barriers to post-primary education in liberia, annie alcid 2014
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08 Fall
A Case Study: Barriers to Post-Primary Education in Liberia
Institute for Women, Peace and Security
Annie Alcid
2
Georgetown University Institute for Women, Peace and Security Washington, D.C. © 2014
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Executive Summary Conflict has a devastating impact on education, both in terms of the deterioration of the education system and its infrastructure, but also in the physical and psychological suffering of students, teachers, and communities. Liberia, a country that was devastated by fourteen years of civil war continues to struggle to provide inclusive post-‐primary education to Liberia’s youth, especially young women. The majority of focus on the part of donors and academics alike has been on primary education and yet empirical research demonstrates that the expansion of secondary education is more effective in reducing the probability of civil war and promoting long-‐term development. The research and analysis in this report add to the existing literature by exploring the gender-‐specific access barriers to post-‐primary education for young women in Liberia and proposes several community-‐based solutions derived from participatory activities conducted in three counties in Liberia. The primary qualitative research for this brief was conducted in March 2013 and a thorough review of existing literature supplements the field study. The most critical access barriers to post-‐primary education for young women in Liberia are:
1. Financial Constraints and Opportunity Costs 2. Lack of Parental and Community Support 3. Teenage Pregnancy 4. Traditional Practices 5. Sexual and Gender-‐Based Violence in Schools
Proposed solutions to overcoming these barriers:
• Make school free • Increase fertility awareness and access to education and services for reproductive health
• Build and improve support systems for young women and their children
Investing in young women is essential and inseparable from investing in a country’s future.1 There is growing consensus amongst development economists, feminist scholars, and humanitarian practitioners that getting more young women into school helps to stimulate economic growth and improve the prospects of peace and political reform. This is true in Liberia where providing inclusive post-‐primary education, while not straightforward, is integral for Ellen Johnson-‐Sirleaf’s government to fulfill its pledge to provide equitable and free basic education through ninth grade.
1 Herz, B., & Sperling, G. (2004). What Works in Girls’ Education. New York, NY: the Council on Foreign Relations
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Introduction
Importance of Inclusive Post-‐‑Primary Education for Peacebuilding
While there is a growing body of research on the importance of education in post-‐conflict and conflict-‐affected areas, the overwhelming majority of donor and ministry resources have gone toward primary education. Since the push for universal primary education began, there have been substantial gains in school enrollment, including in many conflict-‐affected states. Although the strides toward achieving the goals of the Education for All (EFA) Initiative should be applauded, the lack of attention and resources being devoted to the post-‐primary level is worrisome considering that the expansion of secondary education is even more likely to reduce the probability of civil war than the provision of primary school.2 The negative effects of conflict often persist last long after armed conflict is over, but providing equitable access to
secondary education is instrumental in improving the prospects of peace and reform, the two processes, according to Collier and Chauvet that lift states out of fragility.3 If access to education is inequitable and young women face more extensive and entrenched barriers to post-‐primary education than their male counterparts, the preconditions for reform and peace are not being met. In order to truly implement reform, a country needs a critical mass of reasonably well-‐educated male and female citizens.4 Additionally, it is not just the expansion of education that leads to reform, but access must be equitable between groups to “breed peace.” 5 Studies across numerous countries—from Nepal to Liberia—show that the unequal provision of education creates civil-‐unrest and grievances among excluded groups.6 Education can be an instrument of societal change, but only if it is widespread and inclusive. Furthermore, when a generation or more has been denied access to secondary school, the labor force will be short of workers with more than a primary level education. Modern market economies are driven by innovation, increased productivity and the demand for “knowledge worker[s]”.7 Primary education contributes to the final output of economies, but post-‐primary education affects the adoption
2 Winthrop, R., & Matsui, E. (2013). A New Agenda for Education in Fragile States. Washington, D.C.: Center for Universal Education the Brookings Institution. 3 Chauvet, L., & Collier, P. (2007). Education in Fragile States. Background Paper for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008. 4 Chauvet, L., & Collier, P. (2007). 5 Ostby, G., & Urdal, H. (2011). Education and Conflict: What the Evidence Says. Oslo: Peace Research Institute Oslo. 6 Winthrop, R., & Matsui, E. (2013). 7 Figueredo, V., & Anzalone, S. (2003). Alternative Models for Secondary Education in Developing Countries: Rationale and Realities. Washington, D.C.: American Institutes for Research.
Why Educate Girls? Educating girls and young women pays off substantially. Educating girls and young women will not only boost their income and speed up economic growth, but it also has social benefits such as increased food
security and family well-‐being. Furthermore, more highly educated
women have more agency and say in their households, communities, and countries, thus increasing their direct involvement in
peacebuilding processes and state reconstruction.
(Source: Herz, B., & Sperling, G., 2004)
Peace and Education: How are they related?
Evidence shows that education is an important part of post-‐conflict recovery and peacebuilding (Chauvet & Collier, 2007, p. 7). Education can mitigate the
drivers and the consequences of fragility in several ways. It decreases young people’s vulnerability, promotes non-‐violent values, attitudes, and behaviors, increases confidence in a peaceful future, and increases youth’s subsequent employability (Davies, 2011 p. 29; Chauvet & Collier, 2007, p. 7-‐8).
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and innovation of technology—the drivers of growth in modern market economies.8
Methodology The information presented in this brief is drawn from both primary and secondary research. This research takes its main findings and recommendations from primary field research conducted in Liberia in March 2014. The author conducted 36 in-‐depth interviews with a total of 64 in-‐school and out-‐of-‐school youth and community members in Bong, Monteserrado, and Nimba counties. Additionally, the author visited the Ministry of Education and a dozen non-‐governmental organizations working in post-‐primary education to interview subject matter experts. Secondary sources supplement this field research to better understand the broader country context, policy framework, and academic work on access to post-‐primary education in Liberia. This research focuses on the demand-‐side barriers to post-‐primary access. It seeks to better understand the interconnected and complex barriers to post-‐primary education for Liberian young women from the unique perspective of youth. It proposes community-‐inspired solutions that were discussed during participatory activities in nine urban and rural communities in Liberia.
Liberia Country Context In Liberia, a post-‐conflict country that is still affected by persistent and on-‐going levels of violence, girls still lag behind boys at all levels of education. As Africa’s first female president, President Ellen Johnson-‐Sirleaf made gender equality a national priority, but she admits that governments are not devoting enough resources to the mainstreaming of gender in development.9 Gender is frequently cited as one of the largest barriers to post-‐primary education, yet Liberia’s reconstruction and long-‐term development will be hindered without the inclusive reintegration of girls and young women into the education system. The persistent and negative effects of the war are directly reflected in the lives of Liberia’s youth, particularly young women. Young Liberians who grew up during the war, tens of thousands of whom were forcibly abducted into warring factions and separated from their families, were largely
denied a childhood and still remain vulnerable to poverty, abuse, and exploitation.10 Over 83 percent of the population lives on less than $1.25 a day and 57.5 percent of Liberians live in extreme poverty.11 While the majority of the population continues to live in poverty, women are more likely than men to belong to the poorest wealth quintile.12 Denied an education when they were younger, only 40 percent of female youth compared to 60 percent of male youth are literate (See Figure 1).13
8 Papageorgiou, C. (2003). Distinguishing between the effects of primary and post-‐primary education on economic growth. Review of Development Economics, 7(4), 622-‐635. 9 Johnson-‐Sirleaf, E. (2013). Online Interview. http://www.afdb.org/en/news-‐and-‐events/article/liberian-‐president-‐ellen-‐johnson-‐sirleaf-‐on-‐women-‐and-‐gender-‐11587/ 10 HRW. (2004). How to Fight, How to Kill: Child Soldiers in Liberia. Washington, D.C.: Human Rights Watch. 11 UNDP. (2013). Human Development Reports. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/en/data 12 Peace Building Data. (2010).
40 %
Male Youth Female Youth
Literacy Rates More young women than men were denied the opportunity to become literate during the war
60 %
Figure 1: Literacy Rates
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The children that grew up during the civil war are often referred to as the “uneducated generation.” The Ministry of Education (MoE) and international organizations tried to maintain the education system during the war, but security concerns caused most rural schools to cease operations. According to the MoE, 2,400 schools existed in Liberia before the war, but 80 percent of these were closed during the conflict. In 2002, primary completion was only 21 percent.14 Today, many primary school students are between the ages of 15 and 35 years old. The percentage of overage students is 91.5 percent for primary and 94.5 percent for secondary (See Figure 2). Only 8 percent of secondary school age children are enrolled in school and there are far less girls than boys.15 “Girls still lag behind boys in enrollment, retention, and completion at all levels,” writes the MoE in its Education Sector Plan.16 The barriers to post-‐primary education for young women are often rooted in the widespread gender-‐based violence that has persisted since the war.17
Top Access Barriers to Post-‐‑Primary Education for Girls Financial Constraints and Opportunity Costs: A 2012 Plan International survey found that “58 percent of parents in Liberia said school costs were the main reason for not enrolling their children.” During the in depth interviews, youth and parents consistently cited economic constraints both the inability to pay for school and opportunity cost, as the top barrier to post-‐primary education in Liberia (See Map 1 Below).18 Experts and educators in Liberia agree that the significant costs associated with registration, uniforms, textbooks, supplies, and exams pose a serious economic challenge for most Liberian families.19 In 2006, it was estimated that households spend up to 24 percent of their household spending on education.20 The cost of school is a barrier to post-‐primary school for both boys and girls, but compounded with the barriers specific to young women, the financial constraints are often greater for young women who are balancing economic obligations and caregiving responsibilities. A 19-‐year old woman who works in the Rally Time Market in Monrovia spoke about the difficulties of raising her young child alone. She dropped out of the 11th grade and wants to go back to finish secondary school, but cannot
http://www.peacebuildingdata.org/liberia/results/socio-‐economic-‐characteristics 13 UNICEF. (2012). At a glance: Liberia Statistics. 14 INEE. (2012). Liberia. Retrieved from http://www.ineesite.org/uploads/files/resources/LIBERIA.pdf 15 Ministry of Education. (2013). Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.lr/ 16 Ministry of Education. (2010). Education Sector Plan. 17 Dunne, S. (2011). From Incidence to Conviction—The Road to Justice. Concern Worldwide Liberia; A. Mendin, personal communication, March 6, 2014 18 Personal Communication, March 2014 19 E. Giddins, personal communication, March 14, 2014; D. Clarke, Education Development Center, personal communication, March 13, 2014 20 USAID. (2013). Equip1 Liberia Girls’ Opportunities to Access Learning (GOAL) Endline Research Findings. Washington, D.C.: American Institutes for Research. Print.
19.2 %
Male Youth Female Youth
Secondary School Gross Enrollment Rate Over 94% of secondary students are overage,
but even accounting for non-traditional age students the GER remains low
24.5 %
Figure 2: Gross Enrollment Rate
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afford it. “Now,” she says, “I focus on my child and putting him in school. It is very difficult without role models or support.”21
Map 1: Top Access Barrier for Girls in Liberia
Lack of Parental and Community Support: Most students’ parents must work long hours and have little time or energy to engage with their children. This has resulted in a breakdown of the parent-‐child relationship in many families in Liberia.22 A lack of parental and community support and involvement was perceived to be one of the most critical barriers to education in Liberia. Youth expressed a need for an increase in parental involvement and support. In addition, because many youth have lacked healthy parenting role models, they have missed out not just on education, but on learning how to be effective parents themselves.23 They are raising the next generation of Liberians and need the proper skills and self-‐confidence to be able to raise a healthier and more well-‐educated group of children.
21 Personal communication, March 6, 2014 22 J.G. Johnson, personal communication, March 13, 2014 23 W. Wheaton, personal communication, March 28, 2014; M. Ndote, personal communication, March 28, 2014
Lofa
Nimba
Sinoe
Bong
Gbarpolu
Grand Gedeh
Grand Bassa
River Ghee
Rivercess
BomiMargibi
Grand Kru
Grand CapeMount
Maryland
Montserrado
Esri, HERE, DeLorme, MapmyIndia, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS user community
Top Barrier to Post-Primary
Economic
Culture of Survival
Lack of Parental Support
Pregnancy
Sande Society
Poverty by County (2009)Percentage in Poverty
0.65
0.65 - 0.72
0.72 - 0.76
0.76 - 0.82
±
0 40 8020 Miles
Coordinate System: GCS WGS 1984Datum: WGS 1984Map Created by Annie Alcid 2014Data Source: Annie Alcid's qualitative research, March 2014
Top Barrier to Post-Primary Education for Girls in Liberia
Monrovia
Salala
Gbondoi
GbarngaSaniquellie
Karnplay
Data Source: Author’s personal research
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Teenage Pregnancy: Liberia has one of West Africa’s highest teenage pregnancy rates: 31 percent of teenage girls (15 to 19 years) are mothers and many of these women are single parents. 24 According to USAID spokesperson Nena Terrell, “Teenage pregnancy is a silent crisis here in Liberia. People are not worried enough about it.”25 The principal of Gboveh High School in Gbarnga, Bong County mentioned that many pregnancies are a result of students being far away from their families and not receiving adequate support and guidance. When girls are pregnant, they are automatically kicked out of school and many don’t return. Teenage pregnancy was cited as one of the top barriers by about half of youth and community members interviewed. Traditionally, young mothers would be supported by extended families, but due to the high rate of families being separated during and after the war, many young women have been left to fend for themselves.26
Local Customs and Traditional Practices: Traditional practices, associated with the Sande society are detrimental to girls’ progress in the formal education system. Although the Ministry of Gender and Development banned Sande schools in January 2012, there are reports that girls are still being initiated into the secret society.27 Two out of three teenage girls—sometimes younger—are pulled out of school and taken into the bush for up to several months for traditional initiation ceremonies and training that include female genital mutilation (FGM).28 When the girls emerge from the bush, they are deemed marriageable and often do not return to school.29 Although the Sande Society is such a taboo topic, during the author’s interviews, all of the youth in Bong County openly cited the Sande initiation as the top barrier to post-‐primary school for girls.30 Sexual and Gender-‐Based Violence in Schools: Spiraling
levels of sexual and gender-‐based violence (SGBV) during and after conflict have clear implications for gender relations within Liberia’s education system. The psychosocial effects and health issues, including pregnancy and physical trauma from sexual violence, can have a direct impact on young women’s school enrollment and attendance.
24 Ibid. 25 IRIN. (2009). Liberia: Acute malnutrition a “social problem”. Retrieved from http://www.irinnews.org/report/87104/liberia-‐acute-‐malnutrition-‐a-‐social-‐problem 26 Ibid. 27 Look, A. (2014). FGM Persists in Liberia Despite Dangers. Voice of America News. Retrieved from http://www.voanews.com/content/fgm-‐persists-‐liberia-‐despite-‐dangers/1845568.html 28 Allen, B. (2012). Female circumcision temporarily stopped in Liberia. Public Radio International’s the World. Retrieved from http://www.pri.org/stories/2012-‐03-‐29/female-‐circumcision-‐temporarily-‐stopped-‐liberia 29 Azango, Mae. (2012). The Cost for Girls: “Why I Welcome Leaders’ Decisions”. Pulitzer Center. Retrieved from http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/liberia-‐sande-‐secret-‐society-‐government-‐shutdown-‐female-‐circumcision-‐mae-‐azango 30 personal communication, March 11, 2014
Teenage Pregnancy Satta and Hannah are 25 and 19 years old, respectively, and are both in the
12th grade. They are the top students in their class in Saniquellie Central High
School. Out of 14 girls in their class, they are the only female students without any children. They explain that
pregnancy and economic constraints are the biggest barriers to access in their high school. Satta and Hannah propose
family planning and further reproductive health counseling for girls in their community as a solution to
teenage pregnancy. (Source: Personal Communication, Nimba County, March 8, 2014)
GBV in Schools Alishea is 25 years old and is in 11th grade. She is from a small village in Nimba County and has come into Saniquellie to sell cassava at the weekly market. She explains that if boys assault a girl in school, they can report it to the teachers, but if the perpetrator is a teacher, then they can do nothing. At her high school she knows of one student who was impregnated by a teacher. “If a girl
refuses a teacher, he will insult them in class and fail them if they cry,” Comfort says.
“They don’t listen to us. They don’t listen to our views. I can’t learn because I am always
afraid in class.” (Source: Personal Communication, Nimba County, March 8, 2014)
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For young women who want to continue their education, many are forced to resort to selling their bodies for grades and entrance fees. Save the Children reported in 2005 that 60 to 80 percent of teenage girls in Monrovia funded their education by selling “the only commodity they ha[d]—their bodies.”31 A series of focus groups on gender-‐based violence in Liberia found notable transactional sex among sixth and seventh graders in Monrovia with older men.32 The author’s in-‐depth interviews with in-‐school and out-‐of-‐school youth in three counties in Liberia found high incidence of sex for grades in secondary schools.33 A teacher in Gbarnga, Bong County explained that the frequency of transactional sex in secondary schools is underreported due to teachers threatening to fail students if they tell their parents or the authorities.34 Several interviewed youth mentioned the incidence of teachers impregnating students, but said that it is hard to know how often it happens because teachers make sure to “keep the girls quiet.”
The Way Forward: Community Inspired Solutions Make School Free: Liberia has a Free and Compulsory Education policy that removes fees for public basic education (now up to 9th grade), but many schools do not implement this policy.35 Furthermore, the in-‐direct costs of school still prevent many Liberian youth from attending. One of the most commonly cited recommendations was the expansion of scholarship programs and cash transfer programs so that more young Liberians can afford school, especially post-‐primary school, which is more expensive than primary level (See Map 2 Below). Not only is this a recommendation from Liberian youth, but a large and empirically well-‐identified body of evidence demonstrates that gender-‐targeted conditional cash transfers (CCTs) and scholarships improve schooling outcomes in the developing world. 36 Overall, gender-‐targeted financial incentives are increasing female enrollment and school attendance for the post-‐primary level and this type of program should be expanded in Liberia.37 Increase Fertility Awareness and Provide Access to Reproductive Health Education and Services: USAID estimates that only 10 percent of women of reproductive age or their partner use a modern form of contraception. Although it is outside the mandate of the Ministry of Education, youth, parents and community leaders acknowledged the need to increase reproductive health education and access to birth control. “You see babies carrying babies. We need to
31 IRIN. (2005). Liberia study finds many girls selling bodies to pay for school. Retrieved from http://www.irinnews.org/report/56186/liberia-‐study-‐finds-‐many-‐girls-‐selling-‐bodies-‐to-‐pay-‐for-‐school 32 Atwood, K., et al. (2011). Transactional sex among youths in post-‐conflict Liberia. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 29 (2). 113-‐122. 33 personal communication, March, 2013 34 personal communication, March 9, 2014 35 UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/english/wcaro_liberia_fact_CP_education.pdf 36 Baird, S., McIntosh, C., & Ozler, B. (2010) Cash or condition? Evidence from a randomized cash transfer program. World Bank Policy Research Paper; Khandker, S.R., Pitt, M. M. & Fuwa, N. (2003). Subsidy to Promote Girls’ Secondary Education: The Female Stipend Program in Rural Bangladesh 37 Lewis, M., & Lockheed, M. (2007). Getting All Girls into School. Finance and Development, 44 (2).
A Promising Practice In Gulu district, Uganda the “Safe School Contracts” an agreement drawn between the teachers and the satellite communities by which teachers undertake not to be involved in acts of sexual harassment or elopement with school girls were crafted and implemented by the camp education committees in partnership with the Girls’ Education Movement (GEM). Similarly, the “Safe Community Contracts” commit local leaders to the promotion of the right of the girl-‐child to education. These are
signed between the local leaders and GEM. There are also deliberate efforts to
organize child-‐mothers, pregnant girls or rape victims into groups within the school
to combat stigmatization. (UNGEI Final Report Uganda, 2011)
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talk to them. They don’t know. They do it out of ignorance,” says Gbeni Taylor, a family planning community educator.38 According to male community leaders and elders in Gbondoi village, family planning must be a part of the solution to high female dropouts due to teen pregnancy.39 Albertha Mendi at the International Rescue Committee recommended incorporating life skills, including reproductive health education, into the educational curriculum so that youth can learn how to protect their bodies and prevent pregnancy.40 Incorporating life skills lessons into primary and post-‐primary education will increase knowledge of reproductive health, safety, and pregnancy prevention. Furthermore, lessons on SGBV and available referral systems should also be included in ‘life skills’ in Liberia, considering the high prevalence of SGBV in schools.
Improve Support Systems for Young Women and Their Children: A 2008 World Bank vulnerability assessment found that the absence of traditional protective structures and contributing factors for support and healthy youth development caused and aggravated the main vulnerabilities for girls and young women, including their inequitable access to education.41 Marinda Kroman at the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) recommended the use of girls’ clubs to provide support,
38 Pellegrom, S. (2014). Celebrate Solutions: Family Planning Messages Provided in Barber Shops and Beauty Salons in Liberia. New York, NY: Women Deliver. 39 Personal communication, March 8, 2014. 40 Personal communication, March 6, 2014. 41 Abril, M.E. (2008). Girls’ Vulnerability Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Government of Liberia, Nike Foundation, and the World Bank.
Map 2: Solutions to Increase Access in Liberia
SaniquellieKarnplay
Lofa
Nimba
Sinoe
Bong
Gbarpolu
Grand Gedeh
Grand Bassa
Rivercess
River Ghee
Bomi
Margibi
Grand Kru
Grand CapeMount
Maryland
Montserrado
Esri, HERE, DeLorme, MapmyIndia, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS user community
Solutions to IncreaseAccess
Financial Incentives
Family Planning
Strengthen Support
More Job Skills
Increase Teacher Pay
Daycare
Feeding Program
Stop Sande
Ontime Enrollment
Population Densitypersons per 1 sq km(2008)
0.000 - 38.0038.01 - 109.0109.1 - 198.0198.1 - 1553
±
0 40 8020 Miles
Coordinate System: GCS WGS 1984Datum: WGS 1984Units: DegreeMap Created by Annie Alcid 2014Data Source: Annie Alcid's qualitative research, March 2014
SalalaGbondoi
Gbarnga
Monrovia
Solutions to Increase Post-Primary Access for Girls in Liberia
Data Source: Author’s personal research
11
protection, and inspiration.42 Youth suggested starting mentoring groups and strengthening Parent-‐Teacher Associations (PTAs) to encourage more parental involvement. Additionally, only 4.8 percent of secondary school teachers are female, so there is a severe lack of educated role models for girls in schools.43 Young women recommended paying teachers more in order to reduce the transactional sex and training more female teachers to increase safety in schools. Improved support systems in schools and in the broader community will increase protection and psychosocial wellness. Furthermore, the opportunity costs for many young women that arise from their heavy burden of childcare related responsibilities can be addressed through the provision of day care centers and preschools for younger siblings or students’ children.44 Marina Lopez-‐Anselme, Chief Program Development & Evaluation Officer at the Refugee Education Trust mentioned the importance of a holistic approach to girls’ programming that provides support for their children as well.45
Conclusion Civil war is considered development in reverse. Education is one of the preconditions for reform and should be a priority in post-‐conflict recovery. Getting more youth into school breeds stability by occupying young men and women in a constructive environment and increasing their skillset and employability. Although gender equality in education has been made a national priority by the president, Liberia is still far from providing an inclusive post-‐primary education for young women. A primary education is a start for girls, but the benefits of a secondary education are even greater. The returns on investment extend far beyond the young women themselves. More highly educated mothers and daughters improve family and individual well-‐being, increase income level, and drive economic growth. When secondary education for girls spreads, women gain the skills and confidence necessary to assume a greater role in the country’s development. As one of the soundest investments a country can make, getting more young women into school will help stimulate economic growth and improve the prospects of long-‐term peace and reform in Liberia. Programs and initiatives designed with the goal of increasing equitable access are still very much needed. While challenges still exist, this research provides guidance on how to overcome some of the most critical barriers preventing young women from accessing post-‐primary school.
42 M. Kroman, personal communication, March 6, 2014 43 Ministry of Education. (2013). 44 Birdsall, N., Levine, R., & Ibrahim, A. (2005) Toward universal primary education: investments, incentives, and institutions. UN Millennium Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality. 45 Personal communication, February 28, 2014