baptism eastern orthodox turn in

LINCOLN CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

BAPTISM

EASTERN ORTHODOX

A RESEARCH PAPER

SUBMITTED

TO DR. CONE

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY

BY

TAMMY RAMEY

LINCOLN, ILLINOIS

20 MAY 2014

Ramey 2

Introduction

In an attempt to understand the theological basis and practice of the Eastern Orthodox

view of baptism, this paper looks at the meaning of baptism, what happens during baptism, who

should be baptized, and the proper ritual of baptism. Each area has a focus on a topic of

importance to Orthodox theology and addresses those topics from both the perspectives of the

Eastern Orthodox Church, the Baptist view, and the author’s thoughts. The review of the movie

Les Miserables is a study on how the movie relates the theological concepts of baptism as seen

from an Orthodox perspective.

In the closest of differing theologies, baptism can be exceptionally controversial.

Comparing and contrasting the theological concepts of baptism from the Eastern Orthodox

Church and those built from a Baptist background cannot be much further apart. It is therefore

important to remember moving forward that the New Testament does not clearly define the

proper ritual of baptism; and so what we comprehend of baptism “must be inferred from passing

comments.”1 With this in mind, it is important to have a very basic understanding of the structure

and theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church in order to appreciate the complexities of their

view of baptism.

What Does Baptism Mean?

The symbolism of baptism within the Eastern Orthodox Church is ultimately about

worship. Like the Jewish ceremonies, which are the forbearers of Christian ceremonies, the

symbolism of baptism is “a means of existential identification with the past…, as a means of re-

creating the original event and existentially participating in those events that have accomplished

1 Daniel J. Harrington, “Baptism in Scripture,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 336.

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our salvation.”2 Easter, the day of baptism, is a day of celebration as the Eastern Orthodox

Church welcomes the catechumen into the body and together they worship through the

celebration of the Eucharist.3 In fact, the baptism process is the individual’s first true act of

worship in the church. As the child is inducted into the church and therefore the accessibility to

the sacraments through baptism, he is inducted not only to the body but the worship of that body.

In the understanding and tradition of Baptists, “worship is an encounter with God. It is

dialogue – revelation and response.”4 While baptism is seen as a symbol and the ceremony is

considered a special part of a worship service. The idea of symbolism is slightly different,

meaning that the symbol is an outward sign of what has already been done by and through the

Holy Spirit; and thus the symbolism invites the believer to worship and give thanks for his

salvation. He is not currently participating in the saving work of God but enters “the saving

sphere of God’s gracious activity in the world.”5 However, much like in the Eastern Orthodox

view, the act of baptism is the act of worship. For the individual, it is an act of worship through

“obedience to Christ”6 and as such is an expression of one’s freedom. The baptism is also a point

of communal worship as it is administered “publicly before the congregation, who similarly

confess their own faith as they listen to the watery sermon proclaimed by the baptized”7 and

remember their own public declaration of faith.

2 Donald L. Williams, “Biblical Worship as Re-Presentation of Saving Events,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 87.

3 Lawrence E. Mick, “Baptism in the Early Church,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994), 109.

4 G. Thomas Halbrooks, “A Baptist Theology of Worship,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 2, Twenty Centuries of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994), 293.

5 H. Stephen Shoemaker, “Southern Baptist Convention Churches,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994), 50.

6 Sheila Klopfer, “From Personal Salvation to Personal Baptism: The Shaping Influence of Evangelical Theology on Baptism,” Baptist History and Heritage (Summer/Fall 2010): 70. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

7 ibid, 76.

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What Really Happens?

While baptism is a participation in active worship within the Eastern Orthodox Church,

one of the main actualities that occurs during the act of baptism is the individual’s inclusion into

the church. Pointing to Scriptures such as Colossians 1:13, 1 Peter 2:9, Colossians 2:11-13 and

others, the Eastern Orthodox Church explains that the Apostolic Church saw baptism as a rite

through which a person became a participant and member of the Body of Christ and had access

to the sacraments.8 During this ceremony, the convert renounced sin, confessed faith in Christ,

and become a part of the community of the church.9 Not only does baptism include one in the

physical body of the church, but it is also inclusion into the Kingdom of God. When Paul says

that baptism is like circumcision, he is saying that just as a Jewish boy was known to be a part of

God’s covenant people because of the circumcision, the Christian is known to be a part of the

Kingdom because he has been baptized and declared his unification with Christ.10 Early fathers

and theologians, such as Origen, also point to the truth in their works that baptism “added one to

the church.”11

So it is in the Baptist view. The act of Baptism is the inclusion into the church. Baptists

would point to many of the same Scriptures and would agree that baptism is the declaration of

faith through which the individual becomes a member in the Body of Christ. They would also, at

times, go so far as to say that the individual’s baptism gives them the right to partake in the

Lord’s Supper, especially in cases where the doctrine calls for closed communion. Pastors such

8 Daniel J. Harrington, “Baptism in Scripture,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 335.

9 Geoffrey W. Bromiley, “History of New Testament Worship,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 108.

10 Daniel J. Harrington, “Baptism in Scripture,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 335-336.

11 Everett Ferguson, ““Baptism according to Origen.” EQ 78, no. 2 (2006): 129. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

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as Daniel Merrill, who pastored a large church in Maine in the 1700’s, believed that the one

being baptized “not only… submitted to Christ, but also to the body of Christ – the gathered

Church.”12 It is here that the Western Church might have the ability to see a similar action and

reliance on the Holy Spirit as they submit to each other and strive towards the understanding of

fellowship as understood in Acts 2:42-47. This fellowship does not come lightly and is entered

into through obedience to Christ through baptism and submission to one another striving for

unity within the Body in communion with the Holy Spirit. Yet, having said this, it is only

through faith that one enters into the Kingdom of God.

Who Should Be Baptized?

Although the difference between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Baptist have thus far

been a matter of syntax and what might be called subtle differences in the process of how the

Holy Spirit acts or interacts with the person being baptized and the congregation, the differences

of who should be baptized are far more pronounced. As mentioned above, it is conceded by both

parts that the Scriptures themselves to not give clear guidelines to whether infants, children, or

adult believers can be baptized.13 However, it seems clear that most people being baptized in the

early church were adults. There are those who question whether passages where whole

households, which are said to have been baptized, included infants and children. Yet, the better

argument is that of the comparison to circumcision and covenant. It is Paul who makes this

comparison in Colossians. The covenant of circumcision was made with Abraham and his

descendants. Eight day old boys were not asked if they wished to be circumcised and thus enter

into the Jewish community. Rather, the decision was made for them by their parents who were


13 Daniel C. Lane, “Some Difficulties in Covenant Theology’s View of Baptism as a ‘Seal.’” Bibliotheca Sacra 165 (April-June 2008): 164. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

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already members of that community. Some scholars believe that the New Covenant which the

Church today is a part of works in this same way. It is the parent’s decision to enter their child

into the community of God and responsibility to raise that child into faith leading to confirmation

of the baptism.14

While Eastern Orthodox agrees with this argument, scholars such as Origen point to a

time of confusion and discussion of the practice of baptizing infants. Origen states that Scripture

and the Spirit should lead an individual to a place of faith, desiring repentance and forgiveness

and even writes about the question of how this is accomplished in the mind of an infant. Origen

tries to bring resolve to this question by writing, “Every soul that has been clothed with a human

body has its own ‘stain’.”15 In other words, not to accepting original sin, which had not been

developed yet and which the Eastern Orthodox deny, Origen was saying that because infants

have a human body, there is a need to be washed clean. Although Origen accepts infant baptism,

it would appear that it was still a rare occurrence in his time.16 As noted above, infant baptism

has been the rule since the sixth century. Due to the lack of missions in the Eastern Orthodox

Church, there is little need for adult baptism and infant baptism is still the rule.17

In Baptist thought, it is important to read the Scripture and keep interpretation as to its

meaning simple. It is also true that Scripture is the main authority and should therefore rule over

tradition. Baptists in the time of the Great Awakening believed that infant baptism “was born

14 Ibid, 165 and Daniel J. Harrington, “Baptism in Scripture,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 336-337.


16 Everett Ferguson, ““Baptism according to Origen.” EQ 78, no. 2 (2006): 137-134. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

17 John Wivliet (Commentary), “The Eastern Orthodox Baptismal Liturgy,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994), 154.

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from tradition and a complicated interpretation of the Bible.”18 Both The Philadelphia

Confession and The New Hampshire Confession state that baptism is for believers.19 Baptists

would agree with Origen that a person who is coming to baptism should be led by Scripture and

the Spirit to a place of faith, forgiveness, and repentance. To the Baptist, this excludes infant

baptism as a viable option.

The author is unsure of her stance in this situation. There are many Christians who show

both the fruit of the Spirit20 and love for their neighbor21, both of which are signs of the Spirit and

Christianity, who were baptized as infants. While Paul compares baptism to Jewish circumcision,

he also tells us that it is a matter of the heart.22 This is a concept which is also stated in the Old

Testament as God explains the promises Israel will be blessed with if they obey.23 In no way

should this mean that baptism is not important, but perhaps in our choosing to obey Christ

whether in following our confession of faith with baptism or confirmation, God is circumcising

our hearts and honoring the promise of that baptism. Relationships are unique, and God has

made each of us unique. Is it outside the realm of possibility that God could choose to act

differently than how we think he should? It is still believed, as a general rule, that believer’s

baptism should be the norm.

What is the Correct Process?

The surrounding ritual of the baptismal ceremony is another place in which the Eastern

Orthodox Church and the Baptist Denomination differ. The Chrismation is an anointing which in

the Eastern Orthodox Church “is inseparable from the sacraments of Baptism and Divine


19 ibid, 66-68.20 Galatians 5:22-23.21 John 13:34-35.22 Romans 2:28-29.23 Deuteronomy 30:6.

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Communion.”24 It is inseparable because in Eastern Orthodox thought, it is in the Chrismation

that the one being baptized receives both the Seal of the Holy Spirit and the Holy Spirit himself.

Tertullian explained the connection between baptism and Chrismation as the water purifying and

readying the baptized for the reception of the Holy Spirit. In action, it is the anointing of oil to

several places on the body, “symbolizing that the entire body with the soul is the recipient of this

gift.”25 This sacrament has been existent from the Apostolic Age and was first believed to have

been administered through the laying on of hands. Soon it was administered through the

anointing of Myrrh and/or oil.

Given the connection of the laying on of hands and the anointing with the outpouring of

the Holy Spirit, Chrismation has roots that span much farther back than to just the Apostolic

Church. Rather, those roots can be traced all the way back to the great fathers of Israel:

Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The blessing of the covenant was often transferred to the next

generation through the laying on of hands such as in Genesis 48. A stronger connection is found

in the anointing of priests, prophets, and kings throughout the Old Testament.26 During this

period, “to anoint a person or an object was to bless that person or thing and set it apart for

religious purposes.”27 Another and greater connection is that of the Holy Spirit connected with

these anointings. When Saul, the first king of Israel was anointed, he was endowed with

prophesying and the dwelling of the Holy Spirit on him. As we transfer into the New Testament,

24 George Dion Dragas, “The Seal of the Gift of the Holy Spirit: The Sacrament of Chrismation.” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 56 (January-April 2011): 143. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

25 John Wivliet (Commentary), “The Eastern Orthodox Baptismal Liturgy,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994), 162.

26 George Dion Dragas, “The Seal of the Gift of the Holy Spirit: The Sacrament of Chrismation.” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 56 (January-April 2011): 143-152. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

27 Janice E. Leonard, “Anointing with Oil,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 278.

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the laying on of hands and/or the anointing of oil results in the Holy Spirit indwelling the one

being Chrismated.28

There is no equivalent to Chrismation in Baptist theology. The outpouring of the Holy

Spirit upon the repentant occurs at the time of repentance. Baptism and any laying on of hands

that might occur are merely a visual symbol of what is believed to have already occurred or to be

a dedication and sending out ceremony. For David Benedict, the “laying on of hands was a

common means of completing the initiation into the church.”29 Like with the baptismal rite itself,

the New Testament does not define a set way in which the Holy Spirit is imparted. Rather there

are several passages that describe different processes including the initial imparting on the

Apostles through tongues of fire, laying on of hands, baptism and then laying on of hands, and

the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on a Gentile family after simply accepting the Truth of Jesus

Christ as Lord.30 There is one sure biblical result in connection with the outpouring of the Holy

Spirit which is that it “inevitably results in an outpouring of praise to the Lord on the part of the

one baptized.”31

Les Miserables and the Ideology of Baptism in Action

The plot of Les Miserables focuses on Jean Valjean, a convict who was released four

days prior to the opening of the movie after nineteen years of imprisonment for stealing a piece

of bread. He is an angry and bitter man who after being prodded by an elderly woman, asks for

28 George Dion Dragas, “The Seal of the Gift of the Holy Spirit: The Sacrament of Chrismation.” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 56 (January-April 2011): 148-151 ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

29 Sheila Klopfer, “From Personal Salvation to Personal Baptism: The Shaping Influence of Evangelical Theology on Baptism,” Baptist History and Heritage (Summer/Fall 2010): 72-73. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

30 J. Rodman Williams, “Laying on Hands,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 277.

31 Janice E. Leonard, “Spirit Baptism in the New Testament,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993), 271.

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something to eat from the Bishop. Valjean is stunned when the Bishop cordially invites Valjean

in to have supper at his table. He is further surprised and distrusting when the Bishop offers him

a comfortable bed to sleep in for the night. After dreaming of prison, Valjean awakens and

decides to steal the silverware. The Bishop interrupts him; and being caught in the act, Valjean

knocks him out.

The following day, the police approach the Bishop with Valjean in tow. Though he has

told them he was given the silver, they are suspicious and believe he has stolen it from the

Bishop. Rather than confirm the truth, the Bishop confirms that he did indeed give the silver to

Valjean; and that Valjean, in his rush, forgot the candlesticks which were worth the most money.

Sending him on his way, the Bishop tells Valjean, “Don’t forget! Don’t ever forget, you

promised to become a new man.” In answer to Valjean’s wondering of why, the Bishop says,

“Jean Valjean, my brother, you no longer belong to me. With this silver, I’ve bought your soul.

I’ve ransomed you from fear and hatred. Now I give you back to God.” Throughout the

remainder of the movie, Valjean attempts to shed his previous identity – name and character.

With a new name, he adopts a character which is humble, forgiving, merciful, and in many ways,

Christ like.

Javert, the new prefect of police in the town where Valjean has become Mayor and a

respected business man, is completely engrossed in the letter of the law with no ability to show

mercy or grace to anyone who might break the law, including himself. Eventually, we learn that

Javert is the son of a thief and a prostitute fearing his own nature. He strongly believes that a

man cannot reform and is a slave to his nature – i.e. once a criminal, always a criminal. Javert

lives his life in fear of breaking the law and then in fear of required punishment once it is broken.

He is an honorable man and attempts to accept and even force proper chastisement for his own

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law breaking. At one point, Valjean must order Javert to forgive himself so that Valjean will not

have to dismiss him from the police. Javert with his tight hold on justice and the law lives a life

of annoyance, anger, and judgment.

Throughout the movie, Valjean having received grace in the beginning has shown mercy

and grace to Javert four times sparing either his life or his position and reputation. Confused as to

why Valjean did not kill him, Javert poses the question to Valjean who responds, “I don’t have

the right to kill you.” In his inability to understand, dispense, or receive grace, Javert begins a

short monologue: “I’m going to spare you from a life in prison, Jean Valjean. It’s a pity the rules

don’t allow me to be merciful. I’ve tried to live my life without breaking a single rule. You’re

free.” Having removed the cuffs from Valjean, he places them on his own wrists and falls into

the river committing suicide. Jean Valjean is finally completely free.

There are many images of the symbolism which encompasses the Eastern Orthodox

perspective of baptism in Les Miserables. Jean Valjean will be the catechumen who is prodded to

seek refuge with the Bishop. The Bishop is the triune God. He is God the Father when he

receives the criminal Valjean into his home and loves him unconditionally. He is God the Son in

that he suffered for and forgave Valjean rather than justly having him thrown into jail. The

Bishop is God the Holy Ghost when we makes a way for Valjean to discard his old and take on a

new identity through the gift of the candlesticks. Valjean accepts the grace which has been given

him and fulfills his promise to become a new man. In this new life, he becomes a respected

business man who cares for his workers. He also becomes the mayor of a small town which

flourishes on the economy based on Valjean’s factory. Yet, without warning his old life in the

form of Javert appears and threatens the existence of Valjean’s new identity. Glimpses of the old

man appear as he is rushed and so misses the opportunity to show mercy to Fantine who is also

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simply trying to recover from poor choices in her past. Eventually, Valjean reveals his true

identity to the court which is about to wrongfully imprison a man it thinks is Jean Valjean. In

order to keep his promise and care for Cosset, Valjean again sheds his old identity and becomes a

new man.

Ten years after moving to Paris, Valjean has created a prison for both himself and Cosset

as they never leave the walls of the convent and Cosset has promised to take her vows the

following year. Her dreams of seeing the outside world pull Valjean from his refuge, and he once

again adopts a new identity. Now Valjean is working directly with the poor at the convent,

preparing food for the soup kitchen. He is engaged on a closer level with the mission he was

made for to love and care for those around him. This time it is the love Cosset has for Marius

which threatens to expose the truth of Valjean’s past. Once again the old life of sin and

judgment, represented by Javert, appear to threaten Valjean’s new life. Learning of Cosset’s

identity, Javert attempts to use her to obtain his target of Valjean. Recognizing that Javert is not

truly the concern, Valjean decides to let his enemy go and that saving the life of his daughter’s

love is more important than his escape from Javert, the representation of his old life overtaking

him. When Javert, the representation of the old life, overcomes Valjean, he decides not to hide

from him or to fight him but to accept the reality that the old life has overcome him and

destroyed any chance at a new life. Yet, in this simpler surrender which actually started at the

beginning of the movie, Jean Valjean overcomes his past as he in truth forgives himself. Javert,

who must have justice cannot understand this mercy and thus dies, leaving the Valjean with

freedom and the ability to truly become a new man without the threat of his past haunting him.32

32 Les Miserables, directed by Bille August (1998; Culver City, CA: Columbia Pictures, 2000), DVD.

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In the Eastern Orthodox tradition when a catechumen comes for baptism, he is washed of

all the sin and filth that has come before or that is innate in his being. His sins are forgiven, and

he is given a new identity in Christ. As he communes with and in the church, he grows and

becomes that new man. Yet, his old nature will occasionally rear its head and the baptized person

might try to hide or fight that old nature. But that old man is dead and has no power when we

face it openly and honestly. The law which it attempts to live by has no power over the grace and

mercy of God which has been lavished upon us and which we are to lavish upon others. As we

recognize the powerlessness and death of that old self, we find a new freedom as we enter into a

fullness of our identity in Christ.

Conclusion

An understanding of the highly symbolic nature of Eastern Orthodox theology is the first

step toward understanding their view of baptism. As with everything in the church, the meaning

of baptism is an invitation to worship God and participate in the workings of the Holy Spirit as

he works in the Body of Christ. One of the realities of what happens as a person is baptized is

that the person is included into the church and therefore, into the Body of Christ. In the tradition

of the Eastern Orthodox Church, it is rare for adults to present themselves for baptism, except

from the occasional convert. Rather, the typical baptism is performed on infants. One ceremony

which always accompanies baptism is Chrismation, the gifting of the Seal of the Holy Spirit.

These aspects of Eastern Orthodox baptism are only a small part of the whole process of how a

catechumen becomes a full fledge member of the Church.

In contrast, Baptists have a completely different understanding of baptism. They

understand baptism to be a symbol which calls people to worship. But this symbolism is an

outward sign of what the Spirit has already done and calls for a response of thanksgiving and

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praise. Upon baptism, Baptists enter the fellowship of the local Church. However, entrance to the

Kingdom is dependent upon one’s relationship with God and repentance. Contrary to infant

baptism, Baptists believe that a convert must be able to have and understand a desire for true

repentance; and therefore, Baptists adhere to believer’s baptism. The giving of the Holy Spirit is

not clearly defined, but is believed to indwell the believer upon asking for the forgiveness of

sins, repentance, and submission to Jesus as Lord and Savior.

Bibliography

Bromiley, Geoffrey W. “History of New Testament Worship,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 101-111. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993.

Calivas, Alkiviadis C. “An Orthodox Theology of Worship,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 2, Twenty Centuries of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 284-286. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994.

Dragas, George Dion. “The Seal of the Gift of the Holy Spirit: The Sacrament of Chrismation.” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 56 (January-April 2011): 143-159. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

Ferguson, Everett. “Baptism according to Origen.” EQ 78, no. 2 (2006): 117-135. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

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Goodrick, Edward W. and John R. Kohlenberger III. The Strongest NIV Exhaustive Concordance, NIV. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Halbrooks, G. Thomas. “A Baptist Theology of Worship,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 2, Twenty Centuries of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 292-293. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994.

Harrington, Daniel J. “Baptism in Scripture,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 333-337. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993.

Klopfer, Sheila. “From Personal Salvation to Personal Baptism: The Shaping Influence of Evangelical Theology on Baptism.” Baptist History and Heritage (Summer/Fall 2010): 65-77. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

Lane, Daniel C. “Some Difficulties in Covenant Theology’s View of Baptism as a ‘Seal.’” Bibliotheca Sacra 165 (April-June 2008): 164-177. ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 18, 1014).

Leonard, Janice and Richard. “Symbolism in Biblical Worship,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 38-55. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993.

Leonard, Janice E. “Anointing with Oil,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 278. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993.

Leonard, Janice E. “Spirit Baptism in the New Testament,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 271-272. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993.

Les Miserables. Directed by Bille August. 1998. Culver City, CA: Columbia Pictures, 2000. DVD.

Mick, Lawrence E. “Baptism in the Early Church,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 107-109. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994.

Rogers, Frederick Gregory. “Eastern Orthodox Churches,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 7. The Ministries of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 38-40. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994.

Shoemaker, H. Stephen. “Southern Baptist Convention Churches,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 50-51. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994.

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Stevick, Daniel. “Baptism in the Modern Era,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 114-121. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994.

Williams, Donald L. “Biblical Worship as Re-Presentation of Saving Events,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 83-91. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993.

Williams, J. Rodman. “Laying on Hands,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 1, The Biblical Foundations of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 276-278. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1993.

Witvliet, John (Commentary). “The Eastern Orthodox Baptismal Liturgy,” in The Complete Library of Christian Worship Vol. 6. The Sacred Actions of Christian Worship, edited by Robert E. Webber, 154-163. Nashville, TN: Star Song, 1994.

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