Module 6: Performance Testing and Exercise Technique

6.1 Performance Testing

Key Point:The quality of a performance test is based on whether a test is valid and, or reliable.

Validity is the degree to which a test or test item measures what it is supposed to measure. This is the most important characteristic of testing.

Reliability is a measure of the degree of consistency or repeatability of a test.

Must Know:Measurement error can arise from the following:

Intrasubject (within subjects) variabilityo This is a lack of consistent performance by the test subject

Lack of interrater (between raters) reliability or agreemento This is the degree to which different raters agree. This is also referred

to as objectivity or interrater agreement. Intrarater (within raters) variability

o This is the lack of consistent scores by a given tester. Failure of the test itself to provide consistent results

Key Point:For a test to be valid, it must emulate the energy requirements and important movements of the sport for which ability is being tested.

Metabolic Energy System Specificity Consider the energy demands (phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative) of the

sport when choosing or designing tests.

Biomechanical Movement Pattern Specificity The more similar the test is to an important movement in the sport, the

better.

Common Question:In which order should a battery of tests be administered?

Sequence of Tests Non-fatiguing tests Agility tests Maximum power and strength tests Sprint tests Local muscular endurance tests Fatiguing anaerobic capacity tests Aerobic capacity tests

If testing is to be split into separate days, aerobic capacity tests should be administered the next day.

Complete descriptions of each test is found in the test preparation text book “The Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, 3rd Edition” on pages 254 to 270.

Non-fatiguing tests include resting heart rate and blood pressure, anthropometry, body composition and flexibility tests.

Anthropometry is the science of measurement applied to the human body. This generally includes measurements of height, weight, and selected body girths. Girth measurements are covered on page 270 of the text and common sites are the chest, right upper arm, right forearm, waist, hips, right thigh and right calf.

Body composition is the relative proportions by weight of fat and lean tissue. It can be measured through underwater weighing, bioelectrical impedance and skinfolds (p. 268). Skinfold equations (table 12.19 on page 288) use different sites based on different populations with the common sites being chest (diagonal fold), thigh (vertical fold), abdomen (vertical fold), triceps (vertical fold), suprailium (diagonal fold), midaxilla (vertical fold), subscapula (diagonal fold) and calf (vertical fold).

Flexibility is the range of motion about a body joint. The most common methods for measuring flexibility are goniometer tests and the sit and reach test (p. 267). The most important aspects of this test is that the feet are placed at the 15 centimeter mark and the knees must be straight during the test (can be held down by the tester). A warm-up should precede the test.

Agility tests assess the ability to stop, start, and change the direction ofthe body or body parts rapidly and in a controlled manner. Tests for agility include the T-Test, Hexagon Test and Pro Agility Test.

The T-Test (p. 264) involves a 10 yard forward sprint from the first cone to the second cone, a 5 yard shuffle to the left to the third cone, a 10 yard shuffle to the right to the fourth cone, a five yard shuffle back to the left to the second cone and a 10 yard back pedal through the first cone. The test subject will travel 40 total yards and is required to touch each cone with the hand.

The Hexagon Test (p. 264-265) involves six strips of 24 inch long tape arranged in a hexagon pattern with 120 degree angles between each strip. The subject will double leg jump from the middle to a side in a clockwise pattern for three total trips around the hexagon.

The Pro Agility Test (p. 265) involves sprinting 5 yards to one line, sprinting 10 yards in the opposite direction to another line and changing directions to sprint 5 yards back through the original line. The subject will travel a total of 20 yards.

Maximum muscular power, or high-speed strength, is related to the ability of muscle tissue to exert high force while contracting at a high speed (also called maximal anaerobic muscular power or anaerobic power). The tests for this test include the Vertical Jump, 1RM Power Clean, Standing Long Jump, and the Stair Sprint Test (Margaria-Kalamen Test).

The Vertical Jump test (p. 256) measures the distance between the subjects standing reach height and jumping reach height. Beginning in a stationary position and jumping without any steps taken perform this jump.

1RM Power Clean (p. 255) is the exercise performed with as much load as possible for one successful repetition. Subjects should warm-up for this test with light loads for 5 to 10 repetitions, take a minute break, add 10-20% to the load and perform another warm-up set with 3 to 5 repetitions, rest for 2 minutes, add another 10-20% to perform a near maximal load for 2 to 3 repetitions, rest 2 to 4 minutes, add 10-20% and attempt a one repetition maximum. If successful, continue to rest for 2 to 4 minutes between sets and add 10 to 20% until a one repetition maximum is discovered. No spotters are used during this test.

Standing Long Jump (p. 255) measures the length a subject can jump horizontally between the toes of the stationary (no steps) starting position and the heels of the landing position.

Stair Sprint Test (Margaria-Kalamen Test) (p. 258) requires a staircase with at least nine steps that are approximately 7 inches high and a 20 foot lead in area before the stairs. The time to sprint from the third to the ninth step, stepping on every third step, is measured and along with measured stair height and body weight is used to determine the power output of the athlete.

Maximum muscular strength, or low-speed strength is related to the force a muscle or muscle group can exert in one maximal effort. Tests that measure this ability include the 1RM Back Squat and 1RM Bench Press.

The 1RM Back Squat (p. 254) follows the same protocol as the 1RM power clean, however, two spotters, one on each side of the bar is used.

The 1RM Bench Press (p. 254) also follows the same protocol as the 1RM power clean, though the load is increased in 5 to 10% increments instead of 10 to 20% increments. One spotter is used over the head of the test subject.

Speed assessments determine movement distance per unit time, typically quantified as the time taken to cover a fixed distance. The most commonly used sprint test is the 40-yard dash (p. 266). Allow a few warm-up attempts before recording a testing sprint.

Local muscular endurance determines the ability of certain muscles or muscle groups to per-form repeated contractions against a submaximal resistance. Examples of local muscle endurance tests include the Partial Curl-Up, Push-Up and YMCA Bench Press Test.

The Partial Curl-Up (p. 260) involves starting in a supine position with the knees at 90 degrees and feet flat on the floor. The athlete slides their hands from the starting piece of tape to one 12 cm away if under 45 years old and 8 cm away if older than 45. This movement will be timed to a metronome set at 40 beats per minute so that the athlete moves from one piece of tape to another in one beat. The maximum number of repetitions is 75.

The Push-Up test (p. 261) records the maximum number of push-ups performed in two minutes. Males will have their feet on the ground while females will have their knees on the ground. Males are to touch the tester’s fist to their chest at the bottom position and females have no set bottom position though a foam roller is suggested.

The YMCA Bench Press Test (p. 262) uses an 80-pound barbell for males and a 35-pound barbell for females and a metronome set at 60 beats per minute to perform 30 repetitions per minute. The test ends when the athlete cannot keep up with the metronome or fails to reach the bottom or top positions.

Anaerobic capacity is the maximal rate of energy production by the combined phosphagen and lactic acid energy systems for moderate-duration activitiesThe anaerobic capacity test suggested by the NSCA is the 300-yard shuttle test (p. 259). Two lines are placed 25 yards apart and the athlete runs to and from these lines six times for a total of 12 lengths. The athlete is given five minutes of rest before another 300-yard shuttle is completed and an average of the two is taken.

Aerobic capacity tests determine the maximum rate at which an athlete can produce energy through oxidation of energy resources (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins). This is usually expressed as a volume of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight per minute (i.e., ml · kg–1 · min–1). Examples of these tests are the 1.5 Mile Run and the 12 Minute Run.

As the name suggests, the 1.5 Mile Run (p. 262) is this distance covered as quickly as possible. The time can then be compared to normative data to estimate aerobic capacity. The 12 Minute Run (p. 262) is the reverse, with maximum distance covered in a certain amount of time. Therefore, a testing location with set distances must be used.

Often data (scores) from testing make use of statistics in order to compare one individual to another. One aspect of statistics is central tendency, which includes the mean (the average of all the scores of a population), the median (the middlemost score when a set of scores for a population is arranged in order of magnitude) and the mode (the score that occurs with the greatest frequency within a population).

Variability statistics can describe how individuals vary within a population. These include the range (the interval from the lowest to the highest score within a population) and the standard deviation (a measure of the variability of a set of scores for a population around the mean, or average).

A common statistic used in fitness testing is normative data, or comparison of scores among a population. This most common of these is the percentile rank, which is the percentage of test takers scoring below an individual. For example if a subject was in the 80th percentile this would indicate that 80% of the population they are being compared to scored worse in the test and 20% scored better.

Common Question:Given a list of scores, which attribute should an individual make the primary training goal.-Pages 275 to 292 in the text gives normative data for all of the described assessments. It is unnecessary to memorized the percentile ranks of every test, but one should have an understanding of what a good score, an average score and a poor score is for each test.-Find the score that the individual did the poorest in terms of normative data and this will be the primary training goal.

6.2 Resistance Training Exercise and Spotting Techniques

Must be able to categorize or classify exercises by:-Body Segment (total body, upper body, lower body)-Joint Involvement (single joint, multi-joint)-Muscle Group (hip, thigh, chest, back, etc.)

Must Know: Pronated Grip

o The palms are down and the knuckles are up; also called the overhand grip.

Supinated Gripo The palms are up and the knuckles are down; also known as the

underhand grip. Neutral Grip

o The knuckles point laterally—as in a handshake. Alternated Grip

o Uses one hand in a pronated grip and the other in a supinated grip. Hook Grip

o similar to the pronated grip except that the thumb is positioned under the index and middle fingers.

The thumb is wrapped around the bar in all of the above grips shown, this positioning is called a closed grip. When the thumb does not wrap around the bar, the grip is called an open or false grip.

Grip width is also a consideration, the common grip is the standard shoulder width grip, with wide grip denoting hands placed further apart and narrow grip closer together.

Common Question:Which grip does a certain exercise use?-Most exercises use the pronated/overhand grip including squats, deadlift, Olympic lifts, bench press, overhead press, etc.-Supinated/underhand grip used in some back and biceps exercises such as chin-ups, biceps curls and some bent-over barbell row variations.-Neutral grip exercises may be given “hammer” nomenclature, such as biceps hammer curl. Not a common grip.-Hook grip only used when grip strength is an issue. This is typically used in Olympic lifts and sometimes with the deadlift.-Common grip width is most widely used and is the choice for almost all major exercises.-Wide grip used for the snatch exercise and its variations, narrow grip typically named in exercise (i.e. Close Grip Bench Press).

Both free-weight and machine exercises require a stable position. The five-point body contact position provides stability for seated or supine exercises

Must Know:Five-point body contact position:

Head is placed firmly on the bench or back pad Shoulders and upper back are placed firmly and evenly on the bench or back

pad Buttocks are placed evenly on the bench or seat Right foot is flat on the floor Left foot is flat on the floor

A full range of motion maximizes the value of an exercise and improves flexibility. Slow, controlled movements make it easier to achieve a complete range of motion, though quick movements are appropriate for power exercises

The sticking point is the most strenuous movement of a repetition, and it occurs soon after the transition from the eccentric phase to the concentric phase. Instruct athletes to exhale through the sticking point and to inhale during the less stressful phase of the repetition.

The valsalva maneuver which involves expiring against a closed glottis, which, when combined with contracting the abdomen and rib cage muscles, creates rigid compartments of fluid in the lower torso and air in the upper torso. This is for

experienced and well-resistance-trained athletes performing structural exercises only. It should never be used for the elderly or those with high blood pressure. This tactic will assist in maintaining proper vertebral alignment and support and helps to establish the “flat-back” and erect upper torso position in many exercises.

Typically an athlete should wear a weight belt when performing exercises that place stress on the lower back and during sets that involve near-maximal or maximal loads. A weight belt is not needed for exercises that do not stress the lower back or for those that do stress the lower back but involve light loads.

Key Point:Weight belts are for the heaviest load sets of structural exercises (squat, deadlift Olympic lifts) only. Never use for warm-up sets or non-structural exercises.

Complete exercise descriptions are found in the test preparation textbook “The Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, 3rd Edition” on pages 333 to 375. Additional exercise technique information is available in the test preparation book “Exercise Technique Manual for Resistance Training, 2nd Edition.” The purpose of this study guide is to shed some light on some common material covered within the test.

A large error that applies to many different exercises is maintaining a neutral spine either through a flat back if bent-over or with the torso upright. In any exercise technique question, always check for this common mistake first.

Bent-Over Row (p. 334) key points: The bar is grasped with a closed, pronated grip that is wider than shoulder

width. Bar is lifted from the floor in the same fashion as the deadlift (see below).

The feet are positioned shoulder-width with knees slightly flexed. Torso is flexed so that it is slightly above parallel to the floor. Flat-back torso position is created.

The bar is pulled to the lower chest or upper abdomen ensuring the body is kept rigid and the torso is not jerked.

Bench Press (p. 342) key points: Lie in a supine position on a bench in the five- point body contact position. Grasp the bar with a closed, pronated grip slightly wider than shoulder-width

apart. Lower the bar to touch the chest at approximately nipple level. Push the bar upward until the elbows are fully extended with the wrists stiff

and the forearms perpendicular to the floor and parallel to each other. Do not arch the back or raise the chest to meet the bar.

Back Squat (p. 350) key points:

Grasp the bar with a closed, pronated grip (actual width depends on the bar position).

Place the bar in a balanced position on the upper back and shoulders in one of two locations: 1. Low bar position—across the posterior deltoids at the middle of the trapezius (using a handgrip wider than shoulder-width) 2. High bar position—above the posterior deltoids at the base of the neck (using a handgrip only slightly wider than shoulder- width)

Lift the elbows up to create a “shelf” for the bar using the upper back and shoulder muscles.

Take one or two steps backward and position the feet shoulder-width apart (or wider), even with each other, with the toes pointed slightly outward.

Maintain a position with the back flat, elbows high, and the chest up and out and allow the hips and knees to slowly flex while keeping the torso-to-floor angle relatively constant. Keep the heels on the floor and the knees aligned over the feet.

Continue flexing the hips and knees until the thighs are parallel to the floor, the trunk begins to round or flex forward, or the heels rise off the floor.

To stand up, extend the hips and knees at the same rate (to keep the torso-to-floor angle constant).

Front Squat (p. 352) key points: Only difference between back and front squat technique is bar position. Place the hands on the bar in one of two arm positions:

1. Parallel arm position –  Grasp the bar with a closed, pronated grip. –  Grip should be slightly wider than shoulder- width. –  Move up to the bar to place it on top of the anterior deltoids and clavicles. –  Fully flex the elbows to position the upper arms parallel to the floor.

2. Crossed-arm position –  Flex the elbows and cross the arms in front of the chest. –  Move up to the bar to place it on top of the anterior deltoids. –  Use an open grip with the hands on top of the bar and the fingers holding it in place. –  Lift the elbows to position the arms parallel to the floor.

Deadlift (p. 359) key points: Stand with the feet flat and placed between hip- and shoulder-width apart

with the toes pointed slightly outward. Squat down with the hips lower than the shoulders, and grasp the bar with a closed, alternated grip slightly wider than shoulder-width and position the bar approximately 1 inch (3 cm) in front of the shins and over the balls of the feet.

Position the body with the –  back flat or slightly arched, –  trapezius relaxed and slightly stretched, –  chest held up and out,

–  head in line with the vertebral column–  heels in contact with the floor, –  shoulders over or slightly in front of the bar, and –  eyes focused straight ahead or slightly upward.

Lift the bar off the floor by extending the hips and knees, keeping the torso-to-floor angle constant; do not let the hips rise before the shoulders. Keep the bar as close to the shins as possible.

As the bar rises just above the knees, move the hips forward to move the thighs against and the knees under the bar until reaching a fully erect torso position.

Push Press (p. 371) key points: Grasp the bar with a closed, pronated grip slightly wider than shoulder-

width. Move up to the bar to place it on top of the anterior deltoids and clavicles. Position the feet shoulder-width apart (or wider) and even with each other

with the toes pointed slightly outward. Flex the hips and knees at a slow to moderate speed to move the bar in a

straight path downward to a depth not to exceed a quarter-squat, the catch position of the power clean, or 10% of the athlete’s height.

Immediately upon reaching the lowest position of the dip, reverse the movement by forcefully and quickly extending the hips and knees and then the elbows to move the bar overhead.

After the hips and knees are fully extended and the bar is overhead from the drive phase, press it up the rest of the way until the elbows are fully extended. In this position the torso is erect, the head is in a neutral position, the feet are flat on the floor, and the bar is slightly behind the head.

The Push Jerk is the same exercise technique except for the catch: After the hips and knees are fully extended and the bar is overhead from the

drive phase, quickly re-flex the hips and knees to approximately a quarter-squat position and simultaneously extend the elbows fully to catch the bar overhead at the same moment as the bar reaches its highest position.

Power Clean (p. 372) key points: This exercise begins in the exact same starting position as the deadlift (see

above) and has four distinct parts of the movement.First Pull This occurs in the exact same way as the deadlift described above until the

bar reaches the knee. Transition (Scoop) As the bar rises just above the knees, thrust the hips forward and slightly re-

flex the knees to move the thighs against and the knees under the bar. Keep the back flat or slightly arched and the elbows fully extended and pointing out to the sides. Second Pull

Forcefully jump upward by quickly extending the hips and knees and plantar-flexing the ankles. Keep the bar as close to the body as possible.

Keep the shoulders over the bar and the elbows extended as long as possible. When the lower body joints reach full extension, rapidly shrug the shoulders

upward with the elbows still fully extended. As the shoulders reach their highest elevation, flex the elbows to begin pulling the body under the bar. Continue to pull with the arms as high and as long as possible. Due to the explosive nature of this phase, the torso is erect or slightly hyperextended, the head is tilted slightly back, and the feet may lose contact with the floor.

Catch After the lower body has fully extended, pull the body under the bar and

rotate the arms around and under the bar. Simultaneously, flex the hips and knees to a quarter-squat position.

Once the arms are under the bar, lift the elbows to position the upper arms parallel to the floor. Rack the bar across the front of the clavicles and anterior deltoids.

After gaining control and balance, stand up by extending the hips and knees to a fully erect position.

Snatch (p. 374) key points: The snatch has the same exercise technique as the power clean except for the

grip and the catch. The grip width is wider than for other exercises; a way to estimate it is to

measure and use one of these distances for spacing the hands: –  Distance from the edge of the clenched fist of one hand to the opposite shoulder when the arm is straight out at the side – Elbow-to-elbow distance when the arms are straight out at the sides

Catch After the lower body has fully extended, pull the body under the bar and

rotate the hands around and under the bar. Simultaneously, flex the hips and knees to a quarter-squat position.

Once the body is under the bar, catch the bar over and slightly behind the head with – fully extended elbows,– a neutral head position, and – flat feet.

After gaining control and balance, stand up by extending the hips and knees to a fully erect position and stabilize the bar overhead.

Common Question:A few questions about Snatch and Power Clean exercise technique are included about every test. Be sure to understand where the bar is located within each of the four parts of the movement and what the body should be doing during each part.

With the exception of power exercises, free weight exercises performed with a bar moving over the head, positioned on the back, racked on the front of the shoulders, or passing over the face typically require one or more spotters.

Ideally, to promote the safety of the lifter, the spotters, and others nearby, overhead exercises and those involving the bar on the back or front shoulders should be performed inside a power rack with the crossbars in place at an appropriate height. Out-of-the-rack exercises (e.g., forward step lunge or step-up) with heavy weights can result in serious injury. These exercises should be executed only by well-trained and skilled athletes and spotted by experienced professionals.

When spotting over-the-face and head barbell exercises, it is important for the spotter to grasp the bar with an alternated grip, usually narrower than the athlete’s grip. Because of the bar’s curved trajectory in some exercises (e.g., lying triceps extension, barbell pullover), the spotter will use an alternated grip to pick up the bar and return it to the floor but a supinated grip to spot the bar. At extreme loads additional spotters can be placed on either end of the barbell either with or without the over-the-face or head spotter.

When spotting over-the-face and head dumbbell exercises, it is important for the spotter to grasp the lifters wrists instead of the elbows. This will promote greater control of the load and prevent the weight from crashing down toward the chest or head if the lifter is unable to control the dumbbells.

When spotting barbell on the back exercises, one spotter can be placed directly behind the lifter and this individual will typically spot the torso of the lifter as opposed to the bar itself. When two spotters are utilized, one spotter will be placed on either side of the barbell and will spot the bar itself. A combination of the one behind and two side spotters can be used if three spotters are needed.

Again, power exercises such as Olympic lifts like the power clean and snatch are never spotted. Attempting to spot a load at high velocity is more likely to injure both the spotter and the lifter. Instead lifters should be taught how to fail safely when performing these exercises. Exercises that pull the bar up from the floor such as the deadlift do not require spotters either.

The number of spotters needed during a given set is determined by load (higher loads require more spotters) and experience and ability of athlete and spotters (less experience should result in a greater number of spotters). Communication between the lifter and spotter is also an important aspect. Lifters should inform the spotter if and when a lift-off is needed, the number of repetitions or duration of the set, and the amount and timing of spotting assistance that may be required.

6.3 Speed and Agility

Speed is defined as the skills and abilities needed to achieve high movement velocities. Agility is the skills and abilities needed to explosively change movement velocities or modes. Speed-endurance is the ability to maintain maximal movement velocities or repeatedly achieve maximal accelerations and velocities. These abilities must be considered against the sport when designing a training program.

Key Point:Running speed is the interaction of stride frequency and stride length. Speed increases during early acceleration are due to increases in stride length, speed increases later in acceleration are due to increases in stride frequency.

Stride frequency tends to vary among individuals and generally seems to be more trainable than stride length. Linear sprinting involves a series of three subtasks—the start and acceleration and maximum velocity. Though the movement mechanics of these subtasks are distinct, both are characterized by two phases: flight and support.

Sprinting Technique Key Points:During the start (p. 465):

Want explosive push-off with both legs (rear leg produces more force but is lifted off earlier, front leg must exert force longer)

Torso angled at approximately 45 degrees As rear foot lifts up and swings forward, the opposite arm swings with elbow

at 90 degree angle toward forehead Typically after the first two strides, the foot will begin to touch down in front

of the body’s center of gravity Forward body lean will progressively decrease to about 5 degrees and

upright sprint position is achieved at around the 20 meter mark

During acceleration (p. 465): Head is in a relaxed, neutral position with eyes focused straight ahead Extended leg and trunk form a “power line” position along the long axis Thigh of the swing leg is perpendicular (with lower leg parallel) to the trunk

During maximum velocity flight (nonsupport) phase (p. 466): Push-off leg folds tightly toward the hip in a relaxed “heeling” motion Flexed leg functions as a pendulum and thrusts forward at maximum speed,

assisting push-off leg power Thigh begins to move down, sweeping the lower leg backward and down

with a “pawing” action Horizontal braking forces and vertical displacement are minimized

During maximum velocity (support) phase (p. 466): “Triple extension” (hip-knee-ankle) is important Shoulders are kept steady and elbows are flexed at 90 degrees

Hands swing forward and up above shoulder height, then down and then backward through the pocket and past the hips

Fundamental Movements Occurring in Maximum Velocity Sprinting (p. 467):Early Flight:

Eccentric hip flexion decelerates backward rotation of thigh Eccentric knee extension decelerates backward rotation of leg/foot

Midflight Concentric hip flexion accelerates thigh forward Eccentric knee extension changes to eccentric knee flexion

Late Flight Concentric hip extension rotates thigh backward in preparation for foot

contact Eccentric knee flexion accelerates leg backward, limiting knee extension;

stops before foot strike (aided by concentric knee flexion to minimize braking at touchdown)

Early Support Continued concentric hip extension minimizes braking effect of foot strike Brief concentric knee flexion followed by eccentric hip extension resists

tendency of hip/ankle extension to hyperextend knee; absorbs landing shock Eccentric plantar flexion helps absorb shock and control forward rotation of

tibia over ankle Late Support

Eccentric hip flexion decelerates backward thigh rotation; rotates trunk in preparation for forward takeoff

Concentric knee extension propels center of gravity forward Concentric plantar flexion aids in propulsion

Must Know:Methods of developing speed and agility

Primary method is the execution of sound movement technique in a specific task. Initially, athletes should perform tasks at submaximal learning speeds to establish proper mechanics. As they progress toward mastery, task performance can approach or exceed full competition speed.

Secondary methods include sprint resistance and sprint assistance. Sprint resistance includes gravity-resisted running (e.g., upgrade or upstairs sprinting) or other means of achieving an overload effect (e.g., harness, parachute, sled, or weighted vest). The objective is to provide resistance without arresting the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving explosive strength and stride length. Sprint assistance includes gravity-assisted running (e.g., down-grade sprinting on a shallow [3-7°] slope), high-speed towing (e.g., harness and stretch cord), or other means of achieving an over-speed effect. The objective is to provide assistance without significantly altering the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving stride rate

Tertiary methods include mobility, strength and speed-endurance. Inadequate ROM for a specific task can result in improper foot placement, longer ground times, and higher braking forces. Identify limitations due to flexibility, and address them in training. Prioritize strength-training tasks by their dynamic correspondence with the target activity. Stretch-shortening actions usually deserve high priority in speed and agility training.

Speed-Endurance can be improved by repeatedly perform speed and agility tasks or performing them for longer durations.

6.4 Plyometrics

Plyometrics is based upon manipulation of the stretch-shortening cycle. This has both a mechanical and a physiological model.

The mechanical model involves the elastic energy in tendons and muscles is increased with a rapid stretch (as in an eccentric muscle action) and then briefly stored. If a concentric muscle action follows immediately, the stored energy is released, contributing to the total force production.

The physiological model states that the muscle spindles are activated during an eccentric contraction. During the amortization phase, or brief isometric contraction between the eccentric and concentric contraction the type Ia afferent nerves synapse with alpha motor neurons, which then transmit signal to the agonist muscle. During the concentric contraction the alpha motor neurons stimulate the agonist.

Must Know:Types of lower body plyometric drills (in order of intensity):

Jumps in place- jumping and landing in the same spot Standing jumps- maximal effort jumps that emphasize vertical or horizontal

component with recovery between repetitions Multiple jumps and hops- repeated movement that can be viewed as a

combination of jumps in place and standing jumps Bounds- include greater horizontal speed than other drills, can include

double-leg, single leg or alternating leg Box drills- increases the intensity of multiple jumps and hops by adding a box Depth jumps- uses gravity and athlete’s weight to increase intensity, drill is

began by stepping off an elevated surface

Common Question:What factors affect the intensity of a plyometric drill?

Points of contact- single leg more intense than double leg Speed- faster drills are more intense Height of drill- drills with greater vertical or horizontal displacement are

more intense Body weight- heavier athletes experience more intensity with plyometrics

Forty-eight to seventy-two hours should be taken between plyometric sessions. Using these typical recovery times, athletes can commonly perform two to four plyometric sessions per week.

The time between sets is determined by a proper work-to-rest ratio (i.e., 1:5 to 1:10) and is specific to the volume and type of drill being performed. Drills should not be thought of as cardiorespiratory conditioning exercises but as power training. Recovery for depth jumps may consist of 5 to 10 seconds of rest between repetitions and 2 to 3 minutes between sets. Furthermore, drills for a given body area should not be performed two days in succession.

For lower body drills, plyometric volume is expressed as contacts per workout (or in distance for bounding drills). For upper body drills, plyometric volume is expressed as the number of throws or catches per workout. Recommended lower body volumes vary for athletes with different levels of experience.

Must Know:Plyometric volume based on training status

Beginner- 80 to 100 ground contacts per session Intermediate- 100 to 120 ground contacts per session Advanced- 120 to 140 ground contacts per session

Before adding any plyometric drill, the strength and conditioning professional must demonstrate proper technique to the athlete. Proper landing technique is essential to prevent injury and improve performance in lower body plyometrics

Key Point:Proper landing technique: involves the shoulders are in line with the knees, which helps to place the center of gravity over the body’s base of support. In the horizontal plane, the knees are over the feet with not valgus (knees collapsing in).

For lower body plyometrics, the athlete’s 1RM squat should be at least 1.5 times his or her body weight. For upper body plyometrics, the bench press 1RM should be at least 1.0 times the body weight for larger athletes (those weighing over 220 pounds, or 100 kg) and at least 1.5 times the body weight for smaller athletes (those weighing less than 220 pounds). An alternative measure of prerequisite upper body strength is the ability to perform five clap push-ups in a row.

For lower body plyometrics, the athlete should be able to perform five repetitions of the squat with 60% body weight in 5 seconds or less. To satisfy the speed requirement for upper body plyometrics, the athlete should be able to perform five repetitions of the bench press with 60% body weight in 5 seconds or less.

An athlete beginning a plyometric training for the first time must stand on one leg for 30 seconds on each leg without falling. An athlete beginning an advanced

plyometric program must maintain a single-leg half squat for 30 seconds on each leg without falling.

Complete descriptions of a variety of plyometric drills are found in the test preparation textbook “The Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, 3rd Edition” on pages 427 to 455. Only a basic understanding of these drills is needed to prepare for the exam, as the required detail of knowledge is much greater for the resistance training exercises.

6.5 Warm-Up and Stretching

A well-designed warm-up can: Increase speed of muscle contraction Increase rate and magnitude of force development and improve reaction

time Improve blood flow and metabolism Increase body temperature Prevent injuries

Warm-up can consist of two parts. The general warm-up is five to ten minutes of low intensity aerobic exercise to increase heart rate, blood flow and body temperature and decrease viscosity of joint fluids. The specific warm-up consists of eight to twelve minutes of dynamic stretching that is followed by faster, more intense sport specific movements.

Stretching can occur during the warm-up, after training or competition and as its own separate session.

Factors affecting Flexibility (Range of Motion Around a Joint): Joint structure (ball and socket joints allow more ROM than hinge joints) Age (lose tissue elasticity and flexibility with age) Sex (females more flexible than males) Elasticity (ability to return to original length after stretching) and plasticity

(tendency to assume a new length after stretching) of connective tissue Muscle bulk (can decrease ROM in extreme cases) Activity level (more active individuals tend to be more flexible, training with

limited ROM can decrease flexibility)

Two important structures within the body that are linked to flexibility are the muscle spindle and the golgi tendon organ (GTO). Muscle spindles run parallel to muscle fibers and monitor changes in muscle length and the rate of change of muscle length. During a rapid stretching movement, a sensory neuron from the muscle spindle innervates a motor neuron in the spine. The motor neuron then causes a muscle action of the previously stretched muscle fibers. This is the stretch reflex. Stimulation of the muscle spindle and the subsequent activation of the stretch

reflex should be avoided during stretching, as motion will be limited by the reflexive muscle action. Because of the very slow movement during static stretching the stretch reflex is not invoked.

The GTO, is a mechanoreceptor located near the musculotendinous junction, is sensitive to increases in muscular tension. When stimulated, the GTO causes a muscle to reflexively relax. Relaxation that occurs in the same muscle that is experiencing increased tension is called autogenic inhibition.

Autogenic inhibition is accomplished via active contraction of a muscle immediately before a passive stretch of that same muscle. Tension built up during the active contraction stimulates the GTO, causing a reflexive relaxation of the muscle during the subsequent passive stretch.

Relaxation that occurs in the muscle opposing the contracting muscle is known as reciprocal inhibition. The stretched muscle can increase in length further by contracting the antagonist muscle. Here the tension in the contracting muscle stimulates the GTO and causes a simultaneous reflexive relaxation of the stretched muscle.

Must KnowTypes of Stretches:

Static stretching- slow constant, mild stretch in which the end position is held for 30 seconds

Ballistic stretching- bouncing movement where the end position is not held (is not commonly recommended especially in a muscle that has experienced an injury)

Dynamic stretching- actively moving a joint through the range of motion required for a sport, also known as a mobility drill

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching- makes use of autogenic and reciprocal inhibition with active and passive stretches, typically requires a partner -PNF stretching has three methods

-Hold-relax method involves a passive stretch for ten seconds, a strong isometric contraction (preventing external movement) of the agonist for six seconds and then another thirty-second passive stretch that should be deeper due to autogenic inhibition-Contract-relax method involves a passive stretch for ten seconds, then the agonist concentrically contracts forcefully against external resistance (provided by the partner) either through the full ROM or held in the same position before a passive, deeper stretch is applied that, again, takes advantage of autogenic inhibition.-Hold-relax with agonist contraction is that same as the hold-relax method for the first two parts but the antagonist of the muscle being stretched contracts as well so that reciprocal inhibition is used in conjunction to autogenic inhibition

Complete descriptions of a variety of stretches are found in the test preparation textbook “The Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, 3rd Edition” on pages 308 to 323. Only a basic understanding of these stretches is needed to prepare for the exam, as the required detail of knowledge is much greater for the resistance training exercises.

Module 6 Practice Questions

1. Which of the following is a tertiary methods for improving speed?

A. technique

B. downgrade running

C. strength training

D. uphill running

2. During the Hang Snatch, when does the bar rise above the shoulders?

A. first pull

B. second pull

C. scoop

D. catch

3. Which of the following tests is a measure of low speed strength?

A. 1RM Power Clean

B. Max Push-Ups

C. Vertical Jump

D. 3 RM Bench Press

4. What would the appropriate maximum volume of lower body plyometrics be for

an intermediate athlete?

A. 50-60

B. 120-140

C. 100-120

D. 80-100

5. Which of the following is NOT a proper description of the grip used in the Bench

Press?

A. closed

B. pronated

C. common

D. hook

6. What is the mean of the following numbers: 4, 8, 10, 3, 11, 6?

A. 7

B. 6

C. 8

D. 10

7. Before beginning a lower body plyometric program, what is the maximum

amount of time that a 200lb individual should be able to squat 120lbs?

A. 3 seconds

B. 5 seconds

C. 7 seconds

D. 9 seconds

8. In a 100 yard dash, Jim is always last through the first 30 meters before catching

up to some of his competitors near the end. What attribute would Sam be wise to try

to improve?

A. stride length

B. stride frequency

C. stride rate

D. running form

9. If a power clean exercise is going to use spotters where should they be placed?

A. one behind

B. one on each side of the athlete

C. on opposite sides of the bar

D. none of the above

10. An athlete’s test results are considered to be not reliable because he performed

the sit and reach test differently the two types that he performed the test. What type

of variability does the above describe?

A. intrasubject

B. intersubject

C. intrarater

D. interrater

11. Which of the following types of stretches makes use of reciprocal inhibition to

increase range of motion?

A. Static stretching

B. Contract-relax stretching

C. Ballistic stretching

D. Hold-relax with agonist contraction stretching

12. Which of the following test sequences of a testing battery of:

1. 40 Yard Dash 2. Vertical Jump

3. Pro Agility 4. 225lb Bench Press (for max reps)

would produce the MOST reliable results?

A. 2, 3, 1, 4

B. 2, 1, 3, 4

C. 3, 2, 1, 4

D. 3, 2, 4, 1

13. Which of the following secondary methods of improving speed and agility

specifically develops stride frequency?

A. technique

B. downgrade running

C. parachute running

D. uphill running

14. Which of the following is a common error when performing the catch phase of

the push jerk exercise?

A. catch the bar with the head in a neutral position

B. after the bar is overhead from the drive phase, press it up with the arms the rest

of the way until the elbows are fully extended

C. catch the bar with the bar slightly behind the head

D. after the bar is overhead from the drive phase, quickly reflex the hips and knees

15. Which of the following should be administered FIRST in a sequence of tests for a

javelin thrower?

A. 1RM squat

B. vertical jump

C. height

D. 300-yard (274-m) shuttle

16. An increase in which of the following will cause a decrease in the concentric

contraction during the stretch-shortening cycle?

A. eccentric contraction force

B. height of a box during a depth jump

C. muscle spindle activation

D. amortization time

17. When spotting the dumbbell fly exercise, the spotter should spot the

A. upper arms

B. elbows

C. wrists

D. dumbbells

18. Which of the following parts of the warm-up includes higher velocity sports-

specific movements?

A. General warm-up

B. Specific warm-up

C. PNF stretching

D. Ballistic stretching

19. Which of the following types of lower body plyometrics would be MOST

appropriate for a group of youth athletes with little previous training experience?

A. jumps in place

B. depth jumps

C. standing jumps

D. multiple hops

20. Which of the following is a test for anaerobic power?

A. 1RM bench press

B. Wingate test

C. 40 Yard Dash

D. T-test

Module 6 Practice Question Answers

1. C (Module 6.3)

2. B (Module 6.2)

3. D (Module 6.1)

4. C (Module 6.4)

5. D (Module 6.2)

6. A (Module 6.1)

7. B (Module 6.4)

8. A (Module 6.3)

9. D (Module 6.2)

10. A (Module 6.1)

11. D (Module 6.5)

12. C (Module 6.1)

13. B (Module 6.3)

14. B (Module 6.2)

15. C (Module 6.1)

16. D (Module 6.4)

17. C (Module 6.2)

18. B (Module 6.5)

19. A (Module 6.4)

20. B (Module 6.1)