basic concepts related to ethics 2 0 1 8 e x a m i n a t i o n m a i n … mppsc notes/pdf/7 mains...

Basic Concepts related to

Ethics

For MPPSC Mains Examination 2018

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Ethics Terminologies

1. Ethics

Ethics may be defined as the systematic study of human actions from the point of view of

their rightfulness or wrongfulness, as means for the attainment of the ultimate happiness. It

is the reflective study of ‘what is good or bad’ in that part of human conduct for which

human has some personal responsibility.

2. Value

Values are set of principles or standards of behavior that are regarded as desirable and are

held in high esteem. Values are a part of our ethical conduct. They are the outcome of

realization and understanding, which are always definite.

3. Morality

Morality is the distinction between right and wrong. It is the determination of what should

be done and what should not be done. Honesty, respect for others, loyalty, responsibility

for personal actions, generosity and kindness are all examples of moral values.

4. Morals

Principles or habits with respect to right or wrong conduct. While morals also prescribe dos

and don'ts, morality is ultimately a personal compass of right and wrong. Morality

transcends cultural norms.

5. Norms

Norms are the ways an individual expects all the people to act in a given situation. They are

inconsistent and universal. Norms are not published, may not be obeyed and cannot be

enforced except by sanctions of a group who use penalties as disapproval or exclusion.

6. Ethical Human conduct

The ethical human conduct on the basis of the following.

Basics to Ethics (Part 1)

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• ‘Ethical conduct’ implies that it is naturally acceptable to me and does not give rise to

conflict within.

• ‘Ethical conduct’ implies that it is in consonance with the right understanding of the reality

– the underlying harmony at all levels.

• ‘Ethical conduct’ implies that it leads to mutual fulfillment with other people and mutual

enrichment with rest of nature.

7. Teleological moral theories

Teleological moral theories locate moral goodness in the consequences of our behavior and

not the behavior itself.

Thus from the teleological point of view, human behavior is neither right nor wrong in and

of itself. What matters is what might happen as a consequence of those actions in any given

context. Thus, it is the contextualized consequences that make our behavior, good or bad,

right or wrong.

8. Deontological theories

Deontological theories are by definition duty-based. Duties, in the deontological tradition,

are most often associated with obeying absolute moral rules. Hence, human beings are

morally required to do (or not to do) certain acts in order to uphold a rule or law. The

rightness or wrongness of a moral rule is determined independent of its consequences or

how happiness or pleasure is distributed as a result of abiding by that rule, or not abiding by

it.

An act is, good if and only if it was performed out of a desire to do one's duty and obey a

rule. In other words, act out of a good will.

9. Divine Command Theory

It states that the moral goodness of an act is based on religious authority. Divine command

theorists argue that moral rules are universal because all human beings were created by the

same omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent God.

10. Kantian Theory

According to the Kantian Theory, Kant argued that morality is only possible in a community

of beings that possess the natural attributes of rationality and free will. Thus, we cannot

justly hold someone responsible for his/her actions unless that person is capable of knowing

right from wrong; and unless that person is capable doing right and avoiding wrong.


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11. Virtue-based moral theories

All virtue-based moral systems differentiate between virtues (good behavior) and vices (bad

behavior). According to Aristotle, virtue is a character trait; under certain circumstances.

These circumstances usually involve how we respond to emotional states via the exercise of

reason. These habits or dispositions are cultivated via social and political institutions,

especially institutions of education. The idea is to encourage desirable habitual behaviors

(virtuous) behavior and discourage undesirable (vicious) behaviors.

12. Utilitarianism

A conception of the moral life in terms of means-to-ends reasoning. An act or rule is right

insofar as it produces or leads to the maximization of good consequences (utility).

Act utilitarianism – Theory that the principle of utility is -- or ought to be -- applied to

particular acts in particular circumstances. An act utilitarian justifies actions simply by direct

appeal to the principle of utility.

Rule utilitarianism – Theory that the principle of utility is (or ought to be) the source of

rules of conduct, and that such rules determine whether particular acts are right or wrong.

Rules justified by their general utilitarian consequences may nonetheless require actions

that do not maximize utility in particular circumstances.

13. Accountability

It is the ability and willingness to assume responsibility for one's actions and to accept the

consequences of one's behavior.

14. Attitude

It is mental stance that is composed of many different beliefs; usually involving a positive or

negative judgment toward a person, object, or idea.

15. Autonomy

It is the state of being independent and self-directed, without outside control, to make

one's own decisions.

16. Beneficence

It is the moral obligation to do good or to implement actions that benefit clients and their

support persons.

17. Code of Ethics


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http://privacy.med.miami.edu/glossary/#utility

http://privacy.med.miami.edu/glossary/#utility

It is a formal statement of a group's ideals and values; a set of ethical principles shared by

members of a group, reflecting their moral judgments and serving as a standard for

professional actions.

18. Moral Development

It is process of learning to tell the difference between right and wrong and of learning what

ought and ought not to be done.

19. Non-ethical considerations

Powerful human motivations that are not based on right or wrong, but on considerations of

survival and well-being, such as health, security, love, wealth, or self-esteem.

20. Ethical Dilemma

This is an ethical problem in which the ethical choice involves ignoring a powerful non-

ethical consideration. Do the right thing, but lose your job, a friend, a lover, or an

opportunity for advancement. A non-ethical consideration can be powerful and important

enough to justify choosing it over the strict ethical action.

21. Ethical Conflict

When two ethical principles demand opposite results in the same situation, this is an ethical

conflict. Solving ethical conflicts may require establishing a hierarchy or priority of ethical

principles, or examining the situation through another ethical system.

22. Ethical Gray Area

Gray areas are situations and problems that don’t fit neatly into any existing mode of ethical

analysis. In some cases, there may even be a dispute regarding whether ethics is involved.

23. Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is a psychological phenomenon first identified by Leon Festinger. It

occurs when there is a discrepancy between what a person believes, knows and values, and

persuasive information that calls these into question. The discrepancy causes psychological

discomfort, and the mind adjusts to reduce the discrepancy.

24. Altruism

It means Regard for others. As a theory of action, this can be descriptive (i.e., that people

do, at least sometimes, appear to act in other than self-regarding ways). Or it can be a

normative position about how people ought to behave (viz., at least sometimes, people

should act in non-self-regarding ways).


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25. Normative

Normative language tells us what we ought to do instead of what we actually do; is value-

laden.

26. Objectives of Business Ethics

Objectives of Business ethics are:

• To establish moral standards and norms of the behavior.

• To judge and assess the human behavior in the organization in the light of those

established norms.

• To balance the conflicts of various stakeholders.

• To foster the growth, success and survival of the business on long term basis.

27. Need of Value education

There is need for value education in the present education system because of following

reasons:

Happy and fulfilled living.

Right understanding of our aspirations.

Right evaluation of our beliefs and belief systems.

Understanding universal values to fulfill our aspirations.

Complementing values and skills.

Living in harmony and peace with the self and surrounding.

Development of intellect along with sensitivity.

Right use of technology and science.

Sustainable development.

Development of authentic leaders.

28. Ethical Principles(Rules)

Some of the principles are:

• Principle of Beneficence

• Principle of the Common Good


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• Principle of Distributive Justice

• Principle of Human Dignity

• Principle of Religious Freedom

• Principle of Respect for persons

• Principle of Toleration

29. Moral Intuition:

All ‘deontological’ theories agree that there must exist some rule or law which ‘enforces’

moral value and that it is natural to human person, intuitively known. There is then an

element of ‘intuition’ in all of them – no matter how they conceive of it and the way they

approach it.

30. Absolute Ethics:

Absolute ethics is an ideal code of conduct formulating the behaviour of the completely

adapted human person in the completely evolved society.

31. Relative Ethics:

Relative ethics is the nearest approximation to this ideal according to the more or less

perfectly evolved society in which human person happens to find him/ her.

32. Natural Rights:

Natural rights those which are enjoyed by man by his birth from nature. The society and the

state recognize and respect natural rights. The existence of the natural right theory

(Hobbes, Lockes and Rousseau) reveals that man alone conceded some rights to the civil

society. Man enjoy the natural rights without reference to the society and state. Right to life

is one of the most important of all rights which is necessary for his survival.

33. Moral Rights:

These rights are morally given to mean in a civil society. The ethical principles in the society

are the basis for the moral rights. Moral rights do not have the support or protection from

laws in the state, but these rights are supported by society and any violation results in

punishment by it. If the state fails to recognize moral rights consolidated in society, the

people may rebel against it. Such rebellions may take the form of revolution.

34. Moral Duties:

Every person in a society follows certain moral standards. The duties that the citizens

discharge on the basis of moral principles are called as moral duties. The main source for

moral duties are the traditions, customs and habits that are inherited. There is much scope


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for improving the moral standards and improving the moral standards and improving the

moral behavior through the moral duties only. The statutory laws are not applicable to

moral duties as in the case of moral rights. The strength of the moral duties is the system of

morality that is followed in a society. The moral duties are to be followed by the individuals

purposefully and voluntarily, but they cannot be imposed by anybody. State seldom

protects their observance. Obedience to the parents, compassion to the poor, speaking

truth, respect to the elders are some examples of moral duties.

35. Positive Duties:

The duties which contribute for the social welfare of the citizens is as positive duties. These

are also called as formful or decisive called duties. These duties prescribe the way of

behavior of the citizens towards the State, government, other institutions and citizens. The

stability of the state, progress and welfare of the society depend upon the discharge of

duties. Co-operation the government to promote law and order, payment of taxes, proper

use of the right to vote, contributing to the national integrity through religious tolerance are

some of the examples for the positive duties.

36. Negative Duties:

Negative Duties are those duties which are prohibited by laws. These are also called as

formless or prohibitive duties. These duties reveal the obedience of the individual citizens

to the prohibitions identified by law, not to destroy the government property, not to

promote disintegrating forces, not to resort to theft or murder etc. are some examples of

negative duties.

37. Self – Integrity:

Integrity includes consistency and unwavering adherence for certain cause. People with

integrity are those whose words match with their deeds. They can walk their talks and

honor their commitments and are read to sacrifice for that. Their behavior is mirror of their

values highly transparent.

38. Self-Conscience

Conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a human commits

actions that go against his/her moral values and to feelings of rectitude or integrity when

actions conform to such norms.

39. CODES OF CONDUCT

A Code of Conduct is a “set of rules outlining the responsibilities of or proper practices for

an individual, party or organization.”


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Developing an effective Code of Conduct for Organizations: “Principles, values, standards, or

rules of behavior that guide the decisions, procedures and systems of an organization in a

way that

(a) contributes to the welfare of its key stakeholders, and

(b) respects the rights of all constituents affected by its operations.”

Benefits of a Code of Conduct:

• Encourage greater transparency and accountabilities in an organization.

• Provide a guide for the basis of organizational expectations for members and contributors.

• Encourage commitment to ethical and fair behavior from members of an organization and

assist in upholding organizational values and attitudes.

• Consistency in determining what is and what isn’t acceptable behavior.

40. Transparency:

It means openness and trust. For transparency, one should be authentic and credible.

Authenticity means to interact with people without a hiding mask, without a disguising role,

and without defensive and legalistic communication. On the other hand, without

transparency, there are no authentic relations-just entanglements. Pursuit of hidden

agenda with misleading and misrepresenting things, or fabrication and falsification of facts

cannot work long, they rather hamper interpersonal relations.

41. Respect:

Respect for other person’s mindsets, emotions, needs, time and attention are the basis of

interpersonal relations. If one respects other’s emotions, mindsets, needs, time and

attention one is likely to command respect sooner or later. Long run relations need

nurturing with authentic respect.

42. Reciprocity:

Reciprocity means having feeling of respect for other persons and willingness to repay in

one or the other way. It compels one to ask oneself if the other person is doing something

for me, what should I do for him/her to serve his/her needs. The law of karma “What goes

around, comes around” operates. For sustaining long run relations, there should be

reciprocity in terms of sincerity.

43. Responsibility:

Responsibility and ethics are one the basis to sustain relations. In interpersonal relations we

are free to act, but that freedom implies great responsibility. One should think objectively

land impartially by detaching oneself from the situation, what will happen if one is treated


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in the same way by other persons. What will happen if one is working with “run away with

anything” mentality or fake identity or short-termism instead of feeling responsibility for

nurturing relationships on ethical values.

44. Wisdom:

Good judgment with respect to abstract truth or theoretical matters (in contrast to

prudence in concrete, practical affairs).This is the virtue that disposes practical reason to

choose the genuine Good in every situation and the right means for achieving it. It is

prudence that immediately guides the judgment of conscience

45. Serving the Public Interest:

Civil Servants and public officials are expected to maintain and strengthen the public’s trust

and confidence in government, by demonstrating the highest standards of professional

competence, efficiency and effectiveness, upholding the constitution and the laws, and

seeking to advance the public good at all times.

46. Integrity:

Civil Servants and public officials are expected to make decisions and act solely in the public

interest, without consideration of their private interests. Public employment being a pubic

trust, the improper use of a public service position for private advantage is regarded as a

serious breach of duty.

47. Legitimacy:

Civil Servants and public officials are required to administer the laws, and to exercise

administrative power on behalf of the Government, or the parliament, or other such

authority. That power and authority should be exercised legitimately, impartially and

without fear or favor, for its proper public purpose as determined by the Parliament of their

employer.

48. Fairness:

Civil Servants and public officials should make decisions and act in a fair and equitable

manner, without bias or prejudice, taking into account only the merits of the matter, and

respecting the rights of affected citizens.

49. Responsiveness:

As agents and employees of the elected Government, Civil servants and public officials are

required to serve the legitimate interests and needs of the Government, other civil

servants, and all citizens, in a timely manner, with care, respect and courtesy.

50. Efficiency and Effectiveness:


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Civil Servants and public officials are required to obtain best value for public assets

deployed in or through public management, and to avoid waste and extravagance and the

use of public assets.

51. Citizen charter:

The Citizens’ Charter is an instrument which seeks to make an organization transparent,

accountable and citizen friendly. A Citizens’ Charter is basically a set of commitments made

by an organization in respects of Standard of Services, Information, Choice and

Consultation, Non-discrimination and Accessibility, Grievance Redress, Courtesy and Value

for Money. This also includes expectations of the Organisation from the Citizen for fulfilling

the commitment of the Organisation.

Objectives of Citizen charter

The basic objective of the Citizen’s Charter is to empower the citizen in relation to public

service delivery. The six principles of the Citizen’s Charter movement as originally framed

were:

Quality: Improving the quality of services;

Choice: Wherever possible;

Standards: Specifying what to expect and how to act if standards are not

met;

Value : For the taxpayers’ money;

Accountability: Individuals and Organisations; and

Transparency: Rules/Procedures/Schemes/Grievances.

52. Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify and manage your own emotions and the

emotions of others. It is generally said to include three skills: emotional awareness; the

ability to harness emotions and apply them to tasks like thinking and problem solving; and

the ability to manage emotions, which includes regulating your own emotions and cheering

up or calming down other people.

Professional ethics are a set of norms that determines an individual position towards

professional duties, professional relations with other employees and, finally, towards

society as a whole. Professional ethics reflects the specifics of morality, personal

interrelationships and behaviour coming from professional activities. Professional ethics

include: first, behavioural codes defining certain types of moral relations between

individuals who consider these codes optimal for the performance of a professional duty;


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https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/emotional-intelligence

second, the ground for these codes, the social and psychological interpretation of cultural

and humanistic purposes of the profession, its epos.

53. Administrative ethics

Administrative ethics refers to well-based standards of right and wrong that prescribe what

public administrators ought to do in terms of duty to public service, principles, virtues, and

benefits to society. Some of them are discussed below:

Honesty: To act in a truthful manner and to comply with promises

Integrity: To act in accordance with relevant moral values and norms

Benevolence: To act in a manner that promotes good and avoids harm for citizens

Lawfulness: To act in accordance with existing laws and rules

Incorruptibility: To act without prejudice or bias in favor of one’s own private

interests

Accountability: To act willingly in justifying and explaining one’s actions to relevant

stakeholders

Dedication: To act with diligence, enthusiasm, and perseverance

Reliability: To act in a manner that is consistent, predictable, and trustworthy

Serviceability: To act in a manner that is helpful and provides quality service to

citizens, customers, and other relevant stakeholders

Humaneness: To act in a manner that exhibits respect, compassion, and dignity

toward others

Impartiality: To act without prejudice or bias toward particular individuals or groups

Transparency: To act in a manner that is open and visible to citizens, customers, and

other relevant stakeholders

Inclusiveness: To act in a manner that includes citizens, customers, and other

relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process

Responsiveness: To act in a manner that is in accordance with the preferences of

citizens, customers, and other relevant stakeholders

Representative: To act in a manner that is consistent with the values of citizens

Pluralism: To act in a manner that seeks to accommodate the interests of a diverse

citizenry


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Participative: To act in a manner that promotes active citizen participation in

administrative decision making

Beneficence: the ethical obligation to do good and avoid causing harm.

54. Conflict of interest (COI):

It is a situation in which a person has a financial, personal, political or other interest which is

likely to bias his or her judgment or decision-making concerning the performance of his or

her ethical or legal obligations or duties.

55. Ethical dilemma:

A situation in which two or more potential actions appear to be equally justifiable from an

ethical point of view, i.e. one must choose between the lesser of two evils or the greater of

two goods.

56. Ethical reasoning:

Making a decision in response to a moral dilemma based a careful and thorough assessment

of the different options in light of the facts and circumstances and ethical considerations.

57. Ethical relativism

The view that ethical standards are relative to a particular culture, society, historical period,

etc.

58. Justice:

1. treating people fairly. 2. An ethical principle that obligates one to treat people fairly.

Distributive justice refers to allocating benefits and harms fairly; procedural justice refers to

using fair processes to make decisions that affect people; formal justice refers to treating

similar cases in the same way.

59. Objectivity:

1. The tendency for the results of scientific research to be free from bias. 2. An ethical and

epistemological principle instructing one to take steps to minimize or control for bias.

60. Whistleblower:

It is a person who reports suspected illegal or unethical activity, such as research

misconduct or non-compliance with human subjects or animal regulations.

61. Probity:

It is the adherence to the highest principles and ideals. It is the quality of having strong

moral principles, honesty and decency. Probity in governance is an essential and vital

requirement for an efficient and effective system of governance and for socio-economic


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https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/glossary/index.cfm#bias

https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/glossary/index.cfm#research-misconduct

https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/glossary/index.cfm#research-misconduct

https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/glossary/index.cfm#non-compliance

development. An important requisite for ensuring probity in governance is absence of

corruption. The other requirements are effective laws, rules and regulations governing

every aspect of public life and, more important, an effective and fair implementation of

those laws, etc. Indeed, a proper, fair and effective enforcement of law is a facet of

discipline.

62. Neutral Bureaucracy:

Here, bureaucratic officials function strictly according to the principles and ideals laid down

in the constitution.

63. Committed Bureaucracy:

Here, bureaucrats, in addition to following the principles and ideals laid down in the

constitution, also follow the policies and programs of the party in power.

64. Rationality:

It is a concept which believes in the use of reason which is detached with passions,

emotions and beliefs. If our personal beliefs or sentiments are not in conformity with

rationality, they should not prevail over rationality. It means bringing out a practical

solution to a practical situation.

65. Commitment:

Being always responsible and genuine to the words, deeds and promises. It is the most

important ingredient of public servant. There might be a chance to flout promises and

rebuild our relationships in personal life. But in official capacity, breaking a promise or vow

can’t be undone or taken back because it affects public at large.

66. Impartiality

Impartiality is a norm of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective

standards, instead of on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the advantage to one

person over another for unsuitable reasons. Impartiality is acting solely according to the

merits of the case and serving equally well governments of different political persuasions.

67. Non-partisanship

Non-partisanship is not being precisely owned or allied with any group, party or cause. Non-

partisanship can be called political neutrality. Non-partisanship infers that the officer is to

do his task without any fear of, or favour to any political party.

68. Compassion:


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It is a feeling of wanting to help someone who is suffering. (some sources include pity in

here, some emphasize the desire aspect, some the action because they feel behavior is at

the core of compassion).

69. Sympathy:

It is a natural feeling that you care for another and can emotionally connect with their

suffering.

70. Empathy:

It is not a feeling but a skill that can be learned, to cognitively understand another's

perspective and therefore the resulting emotions the person must be experiencing. (This

one is taught to therapists and med students partly because it's more objective and

teachable than sympathy).

71. Pity:

It is a feeling of sadness or sympathy for someone who is worse off than you (some say the

person need not be worse off but only worse than certain standard; and that's why you can

even pity yourself).

72. Altruism:

Selfless desire to help others as expressed in behavior; here action is key (some argue how

selfless altruism really is).

73. Care:

The feeling of sympathy and affection, attitude of concern and responsibility, and the action

of attending to someone's needs, keeping them safe and well. (Needless to say, this

definition is pretty broad, as "care" is one of the more general terms here. I can imagine

someone providing action of care for a person without having the associated caring feelings,

though I'm not sure if the opposite is true).

74. Political neutrality:

Political neutrality is an essential ingredient of civil service in a democratic setup for the

integrity the efficiency of administration. It means that the civil service .should give free and

frank advice to the government impartially and without any political consideration. It also

means the implementation of the decisions of the government by the civil service faithfully

whether such decisions were in consonance with their advice or not

75. Tolerance


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Tolerance comprises of allowing people to exercise their rights, religious or constitutional.

Tolerance teaches us to exercise restraint in sensitive matters. Tolerance is defined as a fair

and objective outlook towards those whose lifestyle differs from person.


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