ili ll h d bl
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3. Methods
In order to provide an answer to all five sub-questions, and subsequently th
(as described in chapter 1: Introduction), a quantitative strategy was applied
framework for the research study, a literature analysis was conducted prior
study. The results of this analysis were described in chapter 2: Literature Fr
research for this thesis was conducted in the form of an independent (betwe
experimental design, using an online questionnaire method. This chapter wi
investigate the choices that were made in this design process, and explain th
disadvantages of the applied methods. Firstly, the main concepts of the main
questions are operationalized based on the results of the literature analysis.
of different ways of smiling will be further defined and explained. The res
design and method will be discussed, followed by a more in-depth explorati
pictures that were used were obtained, how the questionnaire was construct
respondents were gathered. Lastly, the actual respondent group is analysed
obtained number of respondents and their average age, sex and education le
3.1 Operationalization
As a result of the literature analysis, the main concepts from the main and su
now be further defined. A clear definition of each concept is needed in orde
subsequent research, which will provide answers to these questions. The ma
thesis is:In what ways can different ways of smiling in profile pictures be u
personal branding to create a desired online image on LinkedIn?
Different ways of smiling
As found in the literature analysis, the pictures that users of SNSs choose as
contain differences in the elements they depict (see paragraph 2.2 of Chapte
framework for further details on this concept). For the purposes of this stud
to try and research all these elements. Therefore, only different ways ofsmi
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Online image and desired online image
According to Bendisch et al. (2007) a brand image cannot be detached from
human being and includes both the perspective of the self-image of the ind
the perspective of others and the image they have of that person. Within the
thesis study, online image and perceived images of users both refer to th
perspective as described by Bendisch et al; the image others have of a perso
personal branding efforts or the personal brand itself. In this context, image
the perspective of the (actual or intended) receivers of the marketing commThe desired online image is the image the person intends to project; the w
public to see him. This may or may not overlap with the actual image the ot
person.
LinkedIn
LinkedIn is a business-oriented Social Network Site and the worlds largest
network (LinkedIn, 2015). It is mainly used in the context of professional n
goals like keeping in touch with (former) colleagues and other professional
finding new employees or finding a new job. Users create a personal profile
their professional skills and accomplishments and resembles a resume. User
to each other, join interest specific groups, send personal messages and postthe Netherlands, LinkedIn was #4 in the top 5 of most used social media pla
was used by 3.8 million Dutch people, of which 0.4 million visited the web
et al, 2015).
3.2 Different ways of smiling
Since studying the effect of all different elements in profile pictures is not fe
constraints of this thesis, this study only focuses on the effect of four differe
smiling. The element of smiling was chosen for various different reasons. F
always present in pictures of a person, since they are usually either not smil
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Within the study, four different ways of smiling are distinguished:
1. Not smiling
2. Smiling without visible teeth
3. Smiling with visible teeth
4. Broadly smiling or laughing
3.3 Research strategy
A quantitative research strategy was chosen for this study. This choice was
order to study the influence of smiling in profile pictures, the size of an effe
measured. Effect sizes cannot be objectively measured in a qualitative way.
impressions we form of others are based on unconscious biases for examp
specific facial structures with personality traits (Vernon, Sutherland, Young
It is therefore contradictive to try and reveal how people arrive at a certain ijudgement of someone using qualitative research methods such as in-depth
focus groups. After all, we cannot consciously explain what happened durin
process.
3.4 Research method
As explained in section 2.4 of the theoretical framework (chapter 2), there a
measure how we form an image of others based on a picture. For this study,
Intentional Agents Framework (or BIAF) by Kervyn, Fiske & Malone (2012
The BIAF measures peoples perceptions of brands on two dimensions: war
competence, by using a 7-point Likert-scale.
In personal branding, traditional marketing techniques are used to brand peo
this process is that we create specific image: a personal brand. Moreover, th
give advice for professionals in a professional branding context. It is therefo
measure this image as a brand and not as if it were a personality (i e by usi
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3.5 Design of the experiment
The research was designed in the form of a between-group, independent exp
natural design might have given better, more extensive results, but this meth
respondents to judge many different (pre-coded) pictures in order to provide
results. This poses a risk, since people might become influenced to give a ce
judging a few photos, since they might start to realise what the experiment t
provides a high risk of wear-out. In order to be able to test many different p
these risks, a high number of respondents was needed. Gathering that many
within the given timeframe would prove to be very hard, if not impossible.
between-group design was chosen.
Four samples of respondents were composed, each of which were shown a
depicting one of the four ways of smiling. Respondents were then asked to
questions from the BIAF with regard to the picture. Since the study aims to
different ways of smiling influence peoples image of them, the pictures we
their own, without the context of an online profile. This was done to preven
opinions about what is appropriate or desirable for profile pictures on Linke
their answers.
In order to be able to compare the results of the four sample groups, the gro
homogenous as possible. Therefore, the target group was limited to a specif
30 years old. Any respondents outside of this age group were ruled invalid
Although this limits statements made after generalisation as well, it was dee
not being able to compare the sample groups in the first place.
According to the central limit theorem (Field, 2011) samples that are greate
respondents can be assumed to have a normal distribution, with a mean equ
population mean. This means that, in order to be able to make statements ab
population (generalisation), each sample in the experiment has to be at least
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resulted in a set of four pictures, each depicting the same person, against the
and wearing the same clothing and hairstyle. The model also wore no head
covering of any kind. The only main difference in each picture was the facia
whether the person was smiling or not and how.
Pre-test of the photos
Three different people were photographed, resulting in three sets of four ph
see appendix for the three sets). Next, a pre-test (N=5) was conducted in ord
set of photos was the most suitable for use in the questionnaire. An odd num
respondents were chosen in order to be able to apply a majority rule, so pote
disagreements could be resolved. The results of the pre-test indicated that th
use in the questionnaire was set 3 (see figure 3.1)
Figure 3.1.Photo set 3
Some of respondents reactions during the pre-test read:
In set 1, there is no easily notable difference between not smiling and smil
The laughing pictures in set 1 and 2 seem a little extreme/grotesque and
laughing picture in set 3 seems more natural and candid.
Set 3 shows the most differences of all between the ways of smiling and th
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3.7 The questionnaire
The research was conducted using an online questionnaire method. The adv
method are that it takes respondents only a short moment to fill out, they ca
and whenever is convenient for them. It is also easy to distribute an online q
among the target group. Disadvantages include the fact that a questionnaire
insight in underlying causes and thinking processes, and the possibility of a
people do not understand a question, but where there is no interviewer they
Moreover, an online tool provides additional risks because of possible prob
compatibility with different devices, problems such as failing Internet conne
servers, or problems with the chosen platform for the questionnaire.
Since the target group included Dutch-speaking people, the questionnaire w
Dutch. This means the BIAF questions were also translated, which again cr
risks. If the chosen translation does not match the original questions well, it
validity of the question. However, if the questionnaire was designed in Eng
lower comprehension of English might misinterpret the question, causing th
different answer. To try and prevent these risks, the questions were first tran
help of an expert in the English language.
The final questionnaire included the following questions (translated here fro
English). The original questions in Dutch are included in the appendix of th
1. What is your gender? (Choices: Male, Female)
2. What is your age? [Textbox]
3. What level of education do you currently follow or what is your hig
level of education? (Choices: VMBO, HAVO, VWO, MBO, HBO,
[textbox])
4. Please indicate to what extend you agree with the following stateme
point Likert scale where 1 = completely disagree and 7 = completel
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Next, after the questionnaire design was complete, another pre-test was con
people understood the questions as they were meant to be and if there were
interpretation. This pre-test was conducted with an N=10, among people wi
of education and on different devices (both desktop and mobile devices in
with different operating systems). While the pre-test revealed no problems w
operating systems, in reality some mobile phones with a specific Android o
would not load the picture during the questionnaire, causing people to end t
prematurely. This resulted in a higher number of incomplete questionnaire rexpected beforehand.
On the chosen platform(www.thesistools.com), four different questionnaire
All questionnaires included the same questions, but each depicted a differen
the four ways of smiling). Next, the questionnaires were all linked to the sam
which was set according to a randomization algorithm. Every time somebodURL, the algorithm would randomly present one of the four questionnaires.
3.8 Respondents
The URL to the questionnaire (with randomization setting) was circulated a
social network accounts of the researcher: Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn.
description, a call for respondents aged 18 to 30 was included. In addition,
gift certificates with a value of !10, - were mentioned, which respondents c
entered their e-mail address after filling out the questionnaire. People were a
share the URL, creating a snowballing effect.
In addition, respondents were gathered on location by asking students on th
Communication and Journalism of the University of Applied Sciences Utrec
questionnaire. Although it is to be expected that most respondents gathered
age requirements, it also influences the average level of education in an unb
is reflected in the results and therefore it must be noted that the average leve
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Netherlands, 49.4% is female and 50.6% is male (CBS, 2015a). The mean a
old, with a standard deviation of 2.5 years. 85.3% of all respondents were b
years old. The level of education reflected the methods that were used to ga
50.32% of respondents is currently studying on an HBO level or has compe
level of education on an HBO level. This uneven distribution was to be expe
large part of respondents was gathered at a University of Applied Sciences,
level education. Apart from the high level of HBO education, respondents s
relatively highly educated overall, since another quarter of respondents (25studies or has completed education on a WO (academic) level. This again d
from the population, of which only 29% is higher educated meaning they
education on a HBO or WO level (CBS, 2015b). However, this discrepancy
the fact that the questionnaire also includes current (unfinished) level of edu
the population statistic only includes finished level of education.
Please see the appendix for more detailed data and SPSS output regarding
respondents and for a presentation of the full questionnaire.
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4. Results
This chapter will discuss the results of the experiment that was conducted a
research. Firstly, the sample sizes are discussed and assumptions of normali
Next, the mean scores for each of the four photos are explored and any diffe
by men or women are discussed. An exploratory factor analysis was conduc
the four questions of the Brands as Intentional Agents Framework (BIAF) a
different dimensions of warmth and competence. The results of this analysidepth. The results for each photo are then plotted against the two axes of the
see how they score on warmth (intentions) and competence (ability). Lastly
variance (ANOVA) was conducted to see how well the photos influence res
answers on the BIAF questions, which was then further explored using post
to further analyse how the photos affected the resulting image and which ph
each dimension.
All SPSS tables and graphs depicting the results described in this chapter ca
appendix of this document.
4.1 Sample sizes
As discussed in chapter 3, the total sample size of the experiment is N=155
Since the experimental groups could not be influenced beforehand, but rath
by means of randomisation, it can be expected that the four experimental gr
do not contain the exact number of respondents. Table 4.1 presents the exac
respondents for each of the four samples. We see that photo A: No smile ha
number of respondents; n=43, whereas photo D: Laughing had the least wit
Overall, the sample means do not differ greatly; the largest difference is 9 r
Count Percent
Photo A: No smile 43 27.7
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4.2 Normality distribution
A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality was conducted to find if the distri
significantly different from a normal distribution. The five questions that re
answered with regards to the photo that was presented to them were include
For the rest of this chapter, these questions will be coded as follows:
Question
1. The person in the photo has good intentions toward ordinary people
2. The person in the photo consistently acts with other peoples best interes
in mind
3. The person in the photo has the ability to implement her intentions
4. The person in the photo is skilled and effective at achieving her goals
5. For the person in the photo, finding a job is
Table 4.2. Coding of questions
All five questions,D(154) = 0.00,p< .05, were significantly non-normal on
Smirnov test of normality. This means the assumption of normal distributio
However, since a discrete scale (i.e. a 7-point Liker-scale) and not a continu
used to answer the questions in the questionnaire, a maximum of 14 points
each dimension, a non-normal distribution becomes very likely. Q-Q plots w
the degree of skewness of the distribution for each question; the distribution
is somewhat skewed, but not overly divergent. Moreover, the analysis of va
that was conducted to further analyse the questionnaire results is considered
violations of normality if group sizes are equal (Field, 2011). In addition, th
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Photo B depicting a smile without visible teeth scored the highest on both q
warmth (warmth 1 and warmth 2) as well as the highest on the competence
C depicting a smile with visible teeth scored the highest on the competence
addition, respondents thought the person on this photo would find a job mo
When we look at the mean score per photo for the dimensions of warmth an
find that photo B has the highest overall score on warmth and photo C has t
score on competence.
Table 4.3.Mean scores per photo
A T-test was conducted to see whether men and women answered the quest
The results were non-significant, meaning that there was no significant diffe
between answers by men or women.
4.4 Exploratory factor analysis
The BIAF was designed to measure two dimensions of warmth and comp
explore if the four questions really measured two dimensions, an explorat
was conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling
analysis, KMO = .606 which is a mediocre value (according to Field, 201
thus above the acceptable limit. Bartletts test of sphericity X2(6) = 293.19
Photo Warmth 1 Warmth 2 Competence 1 Competence 2 Job
Photo A: No smile 3.84 3.74 4.74 4.63 4.00
Photo B: Smile w
/o
teeth5.28 4.74 4.74 4.95 4.87
Photo C: Smile with
teeth4.86 4.70 4.92 4.86 5.03
Photo D: Laughing 4.97 4.72 4.75 4.92 4.74
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1 had high loadings on both questions measuring warmth and factor 2 ha
both questions measuring competence (scores are highlighted in green)
factor 1 probably represents the dimension of warmth and factor 2 proba
dimensions of competence, so the factors are labelled as such in the tab
concluded that the four questions accurately measured the intended dimensi
Raw component
Item Warmth Competence
Heeft het beste met mensen voor 1.23 .50
Handelt consequent met de belangen van anderen in haar achterhoofd 1.17 .44
Is vaardig en effectief in het bereiken van haar doelen .48 1.19
Is in staat haar voornemens uit te voeren .44 1.17
Eigenvalues 3.94 1.72
% of variance 61.47 26.82
Cronbachs! .79 .79
Table 4.4.Summary of exploratory factor analysis results
4.5 Photo scores on the Brands as Intentional Agents Frame
The BIAF places brands on two axes, resulting in four different quadrants in
can fall. The horizontal axis (X) indicates competence and the vertical axis
warmth. The means of the Likert-scale score for each photo on the dimensio
factor analysis were plotted against the two axes (figure 4.5). Photo A depic
photo B smiling without visible teeth, photo C smiling with visible teethlaughing. According to the BIAF, each quadrant solicits specific emotion
2012). The lower left quadrant solicits contempt and it is very undesirable to
quadrant. Photo A scored slightly below average on both warmth and comp
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Figure 4.5.Photo scores on BIAF
Since the graph using the Likert-scale does not show the differences betwee
smiling photos very well, the means for each photo were converted to a fr
distribution using Z-scores (where the mean is 0 and the standard deviation
resulting scores fall between -1 and 1. When this graph is zoomed in further
between photos B, C and D become clearer (figure 4.6). It should be noted t
difference are clearer, zooming in on the axes also presents a more distorted
reality. To see in what quadrant each picture falls, figure 4.6 gives a more a
representation. Further examination of figure 4.6 reveals that photo B (depi
without visible teeth) scored higher on the warmth dimension, whereas phot
smile with visible teeth) scored slighly higher on the competence dimension
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Photo A
Photo B
Photo C
Photo D
-0,8
-0,6
-0,4
-0,2
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
-0,15 -0,1 -0,05 0 0,05 0,1
Photo A
Photo B
Photo C
Photo D
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Please note that, since a 7-point Likert-scale was used, scores can range from
Indeed, the three photos depicting different ways of smiling are higher rated
where the person was not smiling. Additionally, smiling with visible teeth s
higher than smiling without teeth. The different scores per photo seem to m
scores, with photo A (no smile) scoring around a mean of 4, and the other th
photos scoring closer to 5.
4.6 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
To further explore differences between the photos, an analysis of variance (
conducted. An ANOVA calculates the ratio of systematic variance to unsys
in an experimental study. This ratio, called the F-ratio, indicates if the indep
successfully manipulated the dependent variable. In this study, the independ
the four photographs, and the dependent variables are the four BIAF questio
Firstly, the assumption of homogeneity was explored using the Levenes sta
and competence, the variances were non significant,Levene F (1, 151) = 1.3
151) = 1.35, ns. However, for the job question, the variances were significa
Levene F(3, 151) = 2.83,p < 0.5. This means that for the further exploration
the F-ratio cannot be used. Instead, Welchs F was used, since it is more rel
way ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis H test when data are not homogenous (Mc
The ANOVA revealed a significant effect of the photos on the warmth dime
10.58,p = < .01 but not on the competence dimension, F(3) = 0.70, ns. The
calculated effect size for the warmth dimension is "= .40. This is a relative
Table 4.7.Mean score per photo for job question
Photo Mean score
No smile 4.00
Smile without teeth 4.87
Smile with teeth 5.03
Laughing 4.74
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perceived the level of competence of the person in the photo. This means no
for the population may be made.
Post hoc tested were executed to further explore which ways of smiling wer
on how people perceive the persons warmth and competence and their abili
easily. To control both type I errors (#) and type II errors ($), and since ther
sample sizes, the Tukey test was selected. Additionally, since the job questi
on Levenes test, the Games-Howell test was used for this question. Tukey
for the warmth dimension, photo A depicting no smile is significant. Not sm
significantly negative effect on perceived warmth, compared to smiling in a
three smiling photos showed now significant effect on warmth. The comp
shows no significant effects overall, which is to be expected since the dimen
significant on the ANOVA, indicating that the manipulation of the depende
independent variable has failed. Finally, the Games-Howell test indicates th
results in significantly lower scores on the job question compared to both sm
visible teeth and smiling with visible teeth, but yields no significant differen
compared to laughing. In addition, smiling with your teeth visible resulted i
but not significantly different scores than smiling without visible teeth. Both
smiling resulted in slightly higher scores than laughing, but again not signif
4.7 Conclusions
The statistical analysis shows that the four BIAF questions successfully me
and competence dimensions. Photo A (not smiling) falls in the lower-right q
BIAF, indicating that it might elicit contempt. All three forms of smiling fal
right golden quadrant, suggesting that they could elicit admiration. The w
and the job question were significant on the ANOVA, indicating that the m
dependent variables (the BIAF and job questions) by the independent variab
was successful. The competence dimension was not significant, preventing
generalisation for the population based on this experiment
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5. Discussion
This chapter offers a discussion about the answers to the main question andthesis. First, answers to each of the five sub-questions are provided. Next, th
will then be answered based on the literature and experimental study. These
be presented in paragraph 5.1. The following paragraph, 5.2, offers recomm
people looking to use profile photos to influence their online image as part o
branding strategies. Additionally, it offers recommendations for further aca
based on the present study. Finally, paragraph 5.3 discusses the limitations
study conducted in this thesis.
5.1 Conclusions
This paragraph will present the conclusions for each of the five sub question
chapter 1 of this thesis, followed by the final answer to the main question.
How do people create online images using personal branding?
Personal branding is the process of applying traditional marketing technique
market products and corporations, to brand people. The goal of personal bra
a desired image; to influence the way others see a person. This can be done
personal purposes. Online media lend themselves very well for personal bra
allowing people to use different tactics and techniques to successfully brand
These tactics include the creation of personal websites, blogs and profiles o
administering SEO or SEA techniques. When individuals try to influence th
have of them, they may do so through a technique called impression manag
impression management is presented in the form of a dramaturgy metaphor
a stage. People present idealized versions of themselves through performan
bound in space and time and that take place on a stage in front of a partic
unintended) audience. The specific image people aim to create is influen
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In order to apply the theory of impression managed to online media, an add
can be proposed. The original impression management theory speaks of per
take place in a situation; a situational approach. But, online, performances a
because they are recorded and can be replayed in a different situation and c
the information and visual cues people post online can also be seen as arte
placed in an exhibition site. This exhibition approach further states that c
specific algorithms on a web site) then control what artefacts are presented
Furthermore, it can be noted that online media do not function as a tradition
Different audiences (e.g. friends, family and colleagues) come together on s
sites, which may create conflicts between the different roles or identities pe
to each audience.
Visual elements, and profile pictures in particular, form an important part o
impression management and personal branding techniques. By choosing ap
users communicate to each other that they understand the rules of conduct o
that they are a part of the in-group and what position they take in that group
profile pictures provide visual characteristics of a person, which adds to the
their personal brand. In addition, a profile with a profile pictures is viewed m
without one and will probably be more popular as well.
How do profile pictures differ in content?
Many SNSs encourage their users to upload a profile image. LinkedIn displ
image on someones personal profile, next to his or her name and job title. T
is also presented alongside updates and comments made by a person, and is
search results. Having a profile picture positively influences the popularity
views of a profile. The elements that profile images depict can be distinguis
categories. To begin with, we can identify if the profile image even is a pict
or perhaps a drawing or cartoon or something else. If it is a picture, it may d
multiple persons. The picture can include someones head only, their head a
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What are social network sites and how are they used?
Social Network Sites, or SNSs, are websites with three distinctive functions
create a personal profile, they let them connect with others users, and they l
present their network (by showing a list of someones contacts and links be
SNSs provide their users with different functions such as creating profiles, p
and communicating with others through wall posts, personal messages or gr
SNSs for different purposes: to represent themselves online (e.g. for person
purposes), to keep in touch with people in their network, and to find out mo
people they may have met.
LinkedIn is a SNS aimed at professionals. It is the fourth most popular socia
Netherlands, with 3.8 million Dutch users. On LinkedIn, personal profiles t
resume, providing information on someones current or past positions, their
and experience. Users can also recommend other users or endorse their skil
aspect of LinkedIn is that it shows users the connections of their connection
their 2nd
or 3rd
degree networks. Users may ask their connections to introduc
from their 2nd
or 3rd
degree circles. As with other SNSs, LinkedIn is used by
different ways. These include growing their network, joining interest group
introduced to their extended network, keeping track of people they know an
themselves online by means of an online, updated resume. Employers also u
post job listings, find appropriate candidates and to find out more about pro
employees. Research shows that the way people use LinkedIn is related to th
at in their career and the position they take on the job market. Well-establish
and older employees use LinkedIn to grow their network so that they can ke
activities of their connections, or to discuss things with or ask questions to o
through the interest groups. Younger users and people who are entering the
recently entered it, use LinkedIn more as a professional personal website an
and to grow their network by connecting to people they know, or should or
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dimensions that were used include the Interpersonal Attraction Scale and th
Intentional Agents Framework. The Interpersonal Attraction Scale measure
of attraction: social, physical and task attraction. The Brands as Intentional
Framework, of BIAF, measures two dimensions: perceptions of warmth and
BIAF is based on the Stereotype Content Model, but applies the idea on the
between consumers and brands instead of relationships between people. Wh
advantages and disadvantages of each method into account, the BIAF seems
useful model for measuring how smiling in profile pictures influences onlin
images of LinkedIn users.
What is the influence of different ways of smiling in profile pictu
perceived image of users on social network sites?
Earlier academic research has not intensively studied the effect of smiling i
yet. The research that is available suggests that smiling may be a way to inf
peoples impression of us, in a way that we can easily control. Furthermore
position and expression of someones mouth is linked to how others judge
approachability. It is suggested that smiling has positive effects compared t
all. Smiling with visible teeth may also be slightly more positive than smilin
teeth (a closed mouth).
To further study the effect of different ways of smiling, an experimental stu
This research measured the effects of four ways of smiling (not smiling, sm
visible teeth, smiling with visible teeth and laughing) on the warmth and co
dimensions of the BIAF.
The results indicate that the four BIAF questions successfully measure warm
competence dimensions. When comparing the scores of the photos on the B
5.1), photo A (depicting a person not smiling) scores visibly worse than pho
(depicting different ways of smiling). Photo A fallsjust slightly on the quad
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The warmth dimension has a significant score on the ANOVA that was perf
the question measuring how easy the person in the photo could find a job in
respondents. These results indicate that the manipulation of the independent
four photos) were successful in influencing the dependent variables (the BIA
warmth and the job question). However, the BIAF questions on competence
significant outcome, meaning that the four presented photos did not signific
respondents image of the competence level of the person in the photo. This
generalisation for the population of the competence dimension based on the
experiment.
Further results reveal that not smiling has significantly negative effects on t
dimension compared to smiling in any of the three ways tested in this exper
affect was found on respondents judgement of whether the person in the ph
job easily. Smiling with visible teeth performs slightly (but not significantly
smiling without visible teeth, but both have a positive effect on respondents
how easy that person would find a job.
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Conclusion to the main question:
In what ways can different ways of smiling in profile pictures be used to enh
branding to create a desired online image on LinkedIn?
Social Network Sites, and specifically LinkedIn, lend themselves very well
branding purposes. LinkedIns interface also provides functions that can eas
enhance personal branding. In order to enhance personal branding efforts, it
upload a profile picture, as this adds to the distinctiveness of a personal bran
influences profile views. It also helps in providing the right visual cues thatunderstanding of the rules of conduct of the medium, which is important i
management techniques that can be used in personal branding.
Uploading a profile picture is strongly recommended. For the context of Lin
common to choose an otherwise unedited, portrait style photograph, depicti
head and shoulders. Additionally, many users wear formal attire in their pro
Different ways of smiling in profile pictures affect someones perceived lev
dimension of warmth measures someones intentions towards others, such a
sincerity, friendliness and trustworthiness. It is also linked to likability. In a
seems to affect someones perceived approachability as well. These are all p
people may want to highlight for personal branding purposes, and may do sright profile picture.
Displaying a picture in which the person is not smiling has a significantly n
perceived warmth. Smiling (with open or closed mouth) or laughing in your
positiveeffect, helping to create an image of warmth and displaying genera
towards other people.
Smiling without visible teeth also positively affects others perception of ho
would find a job. Smiling withvisible teeth even has a slightly (but not sign
ff d ili i h i ibl h
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5.2 Limitations
The choices made about the strategy and design of this research provide limresults, generalisations and recommendations. First of all, its quantitative re
provides no further insight into motivations for the judgements that respond
how these impressions were created. Secondly, the chosen research method
focuses on the consumers role in what can be seen as a two-way relationsh
and consumers. It does not take the brands role into account. Additionally,
experiment design may have provided more natural and accurate responses
experimental design.
In the current experiment, the chosen independent variables (the four photo
different ways of smiling) failed to significantly influence the dependent va
BIAFs competence dimension. Therefore, the results of the experiment pro
with regard to this dimension, and no generalisations about the population m
on this study with regard to competence. In addition, the assumption of Nor
violated. Although the results chapter argues that this does not harm the out
experiment severely (based on the central limit theorem and on the fact that
considered robust against these violations of normality), the results of the ex
be read with this information in mind.
Only four pictures - of the same person - were used to measure effects of wa
Outcomes may differ if another person or multiple models are used. The cu
not take different effects of elements such as age, sex, or attractiveness of th
candidness of the picture into account.
The last limitations regard the respondents of this study. For practical purpo
homogenous sample groups, the age group for the target group was restricte
old, which means the results may not be indicative for other age groups in th
Additionally the male/female division and level of education of respondent
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5.3 Recommendations
Professionals who want to use their profile picture on LinkedIn to enhance
branding strategies online, are recommended to do the following:
Always upload a profile picture; this will help your profile get more
popularity
Choose a portrait style profile picture of yourself, depicting your he
On a professional networking site as LinkedIn, you want to brand y
professional. Choose a picture of yourself that reflects this (e.g. not
on vacation) or perhaps wear professional attire in your photo.
Always smile in your profile picture! Regardless of whether if you
or open mouth (showing your teeth or not), this will positively affec
image of warmth. It also gives others the idea that you have good in
them and improves your likability and approachability.
If you feel comfortable and authentic in a smile without visible teeth
improve your perceived image of warmth further.
Remember that different (intended or non-intended) audiences may
LinkedIn profile. Choose your pictures wisely and do not post conte
offensive to possible target groups.
Recommendations for further research
This thesis tries to fill a gap in academic research and give practical recomm
effect of online profile pictures on perceived images of people. Off course, t
many more elements within this subject to be further explored. For example
only focuses how different ways of smiling affect the perceived online imag
research may explore the effect of other elements commonly found in profil
whether the subject makes eye contact with the camera or not, how many pe
picture, the background of the picture, how many people are in the picture,
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Additional research among human resource professionals (who are responsi
employees) can provide more insight in how these professionals judge profi
prospective candidates. This can provide useful information about which ph
choice for personal branding purposes.
In addition, the different photos used in the current study were found to hav
relationship with the dimensions of competence that was tested. Further res
explore which other photos or elements may have more of an influence on t
dimension of the Brands as Intentional Agents Framework.
Lastly, the specific age group and number of respondents used in the curren
possibility of making more generalised statements about the rest of the popu
research is needed to make more fundamental statements about whether the
study hold true in regard to larger, more (age) diversified samples, and the r
population.
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Appendices
Reference list
Photos used in the pre-test
SPSS Data and Results
Questionnaire
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