A SHORT HISTORY OF BALI Written history began in Bali in the l0~’ century A.D., so history prior to this time has been pieced together slowly. The primary sources are the items found in archeological digs. Fossils of plants, skeletal remains, and tools are the main finds to date. The earliest skeletal remains date from the Pleistocene era--about 350,000 years ago. These earliest settlers probably came from China via Thailand and Malaysia. The next wave of development came in the Neolithic period when stone tools were used for grinding and cutting. The Bronze Age civilization spread to Bali during the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. The most famous artifact of this time is the bronze kettledrum called Pejeng Sasih, which is housed in the temple Pura Penataran Sasih in the village of Pejeng in the Ubud area. Although much of Balinese culture was brought to Bali from the Hindu kingdoms of Java, there have been many cultural contacts between Bali, China, and India throughout history. Chinese scholars named the island Poli. The residents of Orissa, India, still have a holiday to commemorate their ancestors’ travels to Bali. On this holiday, tiny boats with candles are set afloat in the ocean. / The earliest written records date from 991 A.D. when the Javanese Princess Gunapriyad-harmapatni of Kediri (East Java) married the Balinese king, Udayana. At this time in history, irrigation and wet rice cultivation were organized throughout Bali. Princess Guna-priyadharmapatni brought much of the Javanese court culture with her including a gamelan orchestra, priests, and a troupe of dancers. Her son Erlangga (also spelled Airlangga) returned to rule the larger kingdom of Kediri in Java. It was during his rule that the defeat of the evil witch Calon Arang occurred (see the information on the Barong dance for more details). In his old age Erlangga renounced his kingdom and went to live as a monk in a forest where he studied Hinduism with the guru Mpu Bharada. The Princess’s youngest son, Anak Wungsu, became king of Bali in 1050 A.D. Bali’s independence ended when King Kertanegara of the Javanese Singosari dynasty defeated the Balinese in 1284 A.D. Eight years later the Balinese were able to gain their independence again. Although the Balinese spent over 100 years fighting against the armies of the Javanese Majapahit empire, Bali was conquered in 1343 A.D. The last and greatest battle in this long war was between the unpopular Balinese king, Dalem Bedudu, and the great Majapahit general Gajahmada. According to legend, King Dalem Bedudu practiced black magic and had the head of a pig. He tried to stop the practice of Hinduism and was known as an atheistic king. Although the Balinese were unhappy to be ruled by the Mahapahit kings sent from Java, they were happy at the death of the unpopular King Dalem Bedudu. Continuing through the l5~ century A.D., as the Islamic sultanates developed and defeated the Hindu-Javanese kingdoms, many of the defeated kings and members of their courts moved to Bali and to the Tengger region near Mt. Bromo in East Java to avoid conversion to Islam. A few villages in Bali cut themselves off from this great exodus of Hindu-Javanese culture. These closed villages are called Bali Aga. Each village is differ-

ent in custom and culture from other Bali Aga villages. They are related only in their restnction of contact between village members and people living outside their villages. In Truyan village, the villagers practice animism, leave their dead exposed without burial or cremation, have simple folk dances, do not have gamelan music, and require village members to live as beggars for one year outside the village. In Tenganan Pegrinsingan, the villagers worship the older Hindu Vedic gods--Agni, Vishnu, and Indra; bury their dead naked; have simple processional dances and a gamelan orchestra similar to the one in Tenggar village in East Java. The influence of Hindu-Javanese religion continued when the great Javanese Brahmin priest, Nirantha Wau Rauh, came to Bali in 1409 A.D. According to legend, he traveled throughout Bali and had many wives—so that all the members of the Brahmin caste in Bali today claim to be his descendents. The majority of Balinese accepted the 14th century Hindu-Javanese/Majapahit culture including the caste system, cremation ceremonies for all caste members, the life cycle rituals, the 210 day festival calendar, gamelan orchestra, wayang kulit, and the classical dance called gambuh. The Balinese used the 210 festival calendar for their own holidays. Of the 42 holy days on this calendar, only one is from India—the feast of Saraswati. The most important holy time—Galungan through Kuningan-commemorates the defeat of King Dalem Bedudu and the triumph of the Hindu-Bali religion. More than 40% of the words in the Balinese halus language, which is used in the courts in Bali, originated from the Javanese language while the language used in everyday conversation has little in common with the Javanese language. The Majapahit king originally appointed Sri Kresna Kapakisan of Kediri as the king of Bali. This king then built his court in Gelgel near Gianyar. After a century, this Balinese kingdom expanded to include the island of Lombok. Later, this king moved his court from Gelgel to Klungkung. Bali was eventually divided into eight kingdoms (Tabanan, Jembara, Buleleng, Badung, Gianyar, Karangasem, Klungkung and Negara) with the king of Klungkung as the most important king and chief sponsor of the most important state temple, Besakih. The king of Klungkung also built the Kerta Gosa to administer justice in his kingdom. These Balinese kings did not live peacefully, but continually warred against each other, particularly in the 19th century. Lombok became a penal colony for defeated Balinese kings, a custom continued by the Dutch colonial administration after it seized power in Bali in 1906. Using the issue of repayment for a Dutch ship which was looted in the waters off Sanur, the Dutch invaded the kingdoms of Badung, Tabanan, Karangasem and Klungkung. The Balinese kings met the Dutch army dressed in ritual white, using j~jj~ daggers. This is termed the puputan, a ritual suicide in which the kings, queens, servants and all the children of the court preferred death than life under colonialism. Almost all of them were killed by the Dutch. After this, the Dutch held power in Bali until they were defeated by the Japanese in W.W. H. The Japanese army used Bali as a rest and recreation area for its military officers. During this time, Balinese resistance fighters hid in caves in East Bali and fought against the Japanese. The Balinese were also active in the fight against colonialism and the Ngurah Rai airport is named after one of the greatest Balinese freedom fighters. After the Indonesian government gained independence, its first president was Sukarno, the son of a Java-

nese man and his Balinese wife, Sarinah. President Sukarno himself was fluent in the Balinese language and often came to the presidential palace at Tirta Gangga near Tampaksiring for holidays. Bali has experienced many natural disasters throughout its history. In this century, the volcano at Lake Batur erupted in 1926, destroying the temple built at the foot of the volcano. The temple was rebuIlt in a different location. In 1965, the Balinese were shocked by the eruption of Mt. Gunung Agung which was considered a dormant volcano at the time. (An eruption had occurred in 1350 A.D.) The lava river spared the holiest temples at Besakih but destroyed most of the village, caused 1000 deaths and destruction of much land in East Bali. Many of the displaced villagers (about 20% of the population of Bali at that time) transmigrated to Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi. During the time of the 1965 eruption, the central government in Jakarta had ordered the sacred Hindu ritual of Eka Dasa Rudra to be held, although many of the priest in Bali felt that the date was incorrect. The Eka Dasa Rudra ritual was successfully held in march of 1979 at Besakih temple. Bali has also been rocked by several earthquakes since the time of independence, including an earthquake which measured 6.8 on the Richter scale in 1977. Bali is one of the 27 provinces in Indonesia and is the richest of the 27 provinces on a per capita basis. Denpasar is the capital city.With a population of 3 million people, Bali is an extremely crowded island with tourism as its chief industry and the export of handicraft items as its second industry. The greatest challenge for the people and government of Bali is to develop tourism and create jobs for its people while preserving Bali’s cultural heritage.

BALINESE HiNDuISM FUNDAMENTALS OF BALINESE HINDUISM Over several centuries, this religion evolved in to what is called Balinese Hinduism or Hindu Dharma. As various concepts and ideas arrived from the island of Java, the Balinese religion absorbed elements such as the Mahayanic Buddhism in the 7th century, orthodox Sivaism in the 9th century and eventually Javanese Hinduism of the Majapahit Kingdom in the 14th century. Balinese recognize one supreme creative god, Sanghyang Widhi Wesa, which came from the Hindu trilogy of Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu. Listed below are the seven fundamentals of Hindu philosophy: 1. Brahman - the one God 2. Atman - the imperishable spirit

3. Samsara - reincarnation 4. Karma - action or deed and pala (resulting reward and punishment) 5. Moksa - uniting with God after ending all desires 6. Dharma - order 7. Adharma - disorder, chaos

Balinese Hindus seek to find a balance or equilibrium between the orderly (positive forces) and the disorder (evil or negative forces) in the world. In this religion they believe that it is not mankind’s job to destroy evil, but rather to position one’s self between good and evil. Dharma is considered order and is personified as the gods, while disorder is called adharma and is personified as the earth’s demons. A Balinese Hindu feels that his actions, which is his karma, must be in harmony with his dharma. He can not be selfish and look at the world from the point of view of his own interests. H~ ~ regard for his fellow men, his fellow living ccreatures—and~ hiS feHQW inanirnate~ob~ects. His karma must be related to all of these and to himself. If he is able to do this, he contributes toward order and harmony. If he does not, he contributes toward disorder and chaos, adharma. One must find a state of coexistence between good and evil and devote their lives to maintaining a balance between these opposing forces. In trying to find this balance between good and evil he must deal with human desires by trying to choose a correct action, karma, that is appropriate. The key word is appropriate/ One does not do good deeds as a Hindu, one behaves appropriately. REINCARNATION (SAMSARA) Upon death, one’s spirit, atman, will be reborn into another vehicle, such as an animal, priest, farmer, etc., which will be determined by one’s actions or karma. Balinese believe in cremation of the dead so that the soui will be freed and can live again in the HinduBalinese cycle of reincarnation (samsara). They believe that when they are reincarnated they will be reincarnated to the island of Bali and no where else. They also believe that they will never leave the family, but will always be reborn back into the family in one

form or another. So to Balinese people, Bali is considered a universe where religion and nationality are indivisible. So if a man changes faith, he ceases to be Balinese. And conversely no other person of another nationality who converts to the Hindu-Bali religion will be considered Balinese. The cycle of reincarnation (samsara) will continue time and time again until the spirit is freed from all desire. Only then is the spirit (atman) freed from the cycle of rebirth. At this point the spirit (atman) then unites with God, which is called reaching a state called moksa. The spirit then joins with the unmoved mover of the universe, representing both forces of order and disorder, Ida Sanghyand Widhi Wasa or Brahman. If people lead a life that results in destructive activities producing adharma their deeds will be rewarded with punishment in the now and the hereafter. Rebirth of their spirit will then appear in a lower order of life depending on how bad they were. “Just as a seed is planted, grows, is harvested, dies and is replanted, so ancestors come back to their original village. After a short spell in heaven as ancestors, they return to the same village to be reborn again, just as they have been from the beginning of time. The Bali village is therefore, in a sense, eternal.” ANIMISTIC BELIEFS Balinese Hinduism also includes animistic beliefs. These beliefs have been passed down from generation to generation and have generally formed a set of rules touching every aspect of the individual and his social life. Balinese believe that there is life in all things, including inanimate objects and that this life force will act positively or negatively according to how humans behave. Stones, holes, smoke, tools, trees, rice, and wind all contain spirits which will revenge themselves if neglected or wrongly used. Trees must not be cut down without prayers and permission from the resident spirit. Game must not be hunted, or fish caught, nor rice gathered for food without prayers, offerings or sacrifices. Balinese feel that the spirits should be assured that only essential animals have been killed, necessary fish eaten and fruit picked, that no fragment of what has been taken will be wasted and that every piece, including bones, will be used. If this rule is broken nature will avenge itself. The spirits will be offended and destroy their crops, the game chased away, etc., and they will be punished and starvation will set in. Certain villagers who have full knowledge of this set of rules are in charge of maintaining the link with the spirits or gods. Some groups of animists around the world have mediums, shamans, priests, medicine men or witch doctors. The Balinese use village elders who are responsible for offering sacrifices, performing magic, inducing the spirits to descend to earth, etc. Many elders consult mediums that instruct them on what to do. They might be instructed to carve charms or amulets, to ward off evil spirits which provides additional security. They may also have their boats painted with eyes, their skin tattooed, tools decorated with protective patterns, or clothing woven with repetitive symbols to saturate them with magic.

ANCESTOR WORSHIP Ancestor worship and animism are frequently found together, but are really independent beliefs. Although, in Bali animism and ancestor worship go hand in hand . Ancestor worship is respect and honor for dead members of one’s family or village, whose spirits may have some influence on one’s daily life. Ancestors are not usually considered to be gods, but are considered to be powerful, to have access to the gods and, therefore, need to be made happy. Unhappy ancestral spirits can cause harm to the family and they may even make demands upon the family in the form of bribery. All of these beliefs result in an elaborate system of rituals, temple festivals, dancing, drama, music that entertain the spirits or appease them. This elaborate systems helps to link individual members of the community together and preserve traditional values, passed down from generation to generation. SAKTI (MAGIC ENERGY) Balinese Hinduism religious philosophy embraces the principle that for every good, positive, constructive force, there is a counterbalancing evil, negative, destructive force. The two sides are inseparable and must coexist. An individual therefore, can use one or the other to his own advantage. Every Balinese believes that the body accumulates a magic energy called sakti, that enables him to withstand the attack of evil powers (human or supernatural) that seek constantly to undermine the family’s luck, safety and physical health. The sakti is not evenly divided. Some people are born with a capacity to store a higher charge of magic than others, so they become endowed with supernatural powers. The sakti can be trained to serve at will by the systematic study of the arts of magic and meditation. This magic energy, sakti, can emanate not only from people, but objects. The release of sakti can be either a positive or negative force. Objects like Barong masks or places which are magically dangerous like caves, rivers, and ancient remains can release sakti. An explanation of this Balinese attitude towards personal magic can be found in the principle that obsesses them, the strong and the weak, the clean and unclean. The individual is magically strengthened when in a state of psychic purity which is acquired through the performance of a special cleansing ritual. When an individual is considered unclean or is in a run-down condition this state is called a sebel condition. A sebel condition renders one vulnerable to the attack of evil. A person becomes sebel automatically at the death of a relative, during illness or menstruation, after having children, and so forth. In cases of temple vandalism, incest or the birth or twins of each sex, the entire community becomes polluted and has to be purified by complicated and expensive sacrifices. Not even the deities, Gods, are free from becoming sebel, and like any other woman, Rangda and the death goddess Durga are sehel once every month.

PENGIWA (Black Magic) As discussed earlier, adharma is the disorder and chaos of the world. One avenue in which this adharma is revealed is through a leyak. A leyak can transform his spirit into many different forms, which can only be done at night. In the transformed state the leyaks can cause sickness, crop failures and even deaths. The physical body of the leyak remains behind in bed when the transformed leyak leaves the body, which normally takes place after midnight. The transformed body is seen most often as dancing flames, flitting from grave to grave in cemeteries. They are also seen in the shapes of animals such as pigs, dogs, monkeys or tigers. Leyaks often assume the form of beautiful girls, who make obscene advances to young men on lonely roads. Leyaks are now said to prefer more modern shapes such as cars and bicycles that run in and out of the temples without drivers or riders. There are now even leyak airplanes that fly low over the rooftops after the midnight hour. Leyaks congregate under kepuh trees (always found in cemeteries) or male papaya trees (the one which doesn’t bear fruit). As a consequence these trees are never permitted to grow within the village limits. Some typical stories of encounters with Ieyaks are described below: “One night three men found a chicken, which was apparently lost on the road. They took it home, cleaned it and stuffed it with leaves and spices ready to cook the following day. Next morning they found an unknown dead man in place of the chicken, his stomach and intestines removed and the cavity filled with leaves and spices.” “A tiger once ran into the school of the mountain village of Baturiti, the alarm drum sounded and the tiger was killed. When the villagers started to skin the animal, they found, between the skin and the flesh of the tiger, a palm leaf bag with betel nut, tobacco and pennies that every Balinese carries.” Leyaks cannot be killed with a knife, but if the transformed body dies by other means, the human body back in bed will die without apparent injury or sickness. This vulnerability of the body remaining behind constitutes the main physical danger of being a leyak. Leyaks most often attack members of their own families; the motives are usually jealously, revenge or the desire to gain the money or possessions of the victim. The family members most susceptible to the attack of a leyak is one that is sick or injured. Babies are especially vulnerable before their “three month” birthday, which is 105 days after birth. To help protect the baby, a slice of onion is often placed on the baby’s fontanel to prevent entry by the leyaks who find the smell objectionable. All kinds of talismen, amulets, offerings and magical objects surround the baby to protect him or her from the leyaks. Even after the three month anniversary, the baby wears his diced up umbilical cord in an amulet around his neck as protection. PENENGEN (White Magic) The neutralizing magic used against the pengiwa is a magic used by priests and witch doctors to protect people from leyaks. This magic is transferred into mantras (syllabic ong, ang, mang), charms, and

amulets. Exact examples of these might be such things as a yellow coconut, dadap leaves, onions and salt, flowers, rubbings of gold, rain water that collects in plants, twin bananas and twin coconuts. For these items to become magical a formula will be recited over them by a priest or witch doctor. The amulets are often pictures of monsters and distorted deities, drawn on a piece of new white cloth or a thin piece of silver or copper. It is then either worn at the waist, hung over the house gate or in front of the rice granary. The images drawn may represent the weapons of the gods. BALIANS When stricken by misfortune or illness the Balinese will often consult a special kind of doctor, a balian. Balians are not all healers for they also do a number of other things as well. Each one normally specializes in a particular area. One example of this is when a baby is born a particular balian will be consulted to determine the identity of the spirit that has been born into the body of a new born baby, to help find a lost possession or to determine the best day for an important ceremony or ritual. Specialists also make love potions, set broken bones, deliver babies and provide protective amulets. But whatever the reason for the consultation, spiritualism plays the largest part in the functions of all balians. It is common for a balian to possess some sort of magic substance with which the patient is touched with or is given to eat. Some are in possession of powerful relics, divinely passed on from one generation to the next. The balian’s family might have such magical things as a kris, a piece of cloth, or a statue. The magical energy from these objects is transferred to the patient by suitable prayers and offerings. It is just as likely that the balian will give the patient a recipe that can be made up at home. Many of the ingredients are plant substances that are easy to find in the village markets or in the household garden of medicinal herbs. The leaves, bark, roots or seeds are boiled in water and the resulting mixture is drunk. If it is to be used for external use the ingredients are mashed with a pestle and mortar and smeared on the body.

Balian Masseur

Balinese believe that all diseases, malfunctions, pain, stiffness, sterility, constipation, etc., are all attributed to the improper circulation of life fluids to certain parts of the body. Therefore, some balians practice a form of massage to correct these problems, but they should not be confused with a regular masseur. The balian masseur combines the physical action of massage with mantras and offerings. In doing so they correct the affliction by manipulating and controlling the mystical forces that travel through the body’s tendons, nerves and veins.

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Pal!e 8

BALIAN SPIRITUAL MEDIUMS Balians are also used as spiritual mediums, often to consult with the spirit of dead relatives or to communicate with spirits and deities. Balians communicate with the spirits to possibly determine the cause of sickness and to suggest a cure. The cause of the misfortune is often found to be a curse that was placed on the victim by an enemy because of greed, jealousy or passion. These magical spells are often cast with the aid of something that was once part of the victim like hair or fingernail clippings. A bad curse could also have been imposed on a victim because of neglect in the proper observation of a ceremony or rite. The balian consults with the spirit while in a trance. Much depends on the style of the individual balian, but the client normally holds a question and answer session with the summoned spirit or is advised to call on other spirits or deities for aid and advice. The advice is often a list of offerings that the family has to make and a series of ceremonies they have to perform. Frequently the balian professes no knowledge of the conversation that has taken place after they come out of the trance.

THE FIVE BALINESE RITUALS The purpose of every ritual is to cleanse objects and people. Holy water, fire, and ash are all used in these rites, but purification can also be done by rubbing or touching objects with things symbolizing purity, for instance eggs, geese, ducks, leaves of the dadap tree. Many Balinese rituals-cockfights, tooth filings, cremations, and others-can be organized at any time, by anyone who needs them. There are many more that are held on specific occasions according to the Balinese calendar. In all, there are literally hundreds of rites and festivals that each person will participate in during his/her lifetime, and a great deal of time and expense is devoted to them. The Balinese have five ritual categories:

1. Ritual Exorcism 2. Rites for the Gods 3. Rites for Priests 4. Life Rituals or Rites of Passage 5. Rites of the Dead

Ritual Exorcism The first of these ceremonies are rites carried out to appease evil forces, personified in the form of ogres, witches and demons, ~‘ fr and to cleanse man ~a~ff out by housewives every two weeks to exor- ~,

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Year. Its aim is the purification of the area from the bad influences that have ac- — -. cumulated during the past year. The rite is usually carried out at a crossroads, supervised by a priest. Five sorts of fluids are used: water, arak, palm wine, rice wine, and blood. Blood is thought to be one of the most potent ingredients and in most cases has been taken from a cock which dies during a ritual cockfight. Afterwards, men carry torches through the village while making a huge commotion by beating gongs, bamboo tubes, and so on, to expel the demonic forces. The same is done in every house compound.

More elaborate exorcisms are also undertaken once in five, ten, twenty-five, and one-hundred years. In 1979 and 1989 elaborate rites took place in the temple of Besakih, and in 1980 the greatest ritual of them all—the Eka Dasa Rudra purification of the universe which occurs only once every 100 years—was celebrated in Bali’s “Mother Temple” to mark the transition to the Saka year 1900. Rites for the Gods These rites are ceremonies that are performed to honor the gods. These ceremonies are a community responsibility, taking place during the temple anniversary either once in 210 days of the Balinese wuke year, or once in a lunar-solar year of 365 days. The gods or divine ancestors are then invited to come down to earth and reside in their temples. For at least three days they are honored with offerings, music, dance and hymns. Priests perform rituals and those who support the temple pay their homage. Rites of Priests These rites are ceremonies to ordain priests. To be ordained as a priest a Brahman must first study with a high priest for many years. The ritual of ordination is organized by the family with the help of villagers. During the ritual, the candidate undergoes a symbolic death and cremation. Thereafter, he is “reborn” as a pure man. After his ordination, his guru continues to act as his advisor and it is only after another year of study that he is able to perform as a high priest. Male priests are consecrated together with their wives. This means that the women may take over the priesthood after the death of their husband. Life Rituals I Rites of Passage Every society guides its individuals through the stages of life by commemorating each progression to another level with a special ceremony. We call these rituals “rites of passage” because they mark a person’s passage to a new stage in life (i.e., from baby to toddler to child to teen-ager to husband or wife to parent and grandparent all the way to death—and in Bali, even beyond death). These ceremonies are important because they give individuals a clear understanding of their own role and status in the community. Equally as important, they signal to the community when one of its members is changing status and taking on a new role. Therefore, no one is left in doubt about his/her own or another person’s position and responsibility in society.

What Are the Balinese Rites of Passage and What Is Their Significance? A simple formula helps one to remember the Balinese rites of passage or life rituals: seven plus seven. There are seven ceremonies which the parent must offer for the child and seven which the child performs for the parent at the time of the parent’s death. Since these manusa yadnya, as the life rituals are known in Bali, are not mere ceremonies but are believed to summon up supernatural forces to ensure an individual’s material and spiritual well-being, it is considered a serious breach of responsibility to neglect their performance. The results might range from the relatively insignificant

loss of the business deal in the marketplace to the more serious inability ot one’s soul to return to the gods after death, thereby causing it to wander in the family’s village as a ghost.

The First Seven Life Rituals 1. Birth From birth to death a person is said to be watched over by four brothers or companions (kanda Empat), something like the Christian notion of guardian angels. The Balinese are very careful to honor these four brothers in all the life rituals because they are gifts from the gods and provide the individual protection. Furthermore, if the four brothers are not treated well, they might turn against the person and become forces of evil. These four brothers are rooted in the belief of creation and the Balinese-Hindu pantheon of deities. In the beginning, the creator (Sangiang Adi Suksema) is said first to have created liquid strength, secondly he made fire, then he produced air or breath, and finally he created earth or matter. Over each of these basic elements specific gods were given rule. Wisnu dominates the waters, Brahma presides over fire, the Earth-Mother guards the world, and Iswara or Prana reigns over the air. All these elements that were formed during the creation of the universe are also seen at the birth of an individual (not surprising since the Balinese consider the physical body to be a microcosm of the entire universe). These elements are believed to be representations of the four brothers who, of course, are related to the four deities mentioned above. The spilling of water when the amniotic sack is broken marks the appearance of the first brother, the second brother comes with the blood which burns red like fire, the third brother reveals himself in the umbilical cord, and the fourth and strongest brother makes his entrance with the afterbirth or placenta. Though they make their first appearance at birth, these four brothers travel with the individual throughout life and death and therefore must be treated with special honor. During the delivery of the baby, the helpers of the mother carefully save some of the water and blood that has been spilled during birth, even if only the soil which has been dampened by them. (Yes, traditionally birth is performed outside in the family compound on a raised wooden plank!) The umbilical cord is saved and place in a silver box and hung around the neck of the baby. Since the placenta or afterbirth represents the strongest brother, it must be given careful attention. It is placed in a large coconut shell lined with black sugar palm fiber and protected by the addition of magical black stones and a lontar leaf inscribed with magical symbols. The two halves of the coconut shell are then bound together and buried in the ground in front of the baby’s house. Over this important spot, a shrine is built and offerings of finely cut food like rice, bananas, and soft coconut pulp are placed periodically on the small altar of the shrine to commemorate the event. Of course, on a person’s birthday a special offering is lovingly placed on the altar of the shrine.

2. The Twelve Day Ceremony Twelve days after birth the ceremonial cutting of the navel string occurs. At the same time the child is given a temporaty “baby sitter”—a deity called Dewa Kumara. This deity is ordered by his father to protect the baby until its first tooth appears. Next to the bed a small shrine is hung with flowers and bananas as an offering to the protector. 3. The Forty-second Day Ceremony On the forty-second day after birth a ceremony is held to cleanse the mother who is believed to be impure after giving birth. On this day also the spiritual force which has accompanied the baby since birth leaves and the child is considered to be fully human. (Remember that according to Balinese-Hindu belief, birth does not mark the begin-fling of an individual’s life. He or she has had many previous lives and gone through many cycles of life-death-rebirth. Right before coming to earth again, the individual’s soul has been with the gods. The newborn is, therefore, considered to be partially divine and must live for a time on the earth before becoming fully part of human life.) 4. The Three Month Ritual Three months after the child’s birth another ceremony is held to complete the souls’ coming to this earth. During the celebration, which includes visits and gifts from relatives and an elaborate ceremony presided over by the village priest, the baby is bathed in a basin of water to which flowers, coins, and goldfish have been added as symbols of prosperity. At this time, the child’s official name is announced and he/she may touch the ground for the first time. 5. The First Birthday..Oton After two-hundred and ten days, the baby’s first birthday is celebrated. The hair is cut for the first time and the mother makes an offering in the village temple to announce that her child has arrived in the village. 6. The Coming-of-Age Ceremony The next major ceremony occurs when the child reaches of age of puberty. In the case of a girl, this takes place upon her first menstruation, and of a boy when his voice changes. Usually, this ceremony includes the famous “tooth-filing” ritual. After this event, the person should behave like an adult and be able to control his/her emotions. 7. Marriage Full adulthood begins after marriage, and the person is then treated as a full-fledged member of the community. If the child is the eldest or youngest son, he will replace the father in carrying out specific village duties.

The pitra yadnya are ceremonies for the dead, If the first seven rituals are provided by the parents for the child, the seven ceremonies after death are given by the children to the parents. The correct performance of these death rites ensures the completion of the entire cycle of life and death. The soul returns safely to the home of the gods, joining the other deceased ancestors of the family. Together with the gods, these ancestors are worshipped in special shrines in the house compound. The Balinese hope to communicate regularly with their ancestors, and they derive a sense of well-being from knowing they are protected by them.

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Rites for the Dead A Balinese funeral is a happy occasion since it represents the destruction of the body and hopefully the ultimate release of the soul so that it can be united with the Supreme God. Family members will not be seen crying because it is thought that if you cry, the soul of the deceased will feel badly and then not want to leave this world, but will stay lingering around. By now crying you make it easier for the soul to leave and enter the new life. Balinese believe that when you die you are supposed to leave this world for you have completed this one and it is time to go on and up to the next level. To ensure that the individual will leave this world the child must perform for the parent, at the time of the parent’s death, the last of the seven life rituals. The correct performance of these death rites ensures the completion of the entire cycle of life and death.

After the body’s death, this soul, according to the principles of reincarnation, will find a home in another form. Before this it might go through a kind of hell, neraka, spend some time in heaven, suarga, or even ascend to a state of ultimate oneness with God, moksa.

The soul of someone who dies cannot immediately leave the body. At first, the soul hovers near the body, sometimes as a ghost that can bother the deceased’s family. Only after completing the last seven life rituals, which includes the cremation, can the soul completely detach itself from the body and move on.

It is a common belief that no expense must be spared in this final send off of the soul, as any skimping would be considered extremely disrespectful. And since the soul hovers around the body for a while and then moves on to become a deified ancestor with great power to help or hurt, a cheap funeral is considered a very bad way to start off the new relationship.

Since cremations generally cost a great deal, poor families often hold a simple ceremony of preparation and cleansing, then bury the corpse in the village cemetery with no cremation at all. Eventually, when sufficient funds have been saved, a properly grand cremation will be held. Sometimes a poor family will ask a wealthier family that has scheduled a cremation on a large scale if it can join the ceremony. It is not unknown for dozens, or even hundreds, of bodies to join in the shared glory of a particularly important or rich person’s cremation.

If a priest or a member of the royal family dies, the Balinese believe that the ground is an inappropriate place for the body to be buried. Instead the body is preserved and kept lying in state in a pavilion in the family house compound, an extremely expensive procedure. The family must provide fresh offerings daily with music and other entertainment. Usually a priest and a twenty-four hour guard must be hired. Even a mirror, comb, and toothbrush are laid out near the body for its use until cremation. Even if the cremation is planned right away, the preparations can take so long that this display of the body may go on for weeks or even months.

FINAL CEREMONY 1. Preparations In preparation for the final ceremony, the family must expend much effort and pay much money to ensure a proper cremation. Temporary structures for shrines, shelters, and shade must be built and roofed with coconut leaf mats. Several days may be required to cut the coconut leaves—and with a whole gang of men. Offerings must be made every day because there are so many ceremonies that precede the cremation itself, and the number of the final event itself is staggering. Gaily decorated, colored rice cakes are molded and fried in coconut oil. These are in the shapes of people, boats, flowers, and animals. Ducks and pigs are slaughtered and cooked. High offerings are made by skewering a variety of fruits, eggs, cakes, and meats on a banana stem pole. The offerings provide symbolic pleasure to the deified ancestors and to the spirit that will be shortly released to god. These offerings will hopefully satisfy the hunger of the evil spirits who stand greedily by, ready to interfere in man’s every activity. Most important, however, the offerings will implore god to purify the spirit and return it to earth later in an appropriately higher and purer form. All of this is just the beginning. A staggering amount of work still awaits the conscientious family. Large quantities of holy water must be obtained from sacred springs and temples. A coconut oil lamp is hung on a tall pole outside the family house compound to guide the wandering soul back to its home. Invitations are printed, addressed, and sent to friends and family. Villagers are expected to bring large quantities of rice to help feed workers and guests; but this patrons, in turn, must be given gifts, and special trips are made to their homes by large delegations from the family after the cremation. Usually a kind of life-size doll is made from old Chinese coins tied through their center with white thread. This doll, represents the skeleton, nerves, and muscles of the deceased. The family carries it to the cemetery in the tower and transfers it to the cremation vehicle where it is burned. 2. The Sarcophagus Every reasonably large cremation will have at least one animal-shaped sarcophagus, life— sized or even larger. The sarcophagus of the highest caste male is built in the form of a bull—for the woman, a cow. Other forms are specified for lower castes—a lion, a deer, or a fish-elephant. But always there have to be four feet which symbolize the four spiritual brothers. The animal coffin is cut from a solid tree trunk, hollowed out by hand and built with a removable back section into which the corpse will be put. The figure is covered with paper and then with cloth—black for bulls, yellow for cows, and then covered with a gaudy assortment of colored cotton wool, mirrors, colored paper cutouts, tinsel, and glitter. The animal is then mounted on a platform of bamboo poles so it can be carried by a large group of men.

3. The Tower A cremation tower, called a wadah or bade, is built. The tower represents the Balinese universe with the world-turtle at its base, surrounded by two dragon-snakes who represent the physical needs of mortal man. The turtle and the snake-dragons live in the lower world. Above them in Balinese cosmology is the world of man represented on the cremation tower by leafy forests and mountains. At the very top is the world of heaven, built of successive tiers of little roofs of receding size. These tiers represent the eleven levels of heaven and the world-mountain. Only royal families may put eleven tiers on their towers. The lower castes are allowed nine, down to five or seven for the lowest caste. Between heaven and earth on the tower is a house like structure with four posts, again symbolizing the four brothers. This house like structure has a protruding shelf on which the body is placed for transportation from the house compound to the cemetery. This is done only if the body has not been buried. If it has, an effigy takes it place—it would be improper to put a body that has been in contact with the unclean earth in such an elevated and holy place. The effigy is a fan-shaped object, about forty centimeters high, made of sandalwood, wrapped in cloth, and decorated. On the back of the tower is a big, grotesque mask, the same fanged face that stares down from the main gate of most Balinese temples to scare away the evil spirits. This mask on the tower has huge, outstretched wings, often with a span of several meters. The height of the tower is limited not only by expense, but more commonly, by the height of the electric and telephone lines under which it must pass. A wealthy family may even pay the electric company to remove the wires temporarily if an extra high tower is to be used. 4. The Body If the body to be cremated has been previously buried, it is dug up in the cemetery. Often very little remains—perhaps just a few bones or fragments of bones. These are washed and wrapped in a white cloth, and placed in a temporary shrine in the cemetery.

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5. The Ceremony If the body has been kept in the family compound, it is snatched up and fought over as it is carried up the ramp and bound to the tower on the shelf in the house-like structure, amid much pushing, shoving and laughter. The body or effigy is then covered with a white cloth inscribed with magic letters and symbols. The procession forms, usually led by a person carrying the lamp that has hung in front of the house. The empty sarcophagi are snatched up by the shouting community men and spun and whirled as they are carried in crazy confusion to the cemetery. The idea is to confuse the spirit and make it lose its way so that it cannot return and haunt the family. It is said that unpopular members of the community who have died are treated to more violent handling in their cremation processions. Someone in the family generally rides on the back of the sarcophagus, and he has to hold on for dear life as it is tossed and rocked to and fro, up and down. If the procession passes near the sea, the sarcophagi may even be taken out into the water, amid much horseplay. After the sarcophagus comes a long procession of formally dressed women carrying the many cremation offerings on their heads. If, as is usually the case, there are other, families participating in the cremation who cannot afford more elaborate preparations, effigies of their bodies, but never the recently unburied bodies themselves, are carried in silver bowls in the heads of family members. Next in the procession comes a very long white cloth attached to the tower at one end and stretched far ahead on the heads of a long train of people. Since not all of the family can actually carry the tower, carrying the cloth symbolizes the act. Members of the family may be carried along in the cremation tower, throwing rice on bystanders. If the tower is not too high, it is subjected to the same rough ride to the cemetery. The procession proceeds to the cremation grounds, located near the village temple dedicated to Siwa, the destroyer and recycler of life. It may take an hour or longer, depending upon the distance and the amount of horseplay. Cremation generally takes place in a clearing in the cemetery. Upon arrival the sarcophagi are placed in special pavilions under white sheet roofs symbolizing the sky. Everyone circles the pavilion three times counterclockwise before setting down the various items that have been carried in the procession Those riding in the tower may release two young chickens, symbolizing the soul flying away. Next, family members cut open the backs of the sarcophagi with a special sacred knife. If there is an actual body in the tower it is roughly handed down or carried down the ramp, often fought over to the extent of tearing the bundle apart, and then placed into the appropriate sarcophagus. In the more usual case of previous buried bodies, the sheet-wrapped bones that have been waiting in the cemetery are placed in the sarcophagus, along with the effigy and coin figure that has been carried in the tower. Everything is then covered by the magic cloth. Now the attending priest, senior members of the family, or the high caste patron pour jar after jar of holy water on top of the contents and the empty jars are smashed to the ground. The backs of the sarcophagi are then replaced.

6. The Cremation Fires When all is ready, the fires are ignited. The intense heat forces all to retreat as the great fires consume the mortal remains and the expensive work of so many hours. The tower and all of the other accessory objects are separately burned. Sometimes the corpse falls through the bottom of the sarcophagus and has to be poked back into the main fire. Fortunately for the wife and servants of the deceased, if they are still alive, the practice of suttee, in which the widow and selected servants of the dead man are expected to jump into the fire, is against the law and has not been practiced for some time. When the fires have dies down, attendants douse the ashes with water. Little boys scurry to collect the Chinese coins and family members collect scraps of ash and bone from the bodies. Some of the burned fragments are formed into a body-shaped pile in a special pavilion and are wrapped in a white cloth. Other fragments are placed inside a yellow coconut that is then wrapped and decorated. Meanwhile, the priest has climbed up to an elevated platform and is ringing his bell and chanting magic mantras that will help the release of the soul and aid it on its journey to heaven. By now it is near sunset. The priest chants his final mantras. Family members sit or kneel on the ground to pray, then rise and carry the containers of ashes on their heads in a procession to the sea. The remains may be carried out away from the shore in a small boat in order to prevent their being washed up on the beach, or they may simply be tossed into the water from the shore. Now the five elements of the body have been returned to the macrocosm from which they came, and the spirit has been released to the sea where its impurities will fall as sediment. Its purer essence then will be summoned for the next and final major series of ceremonies which oversee the soul’s return to god. 7. The Nyekah, Final Series of Ceremonies The next set of ceremonies involves no bones or corpse, but is just as important as the cremation. Many of the activities are identical to those of the cremation ceremonies: there is a burning of an effigy, a tower, a procession to the sea or to a stream, and a disposal of ashes. Traditionally, this final ritual takes place twelve days after the cremation and only then has the soul been sent on its way to god. Even now the family cannot relax. Those who helped with the ceremonies must be thanked by special gifts, offerings, and trips to their homes. Expeditions must be sent to various holy temples to thank god for the success of the ceremonies. Most important of all, a whole new series of ceremonies must be conducted in which the now purified spirit is installed in a special shrine in the family temple as a deified ancestor awaiting rebirth. Then, and only then, can everyone who participated in all those months of work rest.

RELIGION AND CULTURE Tooth Filing Taken from Bali: Sekala and Niskala, Chapter 11 Do not confuse tooth filing with some sinister vision of Dracula-like sharpened teeth. In fact, the procedure produces just the opposite: dulling the front teeth to diminish the savage characteristics of their owner. The ceremony is called matatah from the word ‘chisel’ or ‘carve’. Six to eighteen years old is considered the best age for tooth filing-before marriage, but for girls, after the first menstruation. Better late than never though, and it is not unusual for people in their sixties to have their teeth filed. If a person dies before having held the ceremony, the family sometimes has it done to the corpse before burial. It is that necessary. Why is tooth filing so important? As a group, the Balinese look with disgust and fear upon coarse behavior, coarse appearance, and coarse feelings. The Balinese word for coarse is Kasar and is a synonym with ‘bad and evil’. In the Balinese mind everything about animals is coarse-in aspect, behavior, and position (on the ground, the place of the lowest of the low) and Balinese animals, except for the cow, are not loved and coddled. Some, like dogs, are tolerated for their usefulness. Anything resembling animal behavior is frowned upon-even a baby crawling on all fours. Since Balinese Hinduism tends to be highly symbolic, the one characteristic that most represents an uncivilized, uncouth, and coarse nature in an individual is protruding canine teeth. If one wished to be rid of his/her bad behavior, then it is only reasonable that this be done symbolically by filing the canine teeth until all the coarse edges have been smoothed out. Preparations Since tooth filing is so important, no expense is spared to turn the ceremony into an elaborate and festive event. The deified ancestors of the family are invited to attend and lend their support. The house compound is decked out to the limit of the family’s finances. Guests are invited; visitors from out of town are accommodated; musicians hired; offerings made; a high caste tooth filer is invited to supervise the proceedings; and the finest clothing is provided for those who are to participate. The ceremony, in short, is very expensive, and today tooth filing is almost always part of another ceremony like a wedding or a cremation. No Balinese schedules an event as important as a tooth filing without consulting someone to choose an auspicious day. When this has been set, the house compound is gaily decorated, the pavilion which has been built specially for the ceremony is draped with gold cloth, a gong sounds, and boxes of snacks and a bottle of tea are offered to guess as they enter the door. Friends of the family each bring a small present and sign the guest register.

While all this is going on, men read from sacred lontar leaves, an army of community members chop away at enough meat and spices to feed a hundred or more later on. Offerings are everywhere. Guests are greeted by the family in a kind of receiving line. It is a noisy, colorful gathering. The persons who are about to have their teeth filed are dressed in their very finest traditional clothing. Boys are wrapped in a wide piece of gold brocade that reaches from armpits to knees, with sash of yellow tied around the waist and a kris dagger slung across the back. Girls wear their lovely traditional costumes, their upper bodies wrapped tightly in many meters of cloth strips. They are crowned with fragrant flowers and gold leaves are wound in their hair. Both boys and girls may wear makeup. The Tooth Filing Ceremony If a priest presides he summons the group of boys and girls and blesses them with a mantra and holy water. The teeth and the individual are symbolically ‘killed’ during the tooth filing procedure. This is a moment of weakness-when enemies can do harm-and the one getting filed needs all the support he or she can get. Friends and relatives, therefore, stay close by. The priest then ‘kills’ the teeth by tapping with a small hammer a little metal rod -

that he places upon one of the upper teeth. .>

The priest also draws the symbols for -~.

male and female on the right upper ca- ~ ~ nine. This ‘drawing’ is really a symbolic ~— ~

gesture done with a ring. The real --:: -

‘killing’ is done with a mantra. The boys ~ .~ ...

and girls lie on a woven mat on which the symbols for male and female have been inscribed. A helper opens a yellow coco- ~ nut, empties it of its water, and writes upon it a magic symbol. Tools are laid out, mouthwash is made ready, and a -~ ._ 4 large offering is brought close by. The co- - ‘- •..- - -- — I ~. -

conut will act as a spittoon, and a bowl of holy water and a white cloth are set out. -

Each candidate stands at the end of the bed opposite from where the filer will work. They hold out their hands to receive a prayer and waft the essence of the offering toward themselves. The kris worn by the boy must be removed. The candidate then takes off his or her sandals, climbs onto the bed, and receives another mantra and more holy water. He or she then lies down on the bed and is covered with decorated cloths. Parents and close relatives crowd around to put their hands on the boy or girl to ward off evil. The filer then puts a small cylinder of sugarcane in the patient’s mouth, wedged between the teeth, to keep the jaws open. As with most Balinese ceremonies, it is not a solemm moment. The filer may joke with his patient as he works-the equivalent of a dentist

making small talk to divert the attention of the patient. He then takes his small file and with his index finger on the flat of the file, sets to work filing. The only teeth that are modified are two canine teeth in the upper jaw and the four incisors between them. The amount of filing done depends on the wishes of the individual. The gesture is purely symbolic, and can consist of just a few quick strokes. Some people use the opportunity to really have their teeth filed even. If so, the filer proceeds in easy stages, allowing the person to sit up occasionally and view the progress in the mirror. Afterwards When it is over-and it only takes a few minutes-the boys & girls spits the saliva containing the filings into the yellow coconut. If there is any bleeding, the filer rubs betel leaf on the teeth to staunch it, and then he brings the teeth to life once again with a mantra. The much-relieved patient receives a mouthwash of honey, sandalwood powder, lime, turmeric, areca nut, betel leaf, and water. Part is swallowed and part spat into the coconut. Although ceremonies are to follow, he or she must change clothes: it would not be proper to celebrate in the same clothes in which one has died’. The yellow coconut with the filings and saliva must be buried near the most important shrine in the family temple which insures that its power will always be close to the individual.

TEMPLES OF BALL According to legend, Bali was originally flat, a barren island, when Java fell to the Muslims. The disgusted Hindu gods decided to move to Bali, and it became necessary for them to build dwelling-places high enough for their exalted rank, so they created the mountains, one for each of the cardinal points. The highest is Gunung Agung in the east, Batur in the north, the Batukau in the west and since there had to be one for the south the raised tableland Tafelhoek of Bukit Patjatu became the seat of the patron of the south. Gunung Agung, Bali’s highest mountain, is the most sacred to the Balinese people. Gunung Agung is regarded as the Navel of the World, the father of all humanity. This mountain is considered sacred because it is the dwelling place of the Hindu gods. Half way up the mountain is the mother temple for all of Bali, the great Besakih Temple. Besides the mother temple there are temples everywhere in Bali, in ricefieds, cemeteries, markets, caves, beaches, mountain tops, and rocky coastlines. The number is estimated at be arround ten to twenty thousand. Although, there are six temples that are considered the oldest in the religious history of Bali. The six ~ .“ -

oldest temples in the religious history of Bali ~ -

are: - -.

1. Besakih — the state mother temple. - ~‘-~-- -

2 Goa Lelawah — the Bat Cave - p’ ø~-~- ~ 3. Lempuyang — in the Karangasem - - .-

district. ,.. . -ri -

4. Batukau — on the slope of the Barukau -. .. -•~

mountain in the Tabanan district. -. -

5. Uluwatu — the temple at the southern -

tip of the island. -- ~.-:~i

6. Pulaki — the second largest temple in Singaraja district. - - -!

A complete Balinese village should have three temples within the compound. The three temples would be:

Pura Puseh — the temple of origin

Pura Balai — the great council temple

Pura Dalem — the temple of the dead

The Pura Puseh is dedicated to the founder of the original settlement and the worshipped spirits of the ancestors. It is usually located in the northeast section (Kaja) of the village. The Pura Balai is the site where the villagers assemble to worship and hold meetings. It is usually located in the center of the village. The Pura Dalem is located in the southwest (Kelod) corner of the village near the cemetery. According to Balinese belief, the souls of the dead are not immediately purified, but remain for a time in a kind of purgatory.

I A reason for not having the cremation ceremony soon after death and waiting for two years might be because the family cannot afford the ceremony and must save for it. It is hoped that the deceased ancestor understands and is patient. The family must visit this temple to ask the soul of the deceased family member to return home to the family temple. Family members would do this by bringing offerings to the temple to appease the soul and ask for his or her return. A median would possibly be consulted to see if the soul is happy and ready to return to the family temple. Although during this period before cremation, which sometimes can be up to two years, they can be harmful to the family with their evil influences, if they are not happy. These evil influences against the family can be controlled by performing certain rites in the Pura Dalem and giving offerings. A reason for not having the cremation ceremony soon after death and waiting for two years might be because the family can not afford the ceremony and must save for it. It is hoped that the deceased ancestor understands and is patient. Once the souls are completely purified, some time after cremation, the village can then worship these ancestors in Pura Puseh. Balinese temples are normally deserted, being used only at feasts and meetings. The greatest day in any temple is the anniversary of its consecration. This is the day when the gods come to visit the temple and rest in their little shrines. On this the villagers make contact with their deceased ancestors and show respect to the gods as owners of the ground that the village uses. Every villager takes part in the preparations. Women make elaborate decorations from palm fronds and prepare the tall offerings. The ingredients of the offerings are in four main colors: red, white, black and yellow.

BESAKIH TEMPLE This is Bali’s oldest, largest and most impressive temples. It is made up of three temple compounds and is the ‘Mother Temple’ of Bali, and the most important of all the islands religious shrines. Besakih has more than 200 structures. It is the essence of all 20,000 of Bali’s temples, a symbol of religious unity, and the only temple which serves all the Balinese. The architectural structure incorporated and venerates the holy Hindu Trinity. The three main temples are:

Pura Penataran Agung (in the center), dedicated to Shiva Pura Kiduling Kreteg (south, right), dedicated to Brahma Pura Batog Medog (north, left), dedicated to Vishnu

Besakih dates back to the 14th century and was built on a terraced site where prehistoric rites, ceremonies, and feasts once took place. Here, perhaps, the spirit of the great angry mountain which loomed menacingly above the island received pagan sacrifices. Legend has it that King Udayana, who selected the site, had married a princess called Guna Priya Darma Pakmu. She was buried here. Udayana invited a priest to come from East Java to direct the building of the temple. He was Rusi Markendya. He brought along workers from Java, many of whom died of unknown causes while building the temple. He then used the Balinese people as workers. The group of Balinese workers were called the Baryas, and were used to clear the land so that the temple could be built. This method of cooperative working was then continued and proved to be very effective. The temple complex is always busy with ceremonies ~ ‘5of one kind or another. The Balinese are expected to

ç take a special pilgrimage to Besakih periodically. ~ ~ Once every 100 years the Balinese hold the Eka

Desa Rudra a punfication sacnfice in which har ~ — mony and balance in man and nature are restored The last ceremony was held in March of 1963.

I ~ “~. ?. - Midway through the ceremony Gunung Agung be ,t ~1I ~‘ gan to shower the area with smoke and ash which ~ ~developed into a full-scale eruption Since this hap- - ~ ~ pened coincidences are not taken lightly by the Bali ~—~“ N!Ø~.... ‘-nese This eruption was attnbuted to the wrath of the ~gods because the ceremony had been scheduled too . ~ ~early by the priests of Bali, pressed by President Su - ~karno, who wanted to show off the island to a con T~ “( ~vention of travel agents. The lava flowed around the •Basakih Temple, sparing most of it. The ceremony - •f~, -;L(was held again in 1979, the correct year, and an ele -‘phant, a tiger, an eagle, and 77 other aiiimals were sacrificed. No incidents or warnings from the gods

occurred.

PURA GOA LAWAH TEMPLE Pura Goa Lawah is located in Candi Dasa which is approximately 50 kms from Denpasar. This temple is nicknamed after the thousands of bats that hang from the ceiling and walls of the cave. In the 17th century the temple was used as a place of worship by the King of Klungkung and Goa Lawah, and it was also used to test the innocence of people found guilty of breaking the law. During the 17th century there where nine kingdoms in Bali, each having its own autonomous power, but the King of Klungkung was respected and recognized as the highest of all kings. A fight came up in the kingdom of Mengwi over who was legally a descendant of the King of Mengwi. Was it I Gusti Ngurah Made Agung or was it I Gusti Ketut Agung? It was decided that I Gusti Ketut Agung was not truly a descendant, but a fake, so he was delivered to the King of Klungkung to be tried. The King of Klungkung decided that I Gusti Ketut Agung would be ordered to enter Goa Lawah Temple and if he came out alive he would be recognized as a true descendant. The cave at that time, in addition to all the bats, also housed big snakes, and other wild animals. According to history, I Gusti Ketut Agung accepted the sentence, entered the cave and finally came out not at the entrance of the cave, but at the Besakih Temple, the mother temple of Bali. True to the ruling of the King of Klungkung, he was recognized as a member of the King of Mengwi’s family. When he finally became king, he was known as I Gusti Ketut Agung Besakih. The records also stated that as a result of entering the cave and travelling through it, he became deaf. The snakes and other wild animals no longer inhabit the cave, but thousands of bats still remain protected by the government so nobody can disturb them.

ULUWATU TEMPLE Uluwatu is not far from Denpasar, approximately 30 km, to the south at Pecatu, Kuta district, located at the base of the island of Bali. The temple of Uluwatu, also known as “Pura Luwur” is one of the six major temples of Bali, collectively known as the “Pura Sad Khayangan”. The other temples that fall under this same classification are Lempuyang, Goa Lawah, Watukaru, Bukit Pengalengan and Besakih. There are two different opinions regarding the origin of Uluwatu. The first being that the temple was built by Emperor Kuturan during the rule of Marakata in the 9th century. The other opinion states that this temple was built by a Hindu priest, from East Java, who achieved Moksa (liberation) at this site. This priest came to Bali with his family at the time when Dalem Waturenggong was ruling, around 1546 B.C. The second opinion has proven to be the most valued. The idea that the Hindu priest built this temple and that it was the site of a very religious occurrence, the attainment of Moksa, which we know best as liberation, has made this temple one of the six major temples of Bali. Not local people who live in villages around this temple, but Balinese from all over the island come to Uluwatu to worship, maybe in hopes that someday they will also attain Moksa. There are several unique features about Uluwatu which are worth mentioning. One unique feature is its high position, located on a cliff top approximately 70 meters above the sea. Another unique quality is that the temple is facing the east where all the other temples face either south or west. Although, as you ascend the steps to the top of this temple and face the west you will be able to view an extremely beautiful sunset. The temple anniversary at Uluwatu begins on a day known as “Anggara Kasih, Wuku Medangsia”, which lasts for three days. Balinese Hindus from near and far come at this time to pay their respects and pray.

TEMPLE FESTIVAL OR ODALAN This occurs in a temple once every 210 days, which is a single cycle of the main Balinese calendar, the Pawukon. Most Balinese belong to five or six temples: three in the village, the state temple, the agrarian (field) temple, and family temple. So, as you see, festivals take up a major part of Balinese life. As the island belongs to the gods, only through the gods’ goodness are the harvests bountiful. A festival can be described as “a sort of birthday party celebrating the founding of the temple.” Preparations go on for weeks, although the celebration itself only lasts a few days. Carvers repair the temple and create new statues. Women make the palm leaf containers for the offerings, and men erect temporary bamboo constructions to carry priests and the hundreds of offerings to the temple. Once preparations begin, the temple is never left empty for fear that evil spirits might contaminate the site. Men sit up all night, reading the lonar (scriptures written on lontar leaves.) Before the festival, men decorate the exterior with lamaks (brightly colored palm-leaf patchworks), and frame the entrance with penjors, the green bamboo banners. Meanwhile a tukang banten (offerings -. -specialist) directs the women who assem ble the offerings. The final day before the -~

odalan, women wrap platforms in long .

stretches of new cloth painted with golden flowers, while the unmarried women as semble a tower of flowers, the canang re beong. Early on the morning of the festival, the S

kulkul is sounded. Food is prepared for the temple feast, and everyone, including / the statues, is dressed in his or her finest. . . / The pamangku (temple priest) purifies - -.

himself with holy water and then, after ~ I

making offerings in five directions, sanc- ~ ~

tifies the holy water. Chanting mantras, ~, ~-z~ .‘ -

the pemangku invites the gods and de- ~ ‘- - 1 ~,, ~ I - -

mons to come and eat and drink, and cau- :‘~ •~ •~ . 1 tions them not to wreak havoc. -,

The odalan is essentially a family reunion 4 - -: ~ of gods and ancestors, men and demons. ,. - --

All day long, day and night, women enter I

the temple with their offerings. Once the gods have taken their fill of the essence of the food, the physical remains may be taken home to eat. Inside the inner courtyards, women kneel and men sit cross-legged, cleansed and blessed with tirta amerta (holy water), blossoms resting between their fingertips, to pray to the gods.

FESTIVALS OF SIGNIFICANCE

TUMPEK

Tumpek occurs six times in every Pawukon, and each date is separately important.

TUMPEK LANDEP

This is the time to give offerings to weapons of war, particularly the kris. It is unsheathed, sprinkled with holy water, and woven coconut leaves. Also, attentions is given to motorcycles, trucks and cars. Ceremonial cloths are wrapped around the seats. Offering baskets are placed on the dashboard. This ceremony is sometimes called Tumpek Jepang since most of the vehicles come from Japan.

- ‘ ~“-~ - z .-. -: TUMPEK UDUH

-- - .— -S

• .1’ •:—~ Respect is given to trees. They are dressed - and hit with a hammer so as to notify the

trees 4 ,,, I-’ that the offenngs are nearby

-- ~/~---.~ - ‘ •~-i-~—-~. -“~.

- ... - -. - -f... -.1,5~ •-~ -

- 5 — SI ‘ - -‘ - TUMPEK KRULUT - -. - ~ -~ : ~ -, ‘ - -. ~‘ r’ - -~: -- - -r~ -- - I -.‘ - -‘- - -- - j- - / -..~--- -~ - -. /_ ~ .

- ~- / ~- Offenngs are made to musical instruments I - - The instruments are decorated with coconut

- leaf offerings and holy water is sprinkled on • - - ~ them. , .~ :~:i~TTit--

- TUMPEK KANDANG Offenngs are made to domestic animals 1~- ~- -~-- Cows are washed and clothed, and spirals of - :~-~ ? ~ ~—‘~-~ ~ coconut leaves are placed on their horns Pigs — ~ - ~ are decorated by wrapping a white cloth

1—~~- - .- - ~ — :.~- around their belly.

TUMPEK RINGGIT

This is important for the shadow puppets. All the puppets will be taken out of their boxes and blessed. If a baby is born on this date, it is considered unlucky, and will have to have a special ceremony to purify it.

GALUNGAN AND KUNINGAN These two festivals are rolled into one to make a ten-day extravaganza. On these days, schools will close down. The ancestors will descend to their former homes, and the gods will come down to the villages to enjoy earthly delights. Streets are lined with penjors (arcs of freshly cut bamboo with palm-leaf tassles) and people visit each other to celebrate until their ancestors return to heaven. The day immediately following 35 days after this, is a lucky day for marriage. PAWUKON This is called the beginning and end celebration. The last day is important for Saraswati, the goddess of learning, wife of Brahma. Offerings are made to books on this day, but one is not supposed to read. The first four days of Pawukon cycle are special. The climax of these four days is called Pagerwasi, which, is when the battle between good and evil is celebrated. Pagerwasi means ‘iron fence’ and suggests that you should surround yourself with a strong fortification against the forces of evil. ANNIVERSARIES This are the ceremonies to celebrate certain life passages. For example: Ngelubulanin (first ceremony for newborn child at 105 days), Oton (first birthday, at six months, in which the child is allowed to touch the ground for the first time, while covered by a cage or fishing net). NYEPI This is the celebration of the New Year. The Pawukon calendar is approximately 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar system, which is the one most widely used in the world. Nyepi has been declared a national holiday by the Indonesian government since 1983. This year Nyepi is celebrated on the 24th of March. Since no cooking is allowed on Nyepi day, the food for the next day is prepared and there are processions all over Bali to take the gods to the sea for their symbolic bath. The celebration extends over a period of two days: the great purification offering and Nyepi, the day of silence. On the day before, cockfighting is an essential part of this celebration. Also, before sunset the demons are lured by great offerings of every kind of food grown on the island and all of the various utensils. When the demons finish new fire and holy water are given by the priest to the heads of each bandjar, and the poor are allowed to loot the offerings for money and other useful objects, firecrackers explode in every direction, and all the wooden gongs are beaten furiously. The people run all over town in groups, often with their faces and bodies painted, carrying torches on the end of long poles, beating drums, gongs, tin cans or anything that makes a noise, yelling at the top of their lungs, “Get out!” They beat the trees and the ground, to scare away the unsuspecting butos who have assembled to partake of the offerings. The noisy torch parades sweep through town until they are exhausted, long after midnight.

The following day, which is Nyepi, is supposed to be one of absolute stillness, a day when no fire, no sexual intercourse, and no work of any sort is permitted. There is no traffic on the roads and only by special permit and the payment of a heavy fine can the cars of foreigners drive through a town. In most Balinese villages the people, are not even allowed out of their houses, especially in North Bali, where the Nyepi regulations are strict. In Denpasar it is forbidden even to light a cigarette, but people go out visiting as on holiday, quietly.

HiSTORY! RELiGiON KERTHA GOSA Kertha Gosa ( a name literally meaning “the place where the king meets with his ministers to discuss questions of justice”) is located in Klungkung, Bali’s former nominal royal capital. Kertha Gosa is located at the most sacred corner of the entire palace compound, nearest to the holy volcano, Gunung Agung. Therefore, we can be reasonable certain that the pavilion played a prominent role in the life of the raja and the entire palace community. The ceiling of Kertha Gosa is covered with a total of 267 panels of paintings in the traditional wayang style. These paintings are arranged in nine rows, depicting four different sets of narrative material. On the lowest level of the ceiling is a row of small narrative panels with five stories from the Tantri repertory. Above this begins the main feature of Kertha Gosa: the story of Bhima Swaraga, which occupies five rows and reads clockwise, starting at the far northeastern corner of the ceiling. The first two rows of the Bhima Swarga paintings represent Bhima’s exploits in Hell; and the top three rows, his journey to Heaven. Separating these two sets of adventures—that is, between Hell and Heaven —are intervening rows of panels that afford a pause, an “intermission,” in the Bhima Swarga narrative. The panels of the ceilings last three rows, dealing with the Heaven portion of Bhima Swarga, and decrease in number as the ceiling rises and narrows. The narrative sequence culminates in the ceiling’s four largest panels —

situated at the roofs peak — representing Heaven, with a god at each of the four cardinal points. At the very center of the ceiling is a lotus surrounded by four doves, symbolizing good fortune, enlightenment and ultimate salvation. LAW AND JUSTICE A “bad man” does not have a chance in the strict communal Balinese system. Cooperation and good will are vital so if any one fails to be in harmony with this, he becomes a boycotted undesirable person. Moral sanctions carry greater weight than physical punishment. The worst punishment is exile from the village. If a man is expelled, he is for all purposes, “dead”, and cannot be admitted to another village. The ‘idat’ a law sets down what happens for every crime. The most serious cases being those that impair the well-being of the community such as arson, and temple vandalism. Everyone has to report if the alarm sounds to signal a crime. Failure to perform village duties is also serious, along with cutting certain trees, being absent from meetings, and theft of irrigation water. If a man steal rice from his community, it is likely that he will be smeared with paint, and will have to parade through the village. This would shame him, and is believed to be more effective than putting him in prison.

THE COURTS Much is done at the village level before resorting to an outside official tribunal or Kerta. The Balinese prefer the priests not to interfere in village affairs, and the Kertas are the courts of process. Trials took place in a special shed, on a platform. The Kertha Gosa is one of these. It is decorated with weird paintings depicting punishments that await the law-breaker in hell! An example of this would be if you were caught telling a lie you might see a picture with a person’s tongue being cut out! The trial is conducted with dignity and restraint. No one can speak when addressed. The physical reaction of the participants is particularly studied, and since the defendants have to sit and study their possible punishments many signs of nervousness could be observed. Sometimes, the relatives of a guilty party will also suffer the punishment, down to the third generation. That means you might be punished, your grandmother, and her mother. The declaring of the oath or punishment is an extremely elaborate ritual. The guilty one must appear in a temple with his relatives, hear his or her punishment which is written on a palm-leaf, and then watch the leaf being ripped up and put into holy water. The guilty one then drinks the water, after which the pot is smashed to the ground. PUNISHMENT One example of a possible punishment in the next life would be like the one illustrated below. An enraged sow is savagely attacking a man who never married: Putting work above all human and spiritual values he never had time for women, never married and never had children — the most unpardonable sin of all. These kinds of pictures greatly influenced the defendants. After all these punishments, he would then hope to be reborn as a dog, snake or poisonous mushroom. The defendant would also look up and see scenes of what might have been, for at highest levels are the pious sons attended by councils of divinities. The just reward for a good life and only hope for this in a future after life after going through his punishment and becoming purified.

BALINESE CULTURE TEST OPEN BOOK I. Matching ________ 1. dharma A. punishment in the now & hereafter

______ 2. Tumpek Uduh B. disorder personified as earth demon

________ 3. Ong, ang mang C. a bodies magic energy

________ 4. Ritual exorcism D. uniting with God, ending all desires

_________ 5. kerta E. cycle of reincarnation

________ 6. Atman F. state when body is weak & vulnerable

________ 7. Balian G. hair is cut

________ S. pala H. this is order & is personified as the Gods

_________ 9. Nyepi I. A special day for domestic animals

I~5i~Rangda J. a special Balinese doctor

________ 1 1.~odalan K. ones imperishable spirit

_________ 12. adharma L. Balinese New Year

________ 13. samsara M. people who can talk with spirits

_________ 14. sakti N. festival held in respect for trees

________ 15. Sebel condition 0. Queen of leyaks (Black Magic)

________ 16. First Birthday P. A law that sets down punishments for crimes

_________ 17. Mediums Q. Ceremonies to appease evil forces (keep away)

_________ 18. Moksa R. holy syllables recited to become a leyak

________ 19. Kandang S. An outside official tribunal that judges people

________ 20. Idat T. A family reunion of gods, ancestors, men, demons

II. True and False

________ 21. Animists believe in good treatment of animals ________ 22. Pangiwa is the Balinese

word for White Magic

_________ 23. The Balinese recognize one supreme creative God, which came

from the Hindu trilogy of Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu

_________ 24. If there is temple vandalism the entire community becomes polluted and must be purified

________ 25. A leyak can transform his spirit whenever he chooses to do so ________ 26. The only way

to kill a leyak is with a knife

________ 27. Going through the process of becoming a leyak can be extremely

dangerous

________ 28. Men have a better chance of becoming a leyak than women

________ 29. A woman may not take over the priesthood after the death of their husband

_________ 30. The umbilical cord is saved at birth, placed in a silver box and hung around the neck of the baby for protection

________ 31. A mother is considered impure after giving birth and must be cleansed

________ 32. A child’s official name is announced with 24 hours after birth

_________ 33. A Balinese must have their teeth filed before death

________ 34. Anything resembling animal behavior is looked down upon, even a baby crawling on all fours.

_________ 35. After one has had his/her teeth filed their clothes must be immediately

changed because one can not celebrate in clothes which one “dies in”

_________ 36. The Balinese cremation ceremony is a very sad occasion

________ 37. Upon death the soul of a Balinese immediately leaves the body

_________ 38. An ancestor has great power that can either help or hurt the family

_________ 39. The final ceremony of cremation takes place when the ashes are placed in the ocean

________ 40. Music, dance and drama are well developed in Tenganan Village

III. Short Answer or Completion

41. Balinese people believe that one can not be selfish, but must have regard for his fellow men,

his fellow inanimate objects and his fellow living

42. When a person has uncleanliness and is in a run-down condition called sebel condition one is vulnerable to the attack of evil. List two times in life that a person might be vulnerable to the attack of evil.

1.

2. ________________________

43. List two things that a leyak might transform his/her body into

1.

2. __________________ _____________________________________

44. What happens when a leyak dies while his spirit has been transformed? 45. Give two examples of something that is used by priest and witch doctors to protect people

from leyaks.

1.

2. __________________

46. Why are Rites of Passage so important?

47. What form do the four brothers that protect a new baby take at birth?

1.

2.

3. ______________

4. __________________ _____

48. A diety called Dewa Kumara is ordered by the father to protect the new born baby until its

first ____________________ appears.

49. What is the main reason for the tooth filing ceremony? 50. Why are cremations never simple and usually very expensive? 51. In a cremation what two people are treated differently than anyone else when they

die? 1.

2. _____________________________________ ________________________

How are they treated differently? 52. How can you recognize the house of a person that has just been cremated?

53. Why is the tooth filing ceremony called Matatah?

54. Why is the Tower used in the cremation ceremony? 55. Why is it important to try to confuse the spirit on the way to the cremation?

56. Why are two chickens released during the cremation? 57. One part of the cremation is against the law today. What is it?

58. What three major things are used in the cleansing rituals?

1. __________________________

2. ___________________

3. _____________

59. In Balinese rites of passage or life rituals what does seven plus seven mean? 60. Explain this statement: A Bali village is in a sense eternal. 61. List two resposibilities of village elders.

1. __________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________ _____________

62. What was the highlight of your extended study program? Give examples to support your answer. Be sure to write a proper paragraph.

How can one person make a difference?

How can your needs as a tourist and the health of the Balinese culture/physical environment both be sustained?

How do human activity and the Balinese environment shape each other?

What is harmony and how can it be achieved?

What is the Balinese cultural environment?