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AAAAWinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking BeginnerBeginnerBeginnerBeginner’’’’ssss FactfileFactfileFactfileFactfileMany books have been written about winemaking, domestic or otherwise, and there are now detailed websites, (seeReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences)))), so the following file is not about rewriting them all. It is, rather, from hands-on experience, a shortcompendium of priorities, hints, imperatives, reflections, and memory-joggers that may help bolster prospectivebeginner confidence at that time when the books are laid down, and the first tabletabletabletable wine must is being planned.Similar principles are involved in beermaking, either traditionally, or with kits. Indeed, beermaking with kits is a usefulintroduction to winemaking, and there is also a convenient transfer of skills and equipment for the home winemakinghobbyist. Description of the MLF, ( malolactic fermentation), process is also included, but fortified and sparklingwines are not discussed in any detail here....

Contents:Contents:Contents:Contents:SomeSomeSomeSome basicbasicbasicbasic principlesprinciplesprinciplesprinciples ofofofof winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking 2222PreservationPreservationPreservationPreservation andandandand stabilisationstabilisationstabilisationstabilisation 7777CommonCommonCommonCommon sugarssugarssugarssugars 9999AdditivesAdditivesAdditivesAdditives checklistschecklistschecklistschecklists andandandand notesnotesnotesnotes 10101010FreezerFreezerFreezerFreezer storagestoragestoragestorage guidelinesguidelinesguidelinesguidelines 13131313TemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperature conversionconversionconversionconversion 14141414YeastYeastYeastYeast fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation principlesprinciplesprinciplesprinciples 15151515TirageTirageTirageTirage capscapscapscaps onononon champagnechampagnechampagnechampagne bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles 16161616ForForForFor thethethethe BeginnerBeginnerBeginnerBeginner onononon thethethethe WineWineWineWine Web,Web,Web,Web, andandandand booksbooksbooksbooks 17171717HomeHomeHomeHome bottlingbottlingbottlingbottling ofofofof bulkbulkbulkbulk winewinewinewine 19191919SampleSampleSampleSample winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking loglogloglog 21212121CommonCommonCommonCommon chemicalschemicalschemicalschemicals andandandand constituentsconstituentsconstituentsconstituents listlistlistlist 22222222SelectedSelectedSelectedSelected chemicalschemicalschemicalschemicals andandandand constituentsconstituentsconstituentsconstituents notesnotesnotesnotes 24242424

To print this file as a booklet, the suggestion is, for single sides only just, to print all, or, for double sides, print Title and Contentspages separately, then pages 2-X, first as odds, then as evens, and then collate. PagePagePagePage SetupSetupSetupSetup L&RL&RL&RL&R 1.5cm,1.5cm,1.5cm,1.5cm, T&BT&BT&BT&B 2cm.2cm.2cm.2cm.

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SomeSomeSomeSome basicbasicbasicbasic principlesprinciplesprinciplesprinciples ofofofof winemaking:winemaking:winemaking:winemaking: Never use ingredients not already in published recipes,they may be poisonous, and/or unsuitable for winemaking. There is already a long history of ingredient knowledge inexistence, thousands of years, in fact. Grapes are a fruit, a berry, like tomatoes and dates, and all the others you willknow so well, so enjoy your own particular wines, perhaps add a proportion of those vine berries for a vinousdimension to your must creations, and to help enhance the must composition.

Understand that winemaking principles, well learnt and applied, are more important than adherence to recipes in anygiven situation. Especially, ensure, before beginning fermentation, that your must, whatever its principle ingredients,resembles ripe grape juice in sugar, pH, and nutrients, for optimum yeast performance, and ultimate quality of theresult. Recipes may act as useful guides to similar combinations, proportions, or ingredient preparation, and forpredicting possible results, in given situations when similar ingredients may be utilised.

Use appropriate cultured yeasts for wine types as well, wild yeasts are variable, and have a low alcohol andmetabisulphite tolerance, with attendant risks. The wine yeast has a long association with the vine-berry, and specificcultured wine yeasts suit specific wine types, which you can also strive for in cottage wines, using the ingredients atyour disposal, and the appropriate vine berry yeast. Make a starter, so that your chosen yeast continues to multiplyand colonise the must rapidly.

Use only food grade plastics, glass or (stabilised) stainless steel for all preparation, storage, fermentation, ormaturation. Avoid scratching fermenter interiors by dissolving crystal compounds such as sugars, etc., before addingto must or wort. Never leave fermentingfermentingfermentingfermenting must or wort in plastic fermenters longer than 5 or 6 days, and do notmature wine in plastic containers. Brewing beer is handy learning preparation for winemaking, and basic equipmentis common to both processes. ButButButBut, the bottles differ as wine needs green glassglassglassglass, (against specific wavelengths), andalso stronger glassglassglassglass for sparkling and/or MLF wines. DODODODO NOTNOTNOTNOT USEUSEUSEUSE PLASTICPLASTICPLASTICPLASTIC BOTTLES,BOTTLES,BOTTLES,BOTTLES, akaakaakaaka PET/PolyethylenePET/PolyethylenePET/PolyethylenePET/PolyethyleneTetrepthalate/polyester,Tetrepthalate/polyester,Tetrepthalate/polyester,Tetrepthalate/polyester, becausebecausebecausebecause thethethethe alcoholalcoholalcoholalcohol %age%age%age%age ofofofof wine,wine,wine,wine, plusplusplusplus requiredrequiredrequiredrequired storagestoragestoragestorage time,time,time,time, leachesleachesleachesleaches thethethethe PET,PET,PET,PET, and,and,and,and,ifififif youyouyouyou alsoalsoalsoalso reallyreallyreallyreally carecarecarecare aboutaboutaboutabout makingmakingmakingmaking qualityqualityqualityquality beer,beer,beer,beer, dodododo notnotnotnot useuseuseuse themthemthemthem forforforfor beerbeerbeerbeer bottlingbottlingbottlingbottling either,either,either,either, notnotnotnot leastleastleastleast becausebecausebecausebecausetheytheytheythey areareareare CO2-permeable,CO2-permeable,CO2-permeable,CO2-permeable, andandandand thusthusthusthus unsuitedunsuitedunsuitedunsuited forforforfor long-termlong-termlong-termlong-term storagestoragestoragestorage useuseuseuse beyondbeyondbeyondbeyond aaaa couplecouplecouplecouple ofofofof monthsmonthsmonthsmonths atatatat cellarcellarcellarcellartemperatures.temperatures.temperatures.temperatures.

Special bottle-washing powders are useful, plus non-fragrant detergents, hot water, synthetic brushes, and firmdecision-making about discarding of doubtful containers, bottles, or utensils! Always clean up immediately after aprocess is complete, (this applies to beermaking also), never allow equipment or work areas to dry out beforeattending to this important chore, and the job will also be made easier

Take care with using chlorine, which can cause taint, as well as reacting with stainless steel. Developing a winemakingprocess without chlorine may be preferable to risk of taint, or where water is not so plentiful for the extensive rinsingrequired. Chlorine, or chlorinated cleaning products can even pit stainless steel in sufficient concentration, especiallywith no-rinse applications.

ChlorineChlorineChlorineChlorine andandandand iodineiodineiodineiodine, (also used in cleaning preparations), can taint plastic, and react unfavourably, for taste, withtannins, and with corks, forming trichloranisole. Also, any chlorine containing solids that react with acids, evencommon household acids such as acetic acid in vinegar, will produce chlorine gas, so beware. ToToToTo repeat,repeat,repeat,repeat, better,better,better,better,probably,probably,probably,probably, totototo developdevelopdevelopdevelop cleaningcleaningcleaningcleaning proceduresproceduresproceduresprocedures forforforfor brewingbrewingbrewingbrewing andandandand winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking thatthatthatthat dodododo notnotnotnot requirerequirerequirerequire chlorinechlorinechlorinechlorine orororor iodineiodineiodineiodinecompounds,compounds,compounds,compounds, especiallyespeciallyespeciallyespecially whenwhenwhenwhen waterwaterwaterwater isisisis notnotnotnot plentiful,plentiful,plentiful,plentiful, andandandand rinsingrinsingrinsingrinsing willwillwillwill bebebebe limited.limited.limited.limited. Also,Also,Also,Also, ensureensureensureensure chlorinatedchlorinatedchlorinatedchlorinatedwaterwaterwaterwater isisisis boiled,boiled,boiled,boiled, orororor wellwellwellwell aeratedaeratedaeratedaerated beforebeforebeforebefore usingusingusingusing forforforfor mustmustmustmust orororor wortwortwortwort preparation.preparation.preparation.preparation.

Stainless steel should be stabilised before use with an acid rinse of citric or tartaric acid to remove any manganesesulphide that may be present on the surface of the vessel. (MakingMakingMakingMaking GoodGoodGoodGood Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine, B. Rankine, p. 280, seeReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences....) Otherwise, reaction with acids in the wine enables the liberation of hydrogen sulphide, a cause of winetaint.

Use quality ingredients, balanced and compatible, including yeasts, enzymes, additives and supplements, with someworking anticipation of the final result. Check preparation procedures for given must staples. Note that clarifiedclarifiedclarifiedclarifiedjuicejuicejuicejuice, easier for beginners, nevertheless is low in nutrients, ferments more slowly than unclarified, needs careful mustbalancing with nutrient supplementation, and also good pre-primary fermentation aeration.

Nitrogen nutritional balance using DAP, diammonium phosphate, is necessary to prevent formation of the byproducturea which the yeast cannot metabolise. Urea is a byproduct of fermentation, minimised by optimal yeast nutrition,and urea as an additive is unnecessary and pointless as well as potentially toxic.

UreaUreaUreaUrea plusplusplusplus alcoholalcoholalcoholalcohol producesproducesproducesproduces ethylethylethylethyl carbamate,carbamate,carbamate,carbamate, anananan esteresteresterester ofofofof carbamiccarbamiccarbamiccarbamic acid,acid,acid,acid, beingbeingbeingbeing aaaa urethane,urethane,urethane,urethane, andandandand aaaa carcinogen.carcinogen.carcinogen.carcinogen.Also,Also,Also,Also, useuseuseuse onlyonlyonlyonly foodfoodfoodfood gradegradegradegrade DAP,DAP,DAP,DAP, whichwhichwhichwhich hashashashas nononono ureaureaureaurea contamination,contamination,contamination,contamination, andandandand addaddaddadd thethethethe DAPDAPDAPDAP beforebeforebeforebefore fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentationbeginsbeginsbeginsbegins forforforfor optimumoptimumoptimumoptimum results.results.results.results.

A further tip is to useuseuseuse plasticplasticplasticplastic filmfilmfilmfilm totototo covercovercovercover thethethethe fermenterfermenterfermenterfermenter, secure with string or rubber ring, pierce off-centre with aknife tip,tip,tip,tip, and CO2 will form an effective air barrier. Beer wort kept at 25ºC should finish fermenting in 6 days, nobubbles should rise, and settling should be advancing. Wine must ferment stage over 6 days is not such an issue,and lift an edge daily to agitate the must and break the cap, butbutbutbut strain the must into glass or stainless steel after 6days to avoid leaching the plastic with the increasing alcohol content as anaerobic secondary fermentation proceeds.

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Warmer must means greater extraction, especially of tannins and possibly bitter compounds from skins, seeds/pips,and stalks, as well as loss of fruitier compounds, both of flavour and of taste. Trial musts may prove useful beforebulk fermentations of untried ingredients, and a season deferred to taste a young trial wine may prevent further poorresults and consequent disappointment.

Use optimum quality water, balanced with appropriate supplements if necessary. Optimum relevant temperatures ofmust and wine also contribute to ultimate quality of the final product. Do not use chlorinated water, so boil, or leavestand for 12 hours with occasional agitation to remove residual chlorine.

Wines of low alcohol, low tannins, and higher pH and sugar will not age well, and may need stabilizing by chemicalmeans. Dry wines, red or white, of 10%-12% alcohol, are the most stable, will age well, and need less hands-on anddeadlines when being made and matured. Tannin content will also influence longevity, clearing, and the time requiredbefore optimum maturation. Alcohol itself will inhibit micro-organisms, depending on volume percentage, for this, ideal10% and above.

Sugar for 9%-12% alcohol, 1.075-1.095 SG, can be added before fermentation to a well balanced must, and usingappropriate yeast, without risking a stuck fermentation. Higher alcohol may be obtained by adding more sugarincrementally at successive rackings, until fermentation stops, but this will unbalance a table wine, although will helpcreate a sherry or port base if that is required. There will be no MLF at this level of alcohol.... However,However,However,However, neverneverneverneverenableenableenableenable MLFMLFMLFMLF inininin sweetsweetsweetsweet wines,wines,wines,wines, ie,ie,ie,ie, withwithwithwith residualresidualresidualresidual orororor addedaddedaddedadded sugar,sugar,sugar,sugar, asasasas off-odoursoff-odoursoff-odoursoff-odours andandandand tastestastestastestastes maymaymaymay result.result.result.result. ((((See alsothe SGSGSGSG TableTableTableTable p.16.)

Work in a cool, stable and controlled atmosphere if practicable, ensure adequate ventilation when usingmetabisulphite. Early morning is ideal, the light is good, you are fresh, and must and culture temperatures are easilycontrolled. Wear suitable comfortable and clean clothes, and employ optimum sanitation procedures. Dusting,vacuuming, kids, pets, dirty clothes, odours, and general traffic, etc., are all to be avoided in or near the proposedworking area, immediately prior to, or during, any winemaking procedure. NB,NB,NB,NB, MetaMetaMetaMeta solutionsolutionsolutionsolution potentiatedpotentiatedpotentiatedpotentiated bybybyby citriccitriccitriccitricacidacidacidacid willwillwillwill notnotnotnot store.store.store.store.

Isolate raw garbage, as well fruit or vegetables, especially if overripe, all of which may attract undesirable yeasts, othermicroorganisms, and fruit fly. Boil any leftover must, or gross lees if straining, before disposing in garden or compost,to limit the development of colonies of super-breed yeast which may cause problems for your future winemaking.Preferably work on calm days, and close up the wine-making area, (after preparation when metabisulphite is used), orsafeguard with very fine mesh, when preparing must or bottling, especially if the wine is sweet.

DrosophilaDrosophilaDrosophilaDrosophila MelanogasterMelanogasterMelanogasterMelanogaster, the common and very small fruit fly, is attracted to sugar/yeast/fermentation odours, andcarries acetomonas/acetobacter/mycodermaacetomonas/acetobacter/mycodermaacetomonas/acetobacter/mycodermaacetomonas/acetobacter/mycoderma acetiacetiacetiaceti that causes vinegar formation. This organism is athermophilethermophilethermophilethermophile, so cooler fermentations and/or storage will have an inhibiting effect. Drosophila M. may also enterairlocks if not discouraged by the presence of metabisulphite solution. Note that excess oxygen will also combinewith alcohol to produce acetic acid and water, and thus producing a high and unbalancing volatile acidity component.Micro-oxygenation is preferred, and this will occur just with careful transfer handling. IrreversibleIrreversibleIrreversibleIrreversible spoilagespoilagespoilagespoilage ensues!ensues!ensues!ensues!

In general, observe optimum ambient temperatures and working conditions at any stage of wine making. Coolerfermentations, usually for white wines, will have less extraction, especially of tannins, and a fruitier taste and bouquet.Warmer temperatures for red, or darkerdarkerdarkerdarker wines will effect more colour extraction, and of harsher tannins and/or bitterconstituents, if present in the must. Alcohol will increasingly volatilize with higher temperatures, most importantly forcontrolling secondary fermentation, if projected alcohol levels are to be achieved with minimal testing and adjustment. Duringmaturation, and later aging, wine chemistry will also evolve twice as fast for every 10ºC rise above 10ºC, so maintain a10ºC-15ºC range if possible.

Maintain an uncluttered and organised working area, using careful handling practices. This includes optimum cellaringand maturation conditions and handling, and cellar air must also be clean and stable at all times, especially if corksand casks are in use. Molecular exchange also occurs within airlocks, so beware of ambient odors during latefermentation, and maturation.

Practice minimum interference or disturbance at any stage of wine production, thus lessening chances ofcontamination and macro-oxygenation, and/or of inhibiting steady and balanced maturation. Unnecessary rackingremoves nutrients. Filtering and clarification are only really necessary for show wines, and will otherwise removemolecules beneficial for health, and even for taste. TimeTimeTimeTime is the best clarifier of all, if your initial processes werecareful. However, over-agingover-agingover-agingover-aging will break down beneficial molecules, so do not just bottle and forget, maintain tastingschedules as part of optimum cellaring management techniques, bottling testers to aid with this.

Tirage crown caps using a conventional capper and tirage bell are an easy, undemanding, and very efficient sealingmethod. Corks, for all their long tradition, have a chequered history, and there are too many failures to justify modernusage. The wine industry is seeking alternatives such as the screw cap for still wines, which may, in turn, becomeeconomical for home use. For homewinemaking, any CO2 pressure in wine bottles will be accommodated by thetirage cap, until a replacement is found, if ever.

Allow TimeTimeTimeTime to do its part, be patient, and be pleasantly surprised that wine, given a chance, can be quite forgiving oferrors, except those of poor sanitation. Any table wine of 10%-12% alcohol should mature in bottle for at least yearbefore drinking. Bottling small tasters, which will mature more quickly, will enable earlier taste checks.

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Be also pleasantly surprised how the rough will become smooth, especially if the “right” malolactic bacteria, wild orcultured, have been active, and/or unhurried chemistry evolves during optimum undisturbed maturation time. InInInIn bottlebottlebottlebottleis a more reductive environment, and MLF, by producing some CO2, will contribute to this. Bouquet, (more winey), isrelated to the reductive stage of maturation, while aroma, (more fruity), is more a product of the oxidative stage, so awell-made wine will have a balance of both, bouquet becoming more dominant with age. Excess oxygen at bottlingwill accelerate maturation, to the detriment of bouquet, as will higher temperatures.

Metabisulphite at sufficient strength introduced during rackings can prevent MLF, if you prefer. Fruit wines may notrespond as well as grape wines, but either type, red or white, should respond well to MLF ifififif full-bodiedfull-bodiedfull-bodiedfull-bodied, with sufficientacid, tannins, dryness and alcohol. Low-alcohol, low-acid, low tannin wines will thus benefit from sorbate addition atbottling. Keep wine levels high under airlocks, to minimise gas reversal, but never touching stoppers. Use purestrong meta solution in the airlocks,regularly refreshed to maintain strength and effectiveness to discourage insects.

KeyKeyKeyKey factorsfactorsfactorsfactors inininin successfulsuccessfulsuccessfulsuccessful winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking areareareare PLANNING,PLANNING,PLANNING,PLANNING, ORGANISATION,ORGANISATION,ORGANISATION,ORGANISATION, OPTIMISATION,OPTIMISATION,OPTIMISATION,OPTIMISATION, PREFERENTIALPREFERENTIALPREFERENTIALPREFERENTIALTREATMENTTREATMENTTREATMENTTREATMENT OFOFOFOF CHOSENCHOSENCHOSENCHOSEN YEASTYEASTYEASTYEAST TYPE,TYPE,TYPE,TYPE, OBSERVATION,OBSERVATION,OBSERVATION,OBSERVATION, ORGANOLEPTICORGANOLEPTICORGANOLEPTICORGANOLEPTIC TESTING,TESTING,TESTING,TESTING, RECORDRECORDRECORDRECORD KEEPING,KEEPING,KEEPING,KEEPING,TIME,TIME,TIME,TIME, PATIENCE,PATIENCE,PATIENCE,PATIENCE, andandandand (CALCULATED)(CALCULATED)(CALCULATED)(CALCULATED) OPTIMISM.OPTIMISM.OPTIMISM.OPTIMISM. TheseTheseTheseThese principlesprinciplesprinciplesprinciples areareareare alsoalsoalsoalso applicableapplicableapplicableapplicable totototo successfulsuccessfulsuccessfulsuccessful homehomehomehomebrewing.brewing.brewing.brewing.

Do develop your own organoleptic skills, and use them throughout the winemaking or brewing processes. Even theyoungest must or wort has a message for you, not least as regards comparisons of progress with future fermentations.You will need to know, and balance, the taste (or smell) of any additive that may subsist, in any proportion, to the endof fermentation and maturation, and tartaric/natural acid and tannins are a good examples.

If you are serious enough, even as a Rule-of-Thumb Winemaker, you will also need to build a working knowledge ofhow original fruits, and possible combinations, will change in taste or smell throughout the entire process, so that moreconfident outcomes may be predicted. Sufficient working knowledge will, in turn, engender a growing trust in yourown organoleptic skills, and how to apply their findings.

RememberRememberRememberRemember Records!Records!Records!Records! Records!Records!Records!Records! Records!Records!Records!Records! However rudimentary, they will prove increasingly valuable as timepasses, and this will include TastingTastingTastingTasting NotesNotesNotesNotes compiled at your table. For the best tasting results, after the toil ofwinemaking and any degree of maturation are completed, appreciation will then depend on treatment and handling ofwine before consumption. Rest wine after a journey, and at the correct cellar temperature, if the wine has any valueto you at all. Provide appropriate glasses, ambience, conversation, accompanying foods, time of day, and convivialand compatible company.

Decanting, too, is important, although the time elapsed before drinking will depend on the robustness, style, type, andage of the wine. Even a sparkling wine left to settle for a few moments, after being “decanted” into a glass, willbenefit as possible unwanted volatiles may be vented before the first sip. Most importantly, if you wish to appreciatethe colour of your mature wine, what better than to see a well-filled decanter in good light against a fresh white tablecloth?

Oxygen, which may be the enemy during winemaking, will benefit any wine in small amounts during optimum rest afterdecanting time, and experience will teach you the capabilities of your own style of wines to react favourably to carefuldecanting. Reds may benefit most of all, whites will need more care. Tannins are most likely to react with oxygenafter aeration, and for the better, but do not prolong aeration, or other elements of aroma and/or bouquet may be lost.For these reasons, experience with, and records of decanting relative to both wine types and ages need to be builtupon.

How often has that half bottle of red, forgotten in the refrigerator for a few days, surprised you when restored to roomtemperature again? Any partly consumed bottles should be stored thus, and the whites will be drunk slightly chilledanyway. But, there is much to be read about cellaring tasting elsewhere, and written by some whose whole lives arecentered on wine, and as well, you must build your own experiences, so these remarks are only intended as verbal“tastings” in their turn. There is a whole literature of wine appreciation to be assayed!

PreferentialPreferentialPreferentialPreferential treatmenttreatmenttreatmenttreatment forforforfor chosenchosenchosenchosen SaccharomycesSaccharomycesSaccharomycesSaccharomyces CereviseaeCereviseaeCereviseaeCereviseae strainsstrainsstrainsstrains:Inherent in allallallall successful brewing and winemaking is the principle of favouring the survival and thriving of the chosenSC yeast culture, as MostMostMostMost FavouredFavouredFavouredFavoured OrganismOrganismOrganismOrganism throughout the fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation processprocessprocessprocess. Wine and beer yeastcompete with other microorganisms that rely on similar resources to survive, such as water, oxygen, sugar, minerals,nitrogen, etc. Hence the prompt and pre-emptive use of metabisulphite at various stages of winemaking, startingimmediately post-harvest favours SC, as does fermentation of sound, good quality fruit.

SC yeasts are developed to be tolerant of sulphursulphursulphursulphur dioxide,dioxide,dioxide,dioxide, SO2SO2SO2SO2, the active constituent of metabisulphite, at levelsthat will kill most common yeast competitors, including wild yeasts. Later, when the proliferated yeast is coerced intofacultatively anaerobic function as free oxygen is reduced, any potential competition from unwanted organisms thatmay have hitherto survived the FP will thus continue to be thwarted.

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SC yeast are also tolerant of rising carbon dioxide levels, especially that which is dissolved in the aqueous must afterbeing quickly generated as a byproduct of metabolism in the early oxygen-rich primary fermentation, also adding to theoverall acidity of the must. CO2 is, therefore, a useful yeast-generated gas barrier in fermentation vessels andairlocks, thus excluding atmospheric oxygen. CO2 and alcohol will be produced in almost equal amounts bybybyby weightweightweightweight(alcohol approx. 1% more) in any normal fermentation, from a given sugar quantity. Use a hydrometer for sugarmeasurement, not least to ensure that dry wines are dry when fermentation is/seems complete, and always stabiliselower alcohol sweet wines before bottling.

CommercialCommercialCommercialCommercial orororor culturedculturedculturedcultured winewinewinewine yeastsyeastsyeastsyeasts havehavehavehave thesethesethesethese basicbasicbasicbasic characteristics:characteristics:characteristics:characteristics:• will ferment 25%-30% sugar musts to dryness• will tolerate 50-100ppm freefreefreefree SO2• will produce min. acetic acid, hydrogen sulphide, or SO2• will tolerate cool 50ºF/15ºC to 100ºF/31ºC temperatures• will tolerate low pH musts < 3.0 (FromWinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking, Vine et al, Ch.3 p.78, ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences)

Fermentation by the carboniccarboniccarboniccarbonic macerationmacerationmacerationmaceration processprocessprocessprocess is undertaken with inoculated whole grapes bunches sealed invessels which are then filled with CO2, for the purpose of obtaining high pigmentation, and softer tannins, thenpressed, blended an/or matured, and bottled. The outcome is typical of French Beaujolais or Australian CabMacstyle wines, with a distinct fruity aroma and taste, not meant to be aged.

ToToToTo emphasiseemphasiseemphasiseemphasise fruityfruityfruityfruity componentscomponentscomponentscomponents inininin theirtheirtheirtheir ownownownown wineswineswineswines, homewinemakers may wish to withhold a strained portion oforiginal pre-yeast must, and add again after the primary ferment is completed. This is a technique that is useful eitherfor full-bodied or conventional white wines, and a cooler primary and/or secondary fermentation will also help retaindesirable volatiles. The sussreservesussreservesussreservesussreserve portion thus added will depend on how strong these taste or aromacomponents are to be, an example of the Winemaker’s Art being applied in this case!

More than one yeast strain in a complex fermentation process may be used to achieve a particular result, and all ofthese may not survive for long after having done their complementary best to help the winemaker, be this for taste,smell, alcohol content or whatever. The higher-alcohol-tolerant strain of S. Cerevisiae will be the great survivor untilit, too, can function no longer amidst the products of its own labours. But any or all strains must be enabled toperform for as long as possible in an environment as free as possible of contamination by any other undesirableorganism, and any possible byproducts of their metabolisms. (CeresCeresCeresCeres, Roman Goddess of Agriculture)

This is the principle difference between the controlled fermentations of our modern era and the less certain processesof yesteryear, even unto the home wine making processes of you or I! By all accounts, we live in an age ofunparalleled quality of winemaking and brewing products, not just the consumer-friendly mass-produced variety, butthe sheer diversification possibilities of quality products made possible by optimum use of constituents, in turnguaranteed by successful fermentation and maturation outcomes expedited by modern scientific knowledge andmethods. Maker and market both benefit, as does the home hobbyist.

The main physical difference between winemaking, brewing, and baking yeasts is the degree if alcohol tolerance. Inthe case of baking yeasts, they can be used for low-alcohol beverages, but this is not recommended for reasons ofbalance and taste, although they do complement citrus wines, according to those who are knowledgeable in thismatter. Bakers’ yeasts are principally designed to generate CO2 for proofing dough. This occurs in a normalatmosphere, at a time when yeasts are supposed to proliferate and produce CO2, but little or no alcohol which iseasily lost in the baking process anyway.

Beer yeasts in general do not tolerate alcohol much beyond 6%-8%, and are unsuitable, for this and organolepticreasons, to use in lieu of wine yeasts. HoweverHoweverHoweverHowever, make no mistake, the type and quality of all wine and beer yeastsused for specific styles is important. Take the trouble to use appropriate yeasts for given ingredients and plannedoutcomes, and for overall quality of the end product, which will be youryouryouryour home wine that you will be proud to proffer forsampling by others.

Successful maturation of particular alcoholic beverages after the principle fermentation also is contingent uponcontinued control of organisms, including SC yeasts. Unless, of course, there is, as in the case of wine, a prescribedvinous malolactic fermentation episode initiated by the professional winemaker, or, the fortuitous late MLF episode,with the “right” organisms, involving a home vintage.

However, reduction of malic acid, if profound, may mean that particular wine is no longer quite so stable, so keep trackof the aging process of MLF wines. Lower alcohol quaffersquaffersquaffersquaffers will be especially vulnerable, even if dry. Fuller bodieddry wines, especially red, with higher malic acid respond better to MLF, you could even split a vintage, red or white,stabilizing one control portion with extra SO2 to make organoleptic and aging comparisons. Sweet wines should notundergo MLF, and whites for MLF need selection.

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MLFMLFMLFMLF isisisis subjectsubjectsubjectsubject totototo thethethethe followingfollowingfollowingfollowing limits:limits:limits:limits:• pH must be above 3.3,• free SO2 @10-5ppm, bound 50ppm, nor added before or after fermentation,• alcohol less than 12%• wine temps @ 65º-70ºF/20º-22ºC (FromWinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking, Vine et al, Ch3 p.84, ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences.)

Certainly, MLF will not occur in higher alcohol wines, which destroy MLF bacteria (anaerobes),(anaerobes),(anaerobes),(anaerobes), which have beensurviving along with SC yeasts to the point where higher alcohol levels than they could tolerate have overcome them.Wine yeasts not killed outright by SO2 or alcohol become dormant, and eventually die of old age, settling to beremoved by racking, or final filtering. Time will do a good job, anyway. Stabilising lower alcohol sweet wines willprevent yeastyeastyeastyeast from further fermenting them.

Beer is usually bottled much sooner than wine, no problem to the home brewer, but requiring market-driven filtering inmost commercial operations. Beer also can be left to mature in suitable cool conditions for weeks or even a coupleof months if necessary; the beer will be clear, but will require priming with CO2 before bottling and/or dispensing fromcasks. Being of low alcohol, beer does not have good aging prospects, beyond a few years, and given optimumcellaring.

ToToToTo concentrateconcentrateconcentrateconcentrate onononon thethethethe homehomehomehome winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking process,process,process,process, at the beginning of the winemaking, when the pulp and juiceetc., are prepared, metabisulphite must be added in prescribed amounts to eliminate undesirable organisms, such aswild yeasts, bacteria and other fungii and moulds. SaccharomycesSaccharomycesSaccharomycesSaccharomyces CereviseaeCereviseaeCereviseaeCereviseae is the sugar fungus, (var.ellipsoideusellipsoideusellipsoideusellipsoideus the principle variety for winemaking), but sugar is of course beloved of many other forms of life, largeand small, hence the biocidal precautions that favour the growth and well-being of the winemaker’s yeast. Theexception, of course, would be when boiled, pasteurised, or other suitably preserved products may be used for themust.

However, ongoing stability will usually involve SO2 addition at some stage, even if it is just the sanitising residualincorporated at racking or bottling times, which is possible with an optimally developed dry wine, see below. Thejuice/pulp is sulphited, and after the lag period, when yeast culture inoculation takes place, free SO2 maintains thisprotection as the more sulphite-tolerant yeast are enabled to go to work in a sugar-rich and slightly warm liquidenvironment that would support proliferation of many opportunistic organisms, if they were given the chance.

Fermentation temperatures below 15ºC, although slowing the overall process, will inhibit bacteria, and the other wildyeasts, funguses or moulds. However, the higher the pH, the more SC yeasts are inhibited, and also, the lowernutritional levels are, especially that of nitrogen, the more inhibited SC becomes. SC will also be favoured by lowersugar levels as they drop during fermentation, at least in competition with other organisms. SC can, most importantly,tolerate decreasing oxygen levels in the must, because of their ability to be facultatively anaerobic. This faculty is thesource of the metabolic byproduct ethanol, by anaerobic fermentation, being one of the main purposes of the initiatingcontrolled fermentation exercise for the winemaker or brewer.

Bacteria, such as acetobacter, are thermophilic, and favour warmer temperatures than are usually employed by thehome winemaker, and also do not like a low pH, which in the case of wine yeasts may range from a low 2.8 to 3.5. Afinished wine should be 2.8 to 3.8, although the higher pH wine may need stabilising, depending on composition.MLF bacteria favour a pH range of 3.2-3.4 to function optimally. (There are wine yeasts being developed that willalso perform the malic acid reduction functions of MLF bacteria, see research of Dr. Ronald Subden of CCOEVICCOEVICCOEVICCOEVI, BrockUniversity.)

Encouraging fast proliferation of yeasts by inoculating juice with concentrated cultures further enables early SC yeastdomination of musts that still may carry residual undesirables. So-called killer yeasts may also succeed over otherless robust varieties. Fortunately, “good” MLF bacteria that favour certain wines, especially reds, can still live with SCyeast throughout its lifecycle until, as previously mentioned, alcohol concentration is too high, or a sufficiently strongincrement of metabisulphite is added.

For the home winemaker, sufficient SO2 will control MLF bacteria, but attention would need to be paid to how muchmalic acid was present in the original juice to maintain taste balance in the final product. Care must be also takenthat MLF occurs only in wines that are suited to this, as there may be undesirable gassiness, and the acid may beover-reduced, unbalancing taste. Heuristics and personal taste may rule, OK?

Wine maturation before bottling depends on wine type, anything from 2-3 months to 12 months, and the dry higheracid higher tannin wines will benefit the most. Bottling when (optimally) clear and bright would suit most home-madewines, as a rule of thumb.

PreservationPreservationPreservationPreservation andandandand stabilisationstabilisationstabilisationstabilisation:::: ToToToTo suspendsuspendsuspendsuspend thethethethe statusstatusstatusstatus ofofofof yeastyeastyeastyeast asasasas MFOMFOMFOMFO, sorbate is added to higher pHand residual sugar wines, (light sweet summersummersummersummer winewinewinewine, young or quaffing types of wines), in tandem with metabisulphiteinininin carefullycarefullycarefullycarefully controlledcontrolledcontrolledcontrolled dosesdosesdosesdoses, to inhibit yeast budding, after which the extra SO2 prolongs dormancy and/or deals thecoup-de-grace to the remaining yeasts, and any other unwanted surviving organisms.

7

Beyond 12% alcohol, MLF will normally not take place, and anyway, at this alcohol level, a table wine would also beconsidered unbalanced as to taste and physical effects on humans in relation to quantity imbibed. Flor yeasts, whichmay or may not be S. Cereviseae, are high-alcohol tolerant, 18% or so, and are encouraged to grow in a skin acrossthe surface of sherry base wines, in conditions of alcohol levels that preclude the survival of other organisms, and helpto develop that distinctive sherry taste. A common flor yeast is saccharomycessaccharomycessaccharomycessaccharomyces beticus.beticus.beticus.beticus.

In earlier times, before the attainment of potable drinking water by scientific understanding and methods, wine, orindeed distilled spirits when discovered, would be added to water for purification purposes. Resin in wine was forstabilising and preserving purposes, as were other herbs, similarly in beer, before the widespread use of hops. Beer,of course, was usually safe to drink if handled carefully, because of the extensive boiling involved in brewing.

Sulphur dioxide as a preservative has a very long history also, as do wooden casks for storage and transport.Stoppered amphorae served the Ancient World, a technology “lost” to Early Europe, accounting for all that young winedrunk, but reborn again the form of the modern bottle of the C17. Ask Google, re wine or beer history, or consult abook such as AncientAncientAncientAncient WineWineWineWine. (See ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences, wine history for the sheer pleasure of pursuing it.) Those earlybeverages would also have been consumed fairly young, and probably would not have had the alcohol content oftoday’s versions, but sufficient then, at least, to aid water quality control. Kidney stones due to inadequate fluid intakewere more common in the past than nowadays, so a reliable fluid source was worth the wait in more ways than one,especially when imbibed by all ages as a constituent or additive of a health-giving beverage made by utilising theservices of that most favoured of organisms, and traditional friend of Mankind, viz Saccharomyces, the sugarsugarsugarsugar fungusfungusfungusfungus,of the Family Cereviseae.

TheseTheseTheseThese days,days,days,days, homehomehomehome winemaking,winemaking,winemaking,winemaking, especially,especially,especially,especially, favoursfavoursfavoursfavours thethethethe finishedfinishedfinishedfinished 10%-12%10%-12%10%-12%10%-12% alcoholalcoholalcoholalcohol drydrydrydry tabletabletabletable wines,wines,wines,wines, becausebecausebecausebecausethesethesethesethese areareareare inherentlyinherentlyinherentlyinherently stable,stable,stable,stable, withwithwithwith littlelittlelittlelittle orororor nononono residualresidualresidualresidual sugar,sugar,sugar,sugar, lowlowlowlow pH,pH,pH,pH, balancedbalancedbalancedbalanced withwithwithwith optimumoptimumoptimumoptimum tartaric/naturaltartaric/naturaltartaric/naturaltartaric/naturalacidacidacidacid andandandand tannins,tannins,tannins,tannins, bothbothbothboth ofofofof whichwhichwhichwhich contributecontributecontributecontribute totototo stabilitystabilitystabilitystability andandandand preservationpreservationpreservationpreservation ofofofof tabletabletabletable wine,wine,wine,wine, colour,colour,colour,colour, andandandand balancebalancebalancebalance ofofofoftaste.taste.taste.taste. TheseTheseTheseThese areareareare wineswineswineswines thatthatthatthat requirerequirerequirerequire minimumminimumminimumminimum interferenceinterferenceinterferenceinterference duringduringduringduring theirtheirtheirtheir making,making,making,making, andandandand looklooklooklook afterafterafterafter themselvesthemselvesthemselvesthemselves quitequitequitequitewellwellwellwell whenwhenwhenwhen leftleftleftleft alonealonealonealone totototo mature.mature.mature.mature.

These are also the types of wines that may need some time to mature before drinking, reds more so than whites, amaturation which may take place in casks, and also be prolonged past the bottling stage as well. These are the so-called keepers, and a quality fuller bodied home wine may just as easily aspire to this description. If the young wineis rather rough after a period of bulk maturation, but in other ways sound, bottle anyway, and let TimeTimeTimeTime, and goodcellaring, do the rest. A series of small tester bottles opened at intervals will indicate progress, and ahead of the bulkwine maturation rate itself, as smaller bottled quantities mature more quickly.

IncreasingIncreasingIncreasingIncreasing lacklacklacklack ofofofof oxygenoxygenoxygenoxygen favours yeast during fermentation, especially when the must loses free oxygen as thefermentation progresses, and this then favours the wine itself in reductive stages such as in bottle. Oxygen also isimportant in carefully controlled doses for maturation of any wine, in bulk or in bottle. White wines require less micro-oxygenation than red. SO2 added during maturation also reduces enzymatic and oxidative chemical reactions,although colour may be temporarily affected. Reds may require less final SO2 because there is more tannin retained,and because there was always more added during the winemaking process itself. There is plenty of literature abouton the subject for browsing.

The exception for stabilisation is, of course, when those fortuitously friendly MLF bacteria survive to function in tablewines when the SC yeast have finished. Commercial grape winemakers usually encourage controlled MLF at themust stage, immediately after, or even in tandem with, normal yeast fermentation, so the wine is stable duringmaturation, and definitely so before bottling. Home wines are usually found to have developed a slight fizz in bottleafter a spell of warm weather, and this depends on the presence or absence of desirable bacteria in areas ambientwhen wine is made. Additional SO2 at bottling will prevent this occurring if unwanted.

Thus,Thus,Thus,Thus, theretheretherethere isisisis goodgoodgoodgood newsnewsnewsnews forforforfor thethethethe no-frillsno-frillsno-frillsno-frills homehomehomehome winemakerwinemakerwinemakerwinemaker, in that a slower, cooler, well-nourished fermentation,with correct yeast, balanced ingredients, optimal sulphite, tannins, and pH, plus careful low oxygen handling and apotentially 10%-12% alcohol dry finish, will result in product that is an easy-to-make-and-keep and balancedbalancedbalancedbalanced tablewine. Home wines may contain differing proportions of acids, especially of tartaric, if any, but tartaric acid is apreservative; some in addition is worth considering if the must is not a grape blend, but with care.

MLF is optional, at least at the discretion of the home winemaker, given that MLF can definitely be prevented ifspontaneous MLF is not always predictable or desirable. The following is an informative passage that explains the useof MLF in relation to conventional grape wines, and would be useful for MLF decision making regarding similar winestyles or musts for home winemakers, so, allowing for the referral to grape wine:

““““MalaolacticMalaolacticMalaolacticMalaolactic fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation is a secondary fermentation that converts malic acid to lactic acid with the aid of lacticbacteria, which may be naturally present in the winery, or artificially added. As with alcoholic fermentation, the reactionis accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide, butbutbutbut in much smaller quantities. Malolactic fermentation alters thetaste of the wine, and is either deliberately encouraged or specifically avoided. It reduces the wine's acidacidacidacid content,improves the aromas, and sometimes leads to a slight increase in volatile acids. The wine is made more stable,because there is no longer any danger that this second ( MLF) fermentation will take place in the bottle.

8

The lactic bacteria can also cause a decrease of other components of the wine besides malic acid. If they affect thesugars, for example, the taste may develop a lactic acid edge. Consequently, it is vital that all the sugar is brokendown during the alcoholic fermentation. 5ulfur dioxide added after pressing or to the tanks or barrels can render thebacteria inactive, without overly impairing the yeasts.

MostMostMostMost redredredred wineswineswineswines undergoundergoundergoundergo malolacticmalolacticmalolacticmalolactic fermentation.fermentation.fermentation.fermentation. ItsItsItsIts useuseuseuse withwithwithwith whiteswhiteswhiteswhites andandandand rosesrosesrosesroses dependsdependsdependsdepends onononon thethethethe regionregionregionregion andandandand thethethethestylestylestylestyle ofofofof thethethethe wine.wine.wine.wine. InInInIn regionsregionsregionsregions withwithwithwith aaaa Mediterranean-typeMediterranean-typeMediterranean-typeMediterranean-type climate,climate,climate,climate, wherewherewherewhere thethethethe wineswineswineswines areareareare oftenoftenoftenoften lackinglackinglackinglacking inininin acidity,acidity,acidity,acidity,thisthisthisthis secondsecondsecondsecond fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation isisisis avoided.avoided.avoided.avoided. InInInIn coolercoolercoolercooler regions,regions,regions,regions, thethethethe wineswineswineswines tendtendtendtend totototo containcontaincontaincontain moremoremoremore acid,acid,acid,acid, andandandand sosososomalolacticmalolacticmalolacticmalolactic fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation isisisis oftenoftenoftenoften employed,employed,employed,employed, providedprovidedprovidedprovided thatthatthatthat drydrydrydry wineswineswineswines areareareare beingbeingbeingbeing produced.produced.produced.produced. If a wine containsresidualresidualresidualresidual sugarsugarsugarsugar, chemical de-acidification is used in preference to malolactic fermentation. In countries where there isno great tradition of producing sweet wines, this tends to be the practice with dry whites as well.” (Extract fromWINEWINEWINEWINE, A. Domine, p.125, see ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences.)

MLF culture may be obtainable commercially if you seek a controlled MLF, add as the yeast fermentation is finishing ifyou want a still MLF wine, or before bottling if you want a slight sparkle or spritzer effect in the end product.Spontaneous MLF may be difficult to prevent before fermentation, as SO2 concentrations sufficient to kill the bacteriawill also kill yeast, although heat treatment would be effective, as long as must properties were not changed by this.(See also MakingMakingMakingMaking GoodGoodGoodGood WineWineWineWine, Rankine, pp.175-181, see ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences.) MLF stable means just that, so wine stabilityin regards to other organisms must be controlled by good sanitization practices and chemical controls such as sorbateor SO2 to the right proportions.

Note that chemicalchemicalchemicalchemical de-acidificationde-acidificationde-acidificationde-acidification may be achieved simply by adding judiciousjudiciousjudiciousjudicious and discrete amounts of calciumcarbonate/precipitated chalk or sodium bicarbonate to a grape must or an unfinished wine sample, (tasting at eachstep), say a teaspoonful per 4.5 liters maximum at each addition. Remember that acid contributes to stability andaging, and conversely, adding acid in judiciousjudiciousjudiciousjudicious, discrete amounts, especially tartaric, being more stable in wine, willincrease acidity accordingly.

Tartaric in excess in grape wines will combine with sodium and potassium salts to form tartrates, this also being theprinciple behind de-acidification. However, chilling of wines will help remove any excess tartrates as any crystalsformed can be racked off. TryTryTryTry thisthisthisthis sortsortsortsort ofofofof measuremeasuremeasuremeasure withwithwithwith maturingmaturingmaturingmaturing winewinewinewine samples,samples,samples,samples, andandandand comparecomparecomparecompare withwithwithwith thethethethe original,original,original,original,totototo errerrerrerr onononon thethethethe sidesidesideside ofofofof cautioncautioncautioncaution. FruitFruitFruitFruit wineswineswineswines may be unbalanced by the distinctive taste of tartaric and malic acids, soproceed with care, foregoing any addition, or, simply controlling MLF to reduce instability, and thus retain acidity andtartness. Citric acid is also distinctive in taste, so test samples, as is certainly not advised for adding to grape wines,or grape blend wines, nor in wines intended for MLF to finish them, as insipidity and off-tastes will result.

LowerLowerLowerLower temperaturestemperaturestemperaturestemperatures ofofofof fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation, apart from favouring SC yeast, will also ensure a fruitier, more subtle taste,aroma, and ultimately bouquet, as more volatiles may be conserved to influence the balance of the finished wine.Time will do the rest, and a bright, surprisingly mature and pleasant home wine will ensue after a minimum of 12months, give or take a couple of quality controlled tester bottles sampled in the interim. TheTheTheThe keykeykeykey totototo creatingcreatingcreatingcreating aaaaworthwhileworthwhileworthwhileworthwhile orororor hopefully,hopefully,hopefully,hopefully, aaaa memorablememorablememorablememorable wine,wine,wine,wine, isisisis balance,balance,balance,balance, andandandand thisthisthisthis willwillwillwill involveinvolveinvolveinvolve thethethethe sumsumsumsum ofofofof allallallall thethethethe aspectsaspectsaspectsaspects ofofofof youryouryouryourwinemaking,winemaking,winemaking,winemaking, fromfromfromfrom ingredients,ingredients,ingredients,ingredients, totototo stylestylestylestyle andandandand durationdurationdurationduration ofofofof fermentation,fermentation,fermentation,fermentation, totototo cellaringcellaringcellaringcellaring andandandand aging.aging.aging.aging. For interest, youmay like to read up on sourdoughsourdoughsourdoughsourdough cultureculturecultureculture, another fortuitous combination of yeast and lactobacillus in our service,making possible sourdough bread, with carbon dioxide as the rising agent. Just enter sourdoughsourdoughsourdoughsourdough in any searchengine for Web references. Also, the traditional gingergingergingerginger beerbeerbeerbeer plantplantplantplant has similar characteristics.

FinallyFinallyFinallyFinally, it is best to say that time, skill, patience and some degree of intelligence and aesthetic sensibility are requiredfor successful and worthwhile home-brewing and winemaking. Unless, that is, you just want immature plonk for quickbulk drinking, because that is what you will get without adequate input of planning, organisation and ongoing learning.Along with just the plonk, there will also, very probably, be some unhealthy by-products, as well as increasinglyunhealthy consumption habits.

Certainly,Certainly,Certainly,Certainly, less-than-optimalless-than-optimalless-than-optimalless-than-optimal brewingbrewingbrewingbrewing andandandand winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking methodsmethodsmethodsmethods maymaymaymay wellwellwellwell favourfavourfavourfavour thethethethe proliferationproliferationproliferationproliferation ofofofof organismsorganismsorganismsorganismsotherotherotherother thanthanthanthan SaccharomycesSaccharomycesSaccharomycesSaccharomyces Cereviseae,Cereviseae,Cereviseae,Cereviseae, withwithwithwith predictablepredictablepredictablepredictable consequences.consequences.consequences.consequences. If you must drink in bulk, hopefully withcar locked away, then you would be better off, in the long run, to buy a quality-controlled commercial product in bulk tocater for this need, rather than waste time and effort on attempting good- quality do-it-yourself alcoholic beverages.

ForForForFor othersothersothersothers whowhowhowho seekseekseekseek aaaa rewarding,rewarding,rewarding,rewarding, many-facetedmany-facetedmany-facetedmany-faceted hobby,hobby,hobby,hobby, withwithwithwith aaaa longlonglonglong historical,historical,historical,historical, eveneveneveneven archaeologicalarchaeologicalarchaeologicalarchaeological pedigree,pedigree,pedigree,pedigree,employingemployingemployingemploying time,time,time,time, intelligence,intelligence,intelligence,intelligence, andandandand patience,patience,patience,patience, whilewhilewhilewhile usingusingusingusing fruits,fruits,fruits,fruits, plantsplantsplantsplants andandandand flowersflowersflowersflowers ofofofof fields,fields,fields,fields, gardens,gardens,gardens,gardens, wildwildwildwildplacesplacesplacesplaces andandandand grapegrapegrapegrape vines,vines,vines,vines, (not(not(not(not forgettingforgettingforgettingforgetting hophophophop bines),bines),bines),bines), whywhywhywhy notnotnotnot taketaketaketake up,up,up,up, andandandand enjoy,enjoy,enjoy,enjoy, homehomehomehome winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking andandandandbrewing,brewing,brewing,brewing, andandandand goodgoodgoodgood luckluckluckluck andandandand goodgoodgoodgood sippingsippingsippingsipping totototo you!you!you!you!

ContentsContentsContentsContents ReturnReturnReturnReturn

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COMMONCOMMONCOMMONCOMMON SUGARSSUGARSSUGARSSUGARS FORFORFORFORWINEMAKINGWINEMAKINGWINEMAKINGWINEMAKING ANDANDANDAND BREWING:BREWING:BREWING:BREWING:

SWEETNESSSWEETNESSSWEETNESSSWEETNESS SCALESCALESCALESCALE

ENZYMEFRUCTOSEFRUCTOSEFRUCTOSEFRUCTOSE 17171717 -ASE-ASE-ASE-ASE

SUCROSESUCROSESUCROSESUCROSE 10101010 ““““

GLUCOSEGLUCOSEGLUCOSEGLUCOSE 7777 ““““

GLCERINEGLCERINEGLCERINEGLCERINE 6666 Byproduct, stable after formation, or as additive

MALTOSEMALTOSEMALTOSEMALTOSE 5.55.55.55.5 -ASE-ASE-ASE-ASE

LACTOSELACTOSELACTOSELACTOSE 3333 ““““

Note that honey, being of mixed sugars, mainly fructose and glucose with some sucrose, will be between 10 and 17 inthe sweetness scale, fructose being the main sweetener.

Lactose is non-fermentable by S. Cerevisiae yeast, hence milkmilkmilkmilk stoutstoutstoutstout, sweetened with lactose, but beware lactoseintolerance. Glycerine is similarly non-fermentable. Truly dry wine is .01% sugar, usually complex residual sugarsnonfermentable by the yeast, and enzymes can be obtained to enable optimum dryness if desired. Starch and pectinwhen present, as more complex sugars need the addition of the enzymes amylase and pectinase to be reduced tomore simple sugars that the yeast can ferment.

Fruits, when ripe, usually contain more concentrated sugars than other plant forms, so always crush, soak, blend, etc.,to obtain a balanced SG reading before any chaptalisation. Invert sugar is not necessary for chaptalisation, assucrose will be effectively inverted by yeast enzymes in a must of ideal pH, they adjust their enzyme productionaccordingly, and more easily if properly nourished. Always ensure added sugar is fully dissolved, the use of sugarsyrup made with a minimum of warm water will ensure this. Sucrose is actually a disaccharide, composed of themonosaccharides glucose and fructose, very common in nature, and should be completely fermented in a naturallyand completely finished dry wine.

Too much initial sugar in a must may inhibit the yeast, due to the osmotic process being disrupted, some yeasts aremore tolerant than others of high sugar concentration. However, incremental addition of sugar, more effectiveduring the anaerobic secondary fermentation, can increase alcohol production, although this concentration of alcoholwill eventually kill the yeast. Lack of sugar in a secondary fermentation only leads to yeast dormancy, hence theneed for stabilization if the fermentation of added sugars is to be prevented, and other possible organisms in theoriginal must that utilize sugar also need to be eliminated before fermentation begins.

ChaptalisationChaptalisationChaptalisationChaptalisation of white wine must occurs after pressing, while with red wines the unpressed must is chaptalised, sowith fruit or vegetable wines, the decision will depend on the produce used, how full-bodied the wine is to be, howmuch colour, and how much tannin is needed, as the alcohol will leach any tannins present before pressing.

As implied by the chart, sweetness in wines, whether fermentation is stopped by stabilizing, or by natural cessation ofyeast activity due to high alcohol content, is a combination of the types of sugars unfermented or added, and theirrelative amounts. Also, different sugars added may confer their own tastes as well as degree of sweetnessdepending on the must, eg, raw sugar at 1kg:25 litres complements a finished date wine very well, the resultresembles a fine dry sherry.

As a matter of interest, sugars can be increasingly complex, depending on the number of simple monosaccharidesthat are linked. Apart from their differing tolerance of alcohol concentration, beer and wine yeasts have differingcapabilities as regards the range of sugars that they can ferment, and this also may vary within their respectivegroups. Complementary commercial enzymes aid fermenting of the more complex sugars, apart from starch andpectin, as mentioned.

ForForForFor HydrometerHydrometerHydrometerHydrometer parametersparametersparametersparameters,,,, seeseeseesee p.p.p.p. 16161616ContentsContentsContentsContents ReturnReturnReturnReturn

10

QUICKQUICKQUICKQUICK WINEMAKINGWINEMAKINGWINEMAKINGWINEMAKING ADDITIVESADDITIVESADDITIVESADDITIVES CHECKlISTCHECKlISTCHECKlISTCHECKlIST asasasas applicable:applicable:applicable:applicable:

MUSTMUSTMUSTMUST INGREDIENTS,INGREDIENTS,INGREDIENTS,INGREDIENTS, OVERALLOVERALLOVERALLOVERALL COMPATIBILITY,COMPATIBILITY,COMPATIBILITY,COMPATIBILITY, WINEWINEWINEWINE STYLESTYLESTYLESTYLE

ACIDS:ACIDS:ACIDS:ACIDS: CITRICCITRICCITRICCITRIC withwithwithwith care,care,care,care, strongstrongstrongstrong taste,taste,taste,taste, notnotnotnot forforforfor MLFMLFMLFMLFTARTARICTARTARICTARTARICTARTARIC withwithwithwith care,care,care,care, asasasas isisisis usuallyusuallyusuallyusually veryveryveryvery stable,stable,stable,stable, andandandand isisisis quitequitequitequite bitter,bitter,bitter,bitter,MALICMALICMALICMALIC withwithwithwith care,care,care,care, unlessunlessunlessunless MLFMLFMLFMLF isisisis projected.projected.projected.projected. Or,Or,Or,Or, reducereducereducereduce acid?acid?acid?acid?

TryTryTryTry somesomesomesome dilutedilutedilutedilute acidacidacidacid samplessamplessamplessamples totototo gaingaingaingain aaaa tastetastetastetaste perspective.perspective.perspective.perspective.

CLEARING,CLEARING,CLEARING,CLEARING, FININGFININGFININGFINING INGREDIENTS,INGREDIENTS,INGREDIENTS,INGREDIENTS, bentonite,bentonite,bentonite,bentonite, gelatine,gelatine,gelatine,gelatine, eggeggeggegg white,white,white,white, etc.etc.etc.etc.

ENZYMES:ENZYMES:ENZYMES:ENZYMES: PECTINASEPECTINASEPECTINASEPECTINASE usefulusefulusefuluseful withwithwithwith anyanyanyany amountamountamountamount ofofofof fruitfruitfruitfruit proportionproportionproportionproportion inininin thethethethe must;must;must;must; pectinpectinpectinpectin breakdownbreakdownbreakdownbreakdown alsoalsoalsoalsoreducesreducesreducesreduces methanolmethanolmethanolmethanol by-productby-productby-productby-product proportion.proportion.proportion.proportion.

AMYLASEAMYLASEAMYLASEAMYLASE forforforfor starchstarchstarchstarch

NUTRIENTS:NUTRIENTS:NUTRIENTS:NUTRIENTS: DAPDAPDAPDAPVITAMINS,VITAMINS,VITAMINS,VITAMINS, thiamine,thiamine,thiamine,thiamine, pantothenate,pantothenate,pantothenate,pantothenate, biotinbiotinbiotinbiotinYEASTYEASTYEASTYEAST HULLS,HULLS,HULLS,HULLS, orororor eveneveneveneven Marmite,Marmite,Marmite,Marmite, 1-21-21-21-2 tsp:4.5l,tsp:4.5l,tsp:4.5l,tsp:4.5l, providingprovidingprovidingproviding nitrogennitrogennitrogennitrogen andandandand otherotherotherother nutrientsnutrientsnutrientsnutrients andandandand thenthenthenthen de-de-de-de-toxifyingtoxifyingtoxifyingtoxifying thethethethe mustmustmustmust asasasas yeastyeastyeastyeast beginbeginbeginbegin totototo die.die.die.die.

SANITIZERS/STABILIZERS/ANTIOXIDANTS:SANITIZERS/STABILIZERS/ANTIOXIDANTS:SANITIZERS/STABILIZERS/ANTIOXIDANTS:SANITIZERS/STABILIZERS/ANTIOXIDANTS: METABISULPHITEMETABISULPHITEMETABISULPHITEMETABISULPHITESORBATESORBATESORBATESORBATE

SUGARS:SUGARS:SUGARS:SUGARS: SUCROSE,SUCROSE,SUCROSE,SUCROSE, white,white,white,white, raw,raw,raw,raw, brownbrownbrownbrownDEXTROSEDEXTROSEDEXTROSEDEXTROSEMALTOSE,MALTOSE,MALTOSE,MALTOSE, liquid,liquid,liquid,liquid, powdered,powdered,powdered,powdered, kit,kit,kit,kit, forforforfor brewingbrewingbrewingbrewingHONEYHONEYHONEYHONEY

TANNIN(S)TANNIN(S)TANNIN(S)TANNIN(S)

GLYCERINEGLYCERINEGLYCERINEGLYCERINE

WATERWATERWATERWATER CONDITIONERS:CONDITIONERS:CONDITIONERS:CONDITIONERS: EPSOMEPSOMEPSOMEPSOM SALTS,SALTS,SALTS,SALTS, usefulusefulusefuluseful forforforfor winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking inininin softsoftsoftsoft water.water.water.water.SODIUMSODIUMSODIUMSODIUM CHLORIDECHLORIDECHLORIDECHLORIDECALCIUMCALCIUMCALCIUMCALCIUM SULPHATESULPHATESULPHATESULPHATECALCIUMCALCIUMCALCIUMCALCIUM CHLORIDE,CHLORIDE,CHLORIDE,CHLORIDE, thesethesethesethese lastlastlastlast twotwotwotwo areareareare moremoremoremore importantimportantimportantimportant forforforfor brewing,brewing,brewing,brewing,CALCIUMCALCIUMCALCIUMCALCIUM CARBONATECARBONATECARBONATECARBONATE andandandand aaaa basicbasicbasicbasic waterwaterwaterwater analysisanalysisanalysisanalysis maymaymaymay helphelphelphelp withwithwithwith both.both.both.both.

(Kit(Kit(Kit(Kit beersbeersbeersbeers shouldshouldshouldshould bebebebe self-containedself-containedself-containedself-contained asasasas totototo ingredientsingredientsingredientsingredients atatatat purchase)purchase)purchase)purchase)

YEASTYEASTYEASTYEAST TYPE,TYPE,TYPE,TYPE, SUITABILITYSUITABILITYSUITABILITYSUITABILITY FORFORFORFOR PARTICULARPARTICULARPARTICULARPARTICULAR MUST,MUST,MUST,MUST, orororor BREWBREWBREWBREW

OVERALLOVERALLOVERALLOVERALL BALANCEBALANCEBALANCEBALANCE OFOFOFOF MUST,MUST,MUST,MUST, ANYANYANYANY STAGESTAGESTAGESTAGE OFOFOFOF FERMENTATIONFERMENTATIONFERMENTATIONFERMENTATION

MustMustMustMust is any combination of sugars and ingredients, dissolved in or mixed with water, to which yeast has been added,thence becoming fermenting must, through to the end of primary fermentation, until straining and/or or first rack.WortWortWortWort in brewing has a similar definition, albeit with more actual steps involved, such as boiling, resting, straining, andsparging. Kit beers are more simply mixed and the resulting wort fermented. There may be differences of opinionabout these definitions, however.

Furthermore, one strains a must, thereafter one racks wine, until the winemaking process is finished, thereafter, onedecants from bottle to a decanter, or pours into a glass. One racks wort in beer terms, unless a siphon is used, untilfinished, then racks or siphons off into casks, which are then drawn from, or, bottles the beer, and the bottles are thenpoured from.

Just to make things clearer, but again, opinions as to description and nomenclature of processes and constituents maydiffer, locally, regionally, or internationally, not to mention linguistic differences as well.

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EasyEasyEasyEasy AdditivesAdditivesAdditivesAdditives CheckCheckCheckCheck ie,ie,ie,ie, rulerulerulerule ofofofof thumbthumbthumbthumb cumcumcumcum teaspoon,teaspoon,teaspoon,teaspoon, givengivengivengiven thatthatthatthat 1tsp1tsp1tsp1tsp ==== 5ml.5ml.5ml.5ml. Ingredients:Ingredients:Ingredients:Ingredients: prepare ascustomary for wine type, color, taste, combination, blends.

sugar:sugar:sugar:sugar: white, brown, raw, dextrose, honey, lactose, other

tartarictartarictartarictartaric acid:acid:acid:acid: 1 tsp:4.5l, in grapes, less in other fruits; stabilizer, pH, TASTE

malicmalicmalicmalic acid:acid:acid:acid: 1 tsp:4.5l, common acid, also for pH, TASTE, MLF if required

citriccitriccitriccitric acid:acid:acid:acid: 1 tsp :4.5l, (notnotnotnot forforforfor MLF,MLF,MLF,MLF, grape,grape,grape,grape, root,root,root,root, orororor veg.)veg.)veg.)veg.) UsefulUsefulUsefulUseful forforforfor pH,pH,pH,pH, TASTETASTETASTETASTE

tannin(s):tannin(s):tannin(s):tannin(s): 1 tsp: 4.5l or to TASTE, pH, stabilizer, preservative

DAP:DAP:DAP:DAP: 1/2 tsp:4.5l, pre-packed mixedmixedmixedmixed nitrogen compounds may not suit all wines, or waters, DAP is usually sufficient,independent of water conditioning) NeverNeverNeverNever Urea!Urea!Urea!Urea!

enzymes:enzymes:enzymes:enzymes: pectinasepectinasepectinasepectinase, 4/5 drops/4.5l, 1ml:20 kg crush or 20l juiceamylase,amylase,amylase,amylase, (for starch)))), max 1 tsp/4.5l allow 24 hours before adding yeast.

vitamins:vitamins:vitamins:vitamins: one per 4.5l, or in ratio of 1 thiamine:1 pantothenate:1 biotin every 15l. (Biotin not necessary with freshcrushed grape juice). Meta will denature thiamine, so do not overuse meta in must preparation even though yeastare reasonably resistant.

glycerine:glycerine:glycerine:glycerine: 1 tsp 4.5l, or to taste/mouthfeel, afterafterafterafter fermenting/stabilizing is complete.

yeast:yeast:yeast:yeast: type, starter needed, 24 hour delay for enzymes or meta

starter:starter:starter:starter: halfhalfhalfhalf litrelitrelitrelitre samplesamplesamplesample of prepared must/juice, use yeast as per label

stabilizers,stabilizers,stabilizers,stabilizers, antioxidants:antioxidants:antioxidants:antioxidants: *meta*meta*meta*meta .44gms/1 campden/4.5l, (same for ascorbicascorbicascorbicascorbic acidacidacidacid, do not use ascorbic in still redwines), sorbatesorbatesorbatesorbate same/4.5l, alwaysalwaysalwaysalways with meta >75 ppm. Plus, sorbatesorbatesorbatesorbate is not used for sparkling or red wines, onlyyoung, white, sweet, high pH, low tannins only, notnotnotnot an antibacterial, yeast inhibitor only. PotassiumPotassiumPotassiumPotassium sorbatesorbatesorbatesorbate is justthe yeast inhibitor, while metametametameta will kill off other organisms, especially the MLF bacteria, which can otherwise causetaste problems (geraniumgeraniumgeraniumgeranium), with sorbate. ThisThisThisThis isisisis whywhywhywhy theytheytheythey mustmustmustmust bebebebe usedusedusedused inininin tandem.tandem.tandem.tandem. Ascorbic/erythorbicAscorbic/erythorbicAscorbic/erythorbicAscorbic/erythorbic acidsacidsacidsacidsasasasas antioxidantsantioxidantsantioxidantsantioxidants areareareare notnotnotnot advisedadvisedadvisedadvised forforforfor beginners,beginners,beginners,beginners, metametametameta isisisis better,better,better,better, plusplusplusplus carefulcarefulcarefulcareful mustmustmustmust andandandand winewinewinewine handlinghandlinghandlinghandling techniques.techniques.techniques.techniques.

fining/clearingfining/clearingfining/clearingfining/clearing agents:agents:agents:agents: ad hoc, principally bentonitebentonitebentonitebentonite (-), caseincaseincaseincasein (+), albumenalbumenalbumenalbumen (+), gelatingelatingelatingelatin (+), carrageencarrageencarrageencarrageen (-),isinglassisinglassisinglassisinglass (+), kieselsolkieselsolkieselsolkieselsol (-), sparkalloidsparkalloidsparkalloidsparkalloid (+), plus, re usage, consult experts listed in the ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences. RememberememberememberememberTIMETIMETIMETIME, and conserving of goodgoodgoodgood moleculesmoleculesmoleculesmolecules. Care with constituent preparation, and use of enzymes, is important.NofrillstechNofrillstechNofrillstechNofrillstech principally relies on must balance, enzymes, rice powder, and TIMETIMETIMETIME. So far, OK..?

waterwaterwaterwater conditioners,conditioners,conditioners,conditioners, wine:wine:wine:wine: .5 tsp Epsom Salts:9L, .5 tsp salt:9L or to taste; boil, filter ad hoc, use filtered commercialwater? Potassium in the form of potassium phosphate is also useful, if obtainable, but food grade only.

de-acidification:de-acidification:de-acidification:de-acidification: add judicious amounts of calciumcalciumcalciumcalcium carbonatecarbonatecarbonatecarbonate powder,powder,powder,powder, CaCO3,,,, (aka(aka(aka(aka precipitatedprecipitatedprecipitatedprecipitated chalk),chalk),chalk),chalk), orororor sodasodasodasodabicarbonatebicarbonatebicarbonatebicarbonate, (NaHCO3), 1 tsp/4.5l, taste/test, and repeat, etc., pre or post fermentation, then chill the wine to rack offresulting crystals, esp the tartrates when treating grape wines or dominant grape blends in fruit wines. See alsoRankineRankineRankineRankine 2004,2004,2004,2004, p. 172 re ascorbic acid, p. 180 re tartaric acid, also MLF and red wine, and why the geranium smell,bacteria and sorbic acid p. 257 (See ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences.)

Oxygen,Oxygen,Oxygen,Oxygen, viaviaviavia oxygenation,oxygenation,oxygenation,oxygenation, macromacromacromacro andandandand micro,micro,micro,micro, is friend and enemy, affecting yeast growth, fermentation, unwantedorganisms, volatiles such as acetic acid, which can form in the absence of organisms, and rates of maturation. Takethese facts into account at all stages of must preparation, winemaking, maturation and bottling.

**** 1111 CampdenCampdenCampdenCampden =.44 gms .44 gms per L of meta, or 5-6 Campden/1 tsp per 12/13L, which would also be good enough for ascorbicor sorbate as rule of thumb/teaspoon, normal powder form ...agreed? 1 Campden per 4.5 litres =50 ppm, 2 Camden per 4.5 litres=75 ppm, Note that more acidity may be needed for balance depending on sweetness of the must. CJJCJJCJJCJJ Berry,Berry,Berry,Berry, p.p.p.p. 18,18,18,18, (seeReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences),,,, states that to purify the must, use 1 Campden: 4.5L, each racking also 1 Campden per 4.4 L, and final bottling 2Campden: 4.5L. However, the longer the wine is matured pre-bottling, and the drier, with lower pH and higher tannins, the morestable and long-lived in bottle.

PectinPectinPectinPectin is present in the cell walls of fruits, is desirable to set jams, but needs breaking down with the enzymepectinasepectinasepectinasepectinase in musts to prevent pectin haze. More will dissolve in progressively warmer water. Add to the must 24hours before sugar, which inhibits its action, and the yeast. Pectin can be in liquid or powder form.

StarchStarchStarchStarch, (the plant equivalent of animal glycogen), is present as cell stores in cereals, and some vegetables. Theenzyme amylaseamylaseamylaseamylase will break this down to simpler fermentable sugars, also preventing starch hazes. Add 24 hoursbefore sugar and yeast. Both enzymes will co-exist with meta in a must.

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EnzymesEnzymesEnzymesEnzymes work best at about 40C, but 20C-30C is sufficient without adversely affecting the must by over-extraction, orloss of volatiles. Do ensure, however, that the optimum fermenting temperature is reached beforebeforebeforebefore adding specificwine yeasts.

pHpHpHpH readings of basic juice should be taken before any other additives are included, as meta, DAP, and waterconditioners, if any, will affect pH, yet are neutralised by the fermentation process, and do not affect the final pH.Under-acidification may produce off-odours or tastes. Otherwise, try for a thumbnail unsweetened must more bitterthan sweet.

Original sugarsugarsugarsugar should be tested for in basic must, but extra should not be added until just before fermentation so asnot to affect enzyme actions. To obtain the truest hydrometer reading, test a mostly settled sample of the must,avoiding the effects solids in suspension. Final total alcohol will be based on original plus added sugar, consulthydrometer tables for accurate calculations, important if adding sugar incrementally during fermentation. Water is SG1, and wine should be less than 1.

TanninsTanninsTanninsTannins are necessary for optimum winemaking, flowers, vegetables, cereals and herbs have none, many fruits haveinsufficient. Apricots, apples, bananas, black currants, bilberries, damsons, elderberries, peaches, pears, sloes,grapes, have useful amounts, in skins and pips thatthatthatthat willwillwillwill bebebebe leachedleachedleachedleached bybybyby alcohol,alcohol,alcohol,alcohol, careful!careful!careful!careful! Check published recipes.Tannins contribute to preservation, aging, also taste, (astringency), and balance. Extra tannins may be added at anytime before bottling, enhances clearing, mellows with aging and, and has goodgoodgoodgood moleculesmoleculesmoleculesmolecules present in the form of anti-oxidants.

AcidAcidAcidAcid component contributes to taste and balance, and also to preservation of finished wine, and so requires, withhigher tannins, a longer maturation period. Ideal 3-3.4 must pH before fermentation will favour yeast over bacteriaand moulds. MLF will lower the malic acid component by conversion to lactic acid, and less maturation time may beneeded as a result. NB, pH is the level of acidity, on a relative scale that also measures alkalinity, and titratable acidis the totality of acid(s).

RulesRulesRulesRules ofofofof ThumbThumbThumbThumb andandandand TeaspoonTeaspoonTeaspoonTeaspoon favour a pH reading for simplicity, or just use less fully-ripe fruit in the must; if theunsweetened must tastes slightly tart, as above, then all should be well. AcidsAcidsAcidsAcids addedaddedaddedadded shouldshouldshouldshould reflectreflectreflectreflect thethethethe originaloriginaloriginaloriginalfruitfruitfruitfruit acidsacidsacidsacids ifififif possible,possible,possible,possible, citriccitriccitriccitric andandandand especiallyespeciallyespeciallyespecially malic.malic.malic.malic. TartaricTartaricTartaricTartaric acidacidacidacid isisisis predominantlypredominantlypredominantlypredominantly aaaa grapegrapegrapegrape acid,acid,acid,acid, so add with carefor taste or stability purposes, whether using a grape blend must or not. This also influences the need for coldstabilization when/if excess tartaric acid is present. (See the MVECMVECMVECMVEC ReferenceReferenceReferenceReference.) CitricCitricCitricCitric acidacidacidacid shouldshouldshouldshould bebebebe usedusedusedused withwithwithwithcare,care,care,care, andandandand notnotnotnot inininin wineswineswineswines intendedintendedintendedintended totototo bebebebe finishedfinishedfinishedfinished bybybyby MLF,MLF,MLF,MLF, see elsewhere.

CerealCerealCerealCereal versions of S. cerevisiae do ferment dextrins and starches, but are not advised for winemaking, due to tasteand low alcohol tolerance, but complement citrus wines.Well-ground/blenderedWell-ground/blenderedWell-ground/blenderedWell-ground/blendered ricericericerice, say .5 kg to 15 litres of must with 1 tsp amylase, aids clearing, as does banana syrupfrom 1 kg of boiled bananas, which also adds body, as do a handful of blended nectarines. Rice flour may used ifcarefully mixed in also.

GlycerineGlycerineGlycerineGlycerine, sweetness 6, is a stable byproduct of fermentation, and may be added for mouthfeel and sweetness, butcare must be made not to unbalance a wine, as pronounced mouthfeel may be offset by undesirable sweetness in adry wine. A very desirable ‘byproduct of process’, (BOPBOPBOPBOP), and/or additive for inclusion in dessert or fortified wines.

RememberRememberRememberRemember foodgradefoodgradefoodgradefoodgrade DAPDAPDAPDAP, in optimal doses, to prevent formation of ethyl carbamate. An otherwise excellentpractical home winemaking book, ProgressiveProgressiveProgressiveProgressive Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking, Acton and Duncan, (see ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences)))), even in their1991 edition, advocated using urea as a yeast nutrient. NO!NO!NO!NO! See above, and CCCCCCCC NotesNotesNotesNotes below.

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FREEZERFREEZERFREEZERFREEZER FOODFOODFOODFOOD STORAGESTORAGESTORAGESTORAGE GUIDELINES:GUIDELINES:GUIDELINES:GUIDELINES:TheTheTheThe optimumoptimumoptimumoptimum freezerfreezerfreezerfreezer foodfoodfoodfood storagestoragestoragestorage temperaturetemperaturetemperaturetemperature isisisis -18-18-18-18ººººCCCC totototo -20-20-20-20ººººC,C,C,C, anythinganythinganythinganything aboveaboveaboveabove thisthisthisthis willwillwillwill affectaffectaffectaffect qualityqualityqualityquality andandandandkeepingkeepingkeepingkeeping properties.properties.properties.properties. ForForForFor bestbestbestbest resultsresultsresultsresults initialinitialinitialinitial freezingfreezingfreezingfreezing shouldshouldshouldshould proceedproceedproceedproceed evenlyevenlyevenlyevenly andandandand reasonablyreasonablyreasonablyreasonably quickly,quickly,quickly,quickly, sosososo allowallowallowallowproduceproduceproduceproduce totototo bebebebe chilledchilledchilledchilled throughthroughthroughthrough inininin aaaa coolercoolercoolercooler orororor refrigeratorrefrigeratorrefrigeratorrefrigerator beforebeforebeforebefore freezingfreezingfreezingfreezing begins.begins.begins.begins. Wider,Wider,Wider,Wider, flatterflatterflatterflatter traystraystraystrays ofofofofproduceproduceproduceproduce willwillwillwill freezefreezefreezefreeze moremoremoremore evenlyevenlyevenlyevenly andandandand quicklyquicklyquicklyquickly thanthanthanthan rectangularrectangularrectangularrectangular blocks.blocks.blocks.blocks. ThisThisThisThis methodmethodmethodmethod willwillwillwill alsoalsoalsoalso helphelphelphelp totototo ensureensureensureensurethatthatthatthat thethethethe freezerfreezerfreezerfreezer temperaturetemperaturetemperaturetemperature levellevellevellevel isisisis notnotnotnot undulyundulyundulyunduly disrupteddisrupteddisrupteddisrupted whenwhenwhenwhen unfrozenunfrozenunfrozenunfrozen produceproduceproduceproduce isisisis added.added.added.added.

VEGETABLESVEGETABLESVEGETABLESVEGETABLES MostMostMostMost 12121212 monthsmonthsmonthsmonthsCarrotsCarrotsCarrotsCarrots 8888 monthsmonthsmonthsmonthsCauliCauliCauliCauli 8888 monthsmonthsmonthsmonthsOnionsOnionsOnionsOnions 3333 monthsmonthsmonthsmonths

AllAllAllAll vegetablesvegetablesvegetablesvegetables shouldshouldshouldshould bebebebe blanchedblanchedblanchedblanched andandandand chilledchilledchilledchilled beforebeforebeforebefore freezing.freezing.freezing.freezing. ForForForFor purchasedpurchasedpurchasedpurchased frozenfrozenfrozenfrozen vegetables,vegetables,vegetables,vegetables, followfollowfollowfollowprocessorsprocessorsprocessorsprocessors’’’’ labels.labels.labels.labels.

FRUITFRUITFRUITFRUIT FreshFreshFreshFresh &&&& CookedCookedCookedCooked 12121212 monthsmonthsmonthsmonths

UseUseUseUse onlyonlyonlyonly thethethethe bestbestbestbest qualityqualityqualityquality ingredients,ingredients,ingredients,ingredients, andandandand inininin thethethethe casecasecasecase ofofofof fruit,fruit,fruit,fruit, trytrytrytry totototo combinecombinecombinecombine somesomesomesome not-quite-ripenot-quite-ripenot-quite-ripenot-quite-ripe withwithwithwith ripe,ripe,ripe,ripe, ininininorderorderorderorder totototo maintainmaintainmaintainmaintain anananan optimaloptimaloptimaloptimal acid/sugaracid/sugaracid/sugaracid/sugar balancebalancebalancebalance whenwhenwhenwhen laterlaterlaterlater constitutingconstitutingconstitutingconstituting thethethethe must.must.must.must. DoDoDoDo notnotnotnot freezefreezefreezefreeze over-ripe,over-ripe,over-ripe,over-ripe,damaged,damaged,damaged,damaged, orororor unwashedunwashedunwashedunwashed rawrawrawraw fruit.fruit.fruit.fruit. EnsureEnsureEnsureEnsure cookedcookedcookedcooked fruitfruitfruitfruit isisisis chilledchilledchilledchilled beforebeforebeforebefore freezing.freezing.freezing.freezing.

ConcentratingConcentratingConcentratingConcentrating fruitfruitfruitfruit juicesjuicesjuicesjuices bybybyby partiallypartiallypartiallypartially freezingfreezingfreezingfreezing grapegrapegrapegrape juicejuicejuicejuice dates back at least to Roman times, using the frosts ofwinter to help separate some of the frozen water from the rest of the juice, which would remain liquid at the sametemperatures because of sugar concentration.

Icewine/Eiswein-Icewine/Eiswein-Icewine/Eiswein-Icewine/Eiswein-making utilizes the juice squeezed from late-picked partially frozen grapes, pressed at an optimumtemperature, (-8(-8(-8(-8ººººC/18C/18C/18C/18ººººF),F),F),F), and pressure, that enable ice crystals to be separated and discarded with the pulp. Theconcentration of flavour would be a combination of long ripening and sugar concentration, as well as partial waterremoval. An appropriate yeast is matched to the must, and the wine is made in the usual way. Note thetemperature required, the operative word is chilled.chilled.chilled.chilled.

Home-frosted juices would only require straining through a sieve to separate the crystals, well within the scope of theaverage home winemaker, and frozen, small, soft, or finely chopped selected frosted fruits could be squeezed withsmall tabletop press.Applejack is a conventional fruit-juice equivalent, and other fruits or juices could also be treated in this way, givensufficient initial sweetness. Fermenting this type of must will produce a higher alcohol and very full-bodied wine, theend result depending on whether fermentation is allowed to proceed naturally to completion. Higher acid concentrationwould enable long-keeping, and the wine itself may be preferred as an aperitif, or consumed later in the meal as adessert wine.

On the subject of chilling wines, those that have an excess of tartaric acid, either as a result of the original produceused, especially grape, or when added inadvertently, chillingchillingchillingchilling thethethethe winewinewinewine asasasas aboveaboveaboveabove willwillwillwill causecausecausecause tartratestartratestartratestartrates to precipitateas crystals that can then be racked off before the wine is returned to normal cellar temperatures. This may bepreferable to de-acidification as first resort, as there is less likelihood of taste changes that may occur when usingcalcium salts, especially if errors are made as to proportions added.

TemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperature controlcontrolcontrolcontrol ofofofof aaaa fermenterfermenterfermenterfermenter is easily achieved using an old bar frig as an incubator, strip out the interior andset your own shelving, install a light socket or baby coffee-warmer, connect to a timer on the wall socket, and thenexperiment till you get a good working regime for your home, season, etc. Cooling is simple, install a vessel of frozenwater as necessary, heating can be done with hot water, too. The main time for cooling, if this is needed, is in usuallythe first 12-48 hours of primary ferment.

Install a thermostat if you can afford one, or rig up a working frig that incorporates heating as one of its abilities, butbutbutbutthethethethe thermostatthermostatthermostatthermostat mustmustmustmust runrunrunrun efficientlyefficientlyefficientlyefficiently fromfromfromfrom 20202020ººººC-30C-30C-30C-30ººººCCCC forforforfor anananan effectiveeffectiveeffectiveeffective rangerangerangerange totototo monitormonitormonitormonitor mostmostmostmost beerbeerbeerbeer andandandand winewinewinewineprimaryprimaryprimaryprimary fermentations,fermentations,fermentations,fermentations, betweenbetweenbetweenbetween 21212121ººººCCCC andandandand 28282828ººººC.C.C.C. SecondarySecondarySecondarySecondary fermentationsfermentationsfermentationsfermentations ofofofof winewinewinewine shouldshouldshouldshould bebebebe atatatat 15151515ººººC.C.C.C. Wherethere is a will, there is a way, even where there is no electricity..?

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TemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperature conversion:conversion:conversion:conversion:ººººCentigradeCentigradeCentigradeCentigrade ººººFahrenheitFahrenheitFahrenheitFahrenheit ººººOptimumOptimumOptimumOptimum

0 32__________Lager yeast will work ok almost to zero1 332 35.63 37.44 39.25 416 42.87 44.68 46.49 48.210101010 50505050 MaturationMaturationMaturationMaturation andandandand storage,storage,storage,storage, all,all,all,all, nevernevernevernever moremoremoremore thanthanthanthan 15151515ººººCCCC12121212 53.653.653.653.6 SurSurSurSur LieLieLieLie15151515 59595959 WineWineWineWine secondary,secondary,secondary,secondary, minminminmin forforforfor whitewhitewhitewhite primaryprimaryprimaryprimary18 64.420 6821212121 69.869.869.869.8 WineWineWineWine primaryprimaryprimaryprimary (red(red(red(red winewinewinewine totototo 30303030ººººC)C)C)C)22 71.623 73.424 75.225252525 77777777 BeerBeerBeerBeer26 78.827 80.628282828 82.482.482.482.4 CiderCiderCiderCider andandandand gingergingergingerginger beerbeerbeerbeer29 84.230303030 86.086.086.086.0 BulkBulkBulkBulk RedRedRedRed Kickstart,Kickstart,Kickstart,Kickstart, esp.esp.esp.esp. colorcolorcolorcolor extractextractextractextract33 91.434 93.235353535 95959595 RehydrateRehydrateRehydrateRehydrate KickstartKickstartKickstartKickstart rangerangerangerange37 98.438383838 100.4100.4100.4100.4 fromfromfromfrom 35353535ººººCCCC totototo 38383838ººººC,C,C,C, thenthenthenthen reducereducereducereduce39393939 102.2102.2102.2102.240 104 Yeast begins to die, total death at 50ºC

Temperature ranges at any stage of winemaking and brewing are important because they influence both biologicaland chemical activity, and thus the rate and duration of respective stages. For example, thermophile organismsare disadvantaged if temperatures are maintained at levels that favour yeast, micro- or macro-oxygenation reactionsare better controlled at appropriate temperatures, and chemical reactions at maturation are more sedate at coolertemperatures. Oxygen is more easily incorporated at lower temperatures, but oxygen reaction within wine isfacilitated by higher temperatures, hence the care with temperature and exposure at racking times, compared toearlier must handling.

Maintaining stable temperature ranges is also important lest stages of making or maturation are disrupted. Yourbeverage may not be spoiled, but also may never reach its full potential if due processes are subject to periodicinstabilities of temperature. From primary fermentation onwards, the temperature trend should always be down, inappropriately graduated stages relative to the type of wine or beer under development. Maturation is bestundertaken at cellar temperatures to slow the process down and to help maintain stability meanwhile, and this appliesto both wine and beer, regardless of the type, or projected consumption date.

Also, sur lie, or leaving wine on lees, contributing extra unique yeasty flavour to the wine, is best undertaken undisturbed at a coolertemperature, although this is not done with gross lees, as putrefaction rather than flavour complementation may be the result.Sur lie is more likely with red wines than white, although mèthode champenoise at the penultimate stage is, of course, a notableexception. Home winemakers will need to experiment sur lie with samples or fractions, this is not an exact science, and someyeasts are more suited than others, as are differing wine types, so consult or research for best results.

More robust wines would perhaps benefit more than delicate or earlier consumption wines, and homemade wines tend to blur thestandard distinctions as to type. Homemade beer, primed to ferment in bottle for carbonation, remains sursursursur lielielielie until consumed, butmaturing on grosser lees/trub may be asking for trouble, and enthusiasts will need to consult re the finer points of appropriate beerssur lie also. But cooler temperatures will ensure better control, and an optimum result, whether wine or beer is being matured surlie. Some oxygen stabilization is also enabled sur lie due to residual cell enzyme activity acting as an anti-oxidising agent.

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YeastYeastYeastYeast Fermentation:Fermentation:Fermentation:Fermentation:The main principles are yeast selection and control, through must ingredients and conditions, for theduration of the fermentation cycle, to beginning the final maturation stage.

PrinciplePrinciplePrinciplePrinciple factorsfactorsfactorsfactors involvedinvolvedinvolvedinvolved:

HygieneHygieneHygieneHygiene of equipment and work area

PurityPurityPurityPurity of water, no chlorine or other taints, appropriate conditioning as required

BalanceBalanceBalanceBalance of ingredients and additives, and similarity to ripe grape juice

YeastYeastYeastYeast type, sugar and alcohol tolerance

Sugar,Sugar,Sugar,Sugar, fermentability and total SG concentration

Enzymes,Enzymes,Enzymes,Enzymes, types and fermentation delays

Minerals,Minerals,Minerals,Minerals, water or must conditioning if required, as above

Oxygen,Oxygen,Oxygen,Oxygen, aerobic/anaerobic fermentations and maturation, balance macro to micro

Acids,Acids,Acids,Acids, types, pH,pH,pH,pH, balanced

Nutrients,Nutrients,Nutrients,Nutrients, vitamins, minerals, nitrogen, protein supplements

AlcoholAlcoholAlcoholAlcohol concentration and balance

Temperature,Temperature,Temperature,Temperature, all stages

TasteTasteTasteTaste andandandand Smell,Smell,Smell,Smell, all stages, also appearance, and applied organoleptic skills!

Time,Time,Time,Time, and timingtimingtimingtiming, all stages

Organised,Organised,Organised,Organised, allallallall stagesstagesstagesstages, incl. recordsrecordsrecordsrecords

StandardStandardStandardStandard SpecificSpecificSpecificSpecific GravityGravityGravityGravity readings, pre- and post-fermentation, are as follows:PrePrePrePre withwithwithwith totaltotaltotaltotal dissolveddissolveddissolveddissolved sugarsugarsugarsugar Post-fermentationPost-fermentationPost-fermentationPost-fermentation withwithwithwith totaltotaltotaltotal alcoholalcoholalcoholalcohol

Dry 1.088-1.095 .850-0.990 Temperature correction for these values may beMedium 1.110-1.130 .990-1.001 necessary, usually the standard is @ 68686868ººººF/20F/20F/20F/20ººººC;C;C;C;Sweet 1.135-1.150 1.001-1.005 check your hydrometer specification info?

Note that to achieve the balance of alcohol and residual sugar for medium and sweet wines listed, the fermentation willneed to be stopped, and the wine stabilized. Dry wines are a matter of letting the fermentation proceed to the end,when (almost) all sugar should be fermented by the yeast, and the wine will not need any more stabilization as long asthere is adequate acid, tannins, and alcohol, (above 8%vol.), and the yeast is sturdy enough to ferment the sugaravailable.

The dry guideline range given above should ensure this, and higher alcohol levels may be achieved by incrementalsugar additions to condition the yeast, although a dry wine of more than 12% will probably be unbalanced,organoleptically speaking. DryDryDryDry could be defined, for Thumbnail Purposes, as having no residual or perceptiblesweetness, and acidity will mask sugar somewhat, so ensure keeper wines are above 9% alcohol.

Sweeter wines will tolerate a higher alcohol content, organoleptically speaking, and if there is sufficient alcoholpresent, may not need stabilization, just optimal maturation and aging to reach their potential. This style can be alsoachieved by the incremental addition of sugar during fermentation. In both cases, continual observation offermentation and taste sampling will need to be carried out to ensure the desired end result before the fermentation isconcluded.

IfIfIfIf sweetsweetsweetsweet wineswineswineswines needneedneedneed stabilization,stabilization,stabilization,stabilization, addaddaddadd sugarsugarsugarsugar afterafterafterafter stabilizationstabilizationstabilizationstabilization isisisis carriedcarriedcarriedcarried out,out,out,out, and any organisms present areneutralized, as for yeast, or killed off as for any other type remaining. ForForForFor thethethethe makingmakingmakingmaking ofofofof fortifiedfortifiedfortifiedfortified wineswineswineswines, consultstandard texts elsewhere as to process, yeast, must sugar concentration, and constituents etc. This is a majorwinemaking topic on its own, not covered by this WinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking BeginnerBeginnerBeginnerBeginner’’’’ssss FactfileFactfileFactfileFactfile.

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TirageTirageTirageTirage capscapscapscaps forforforfor sealingsealingsealingsealing winewinewinewine bottles:bottles:bottles:bottles: These caps are crown caps that fit champagne bottles, beingused during mèthode champenoise, (aka sparkling wines), for the penultimate bottling stage. The caps, andandandand thethethethescrew-inscrew-inscrew-inscrew-in tiragetiragetiragetirage bellbellbellbell that easily replaces the screw-out beer-crown bell on conventional cappers, are available at, orthrough, any good winemaking supplies.

What is not in the wine before bottling will not be there after maturation, and the old idea of “maturing through the cork”is now misinformed; air in means alcohol out, and damaged wine, and the in-bottle stage is supposed to be areductive/noreductive/noreductive/noreductive/no oxygenoxygenoxygenoxygen stage anyway. Furthermore, crowns seal tight, more wine can be added, to 1 or 2 cm from thetop, to allow for the actual expansion of the liquid, and also because dissolved CO2 exerts less pressure than gaseousCO2 in any ullage space. Also, there is no more push from compressed gas that can force out a newly inserted winecork. The bottles can be stored upright, using shelves or cases, and there is no more 10% cork failure rate, or corktaint. Lees settle more effectively in the upright position.

Crown caps should not corrode except in extreme conditions of acidic air and moisture, so, if necessary, a puff ofhairspray or similar, or a conventional heat seal, would ensure indefinite failsafe longevity. Any testing or tasting andresealing are easily done, with minimal air exposure, and even the same cap, carefully removed, can be easilyreplaced with a capper. A fine plastic tube makes an easy wine thief, either suck by mouth, or withdraw sample usinga syringe of some kind.

PouringPouringPouringPouring fromfromfromfrom aaaa fullfullfullfull champagnechampagnechampagnechampagne bottlebottlebottlebottle isisisis achievedachievedachievedachieved withoutwithoutwithoutwithout spillsspillsspillsspills bybybyby placingplacingplacingplacing thethethethe liplipliplip ofofofof thethethethe glassglassglassglass orororor decanterdecanterdecanterdecanterbelowbelowbelowbelow thethethethe firstfirstfirstfirst ring,ring,ring,ring, tiptiptiptip slowlyslowlyslowlyslowly atatatat first.first.first.first.

Screw tops are being experimented with by the industry as an alternate seal, in the face of reluctant and unjustifiedtraditional bias, yet any business with a loss rate as high as cork failure rate, 7%-8%, would be a real financial loser.Crown caps are even more promising, being very sturdy, and almost tamper-proof, which the industry could takenotice of, there being some difficulty in carrying around a capper. The crown cap could be hidden beneath a capsule,also, and some work could be done re aesthetics? But crown caps are certainly a practical answer for sparklingwines and general home winemaking.

In the meantime, for the home winemaker, crowns on champagnechampagnechampagnechampagne bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles are a quick, economical, and easy solutionto capping, using the tirage bell on a conventional capper, andandandand alsoalsoalsoalso ensuringensuringensuringensuring safetysafetysafetysafety if any residual or malolacticfermentation in bottle may occur, asasasas thethethethe bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles areareareare safesafesafesafe totototo 8888 atmospheresatmospheresatmospheresatmospheres. Anyway, one cap fits all at bottling, forthe sparkling or still wine enthusiast, and bottle choice is made easier.

DoDoDoDo trytrytrytry totototo obtainobtainobtainobtain champagnechampagnechampagnechampagne bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles withwithwithwith mediummediummediummedium puntspuntspuntspunts, if using a bottling wand, so that the spring can be fullycompressed as the small rod sits squarely on the rise of the punt, instead of skidding off to one side where full rodtravel is not possible.

NoteNoteNoteNote thatthatthatthat crowncrowncrowncrown beerbeerbeerbeer bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles maymaymaymay bebebebe used,used,used,used, (NOT screw tops as the glass is always thinner) butbutbutbut areareareare notnotnotnot nearlynearlynearlynearly asasasasstrongstrongstrongstrong asasasas aaaa conventionalconventionalconventionalconventional champagnechampagnechampagnechampagne bottlebottlebottlebottle, (preferably green), which should also have a pronounced dump forstrength, as well as being a useful receptacle for any sediment. HandleHandleHandleHandle invertedinvertedinvertedinverted bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles carefullycarefullycarefullycarefully whenwhenwhenwhen inininin double-double-double-double-stackedstackedstackedstacked crates,crates,crates,crates, asasasas thethethethe rimsrimsrimsrims areareareare easilyeasilyeasilyeasily knockedknockedknockedknocked offoffoffoff ifififif bumpedbumpedbumpedbumped againstagainstagainstagainst anotheranotheranotheranother uprightuprightuprightupright bottle,bottle,bottle,bottle, otherwise thebottles are relatively sturdy and easy to handle. Sanitise these bottles in the normal way, but scald the tirage capsbrieflybrieflybrieflybriefly with hot water before use. DoDoDoDo notnotnotnot dipdipdipdip tiragetiragetiragetirage capscapscapscaps inininin metametametameta solutionsolutionsolutionsolution as this may cause corrosion byattacking the protective layer, or any exposed metal. Pressure on the capping arm is only slightly more than for thesmaller diameter crown caps.

For those with an older style capper, the newer tirage bell may be secured using a small countersunk machine screw,and washers as padding. To apply caps without a capper, use a small hardwood billet, say 2x2, with a recess cut into accommodate the capping bell, and the weight of arms and shoulders acting on a bottle wedged between the feet,or set in a purpose built base, will effect the cap seal with surprising ease, so hammers need not be used. This isespecially useful for higher and larger volume bottles, too. Improvise, because tirage caps are definitely worthutilising!

See also StoppersStoppersStoppersStoppers, OxfordOxfordOxfordOxford CompanionCompanionCompanionCompanion totototo WineWineWineWine,,,, Ed.II,Ed.II,Ed.II,Ed.II, p.671,p.671,p.671,p.671, for a most heartwarming endorsement!

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ToToToTo aaaa BeginnerBeginnerBeginnerBeginner BrowsingBrowsingBrowsingBrowsing thethethethe WineWineWineWine Web:Web:Web:Web:TheTheTheThe DoyenDoyenDoyenDoyen ofofofof homehomehomehome winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking onlineonlineonlineonline isisisis JackJackJackJack Keller,Keller,Keller,Keller, and also refer to SARWGSARWGSARWGSARWG,,,, a page Jack supervises that has many links,especially to scientific winemaking sites that are definitely worth your time. Jack’s personal site:http//www.jackkeller.winemaking.net/http//www.jackkeller.winemaking.net/http//www.jackkeller.winemaking.net/http//www.jackkeller.winemaking.net/

CornellCornellCornellCornell University,University,University,University, FS430,FS430,FS430,FS430, UnderstandingUnderstandingUnderstandingUnderstanding WineWineWineWine andandandand Beer,Beer,Beer,Beer, is also recommended for good easy chemistry, amongst other things,being précis lecture notes of their wine course.... BrockBrockBrockBrock UniversityUniversityUniversityUniversity andandandand UniversityUniversityUniversityUniversity ofofofof CaliforniaCaliforniaCaliforniaCalifornia (Davis)(Davis)(Davis)(Davis) are also very useful, andaccessible through SARWGSARWGSARWGSARWG,,,, as is Lum Eisenman’s TheTheTheThe HomeHomeHomeHomeWinemaker'sWinemaker'sWinemaker'sWinemaker's Manual,Manual,Manual,Manual, AmateurAmateurAmateurAmateur WinemakersWinemakersWinemakersWinemakers ofofofof OntarioOntarioOntarioOntario,,,, andmany more.... Try VineyardVineyardVineyardVineyard andandandand VintageVintageVintageVintage ViewViewViewView also.... JackJackJackJack KellerKellerKellerKeller andandandand SpagnolSpagnolSpagnolSpagnol’’’’ssss WineWineWineWine CellarCellarCellarCellar both have useful information onacids and sugars in common fruits, and for well-presented wine chemistry, try ChemistryChemistryChemistryChemistry inininin WinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking....

AIMAIMAIMAIM,,,, and TheTheTheThe SocietySocietySocietySociety ofofofof thethethethe MedicalMedicalMedicalMedical FriendsFriendsFriendsFriends ofofofof WineWineWineWine,,,, both have good commonsense information of wine and health, well worththe quest to educate yourself in these matters. NewNewNewNew ScientistScientistScientistScientist has an Alcohol supplement, also interesting. TryTryTryTry RobinRobinRobinRobin GarrGarrGarrGarr’’’’ssssWineWineWineWine LoversLoversLoversLovers HomeHomeHomeHome PagePagePagePage,,,, and feast your eyes on the Wallpaper downloads for Desktop inspiration, as well as the masses of goodinfo. For latest, and not so latest winemaking books, go to BarnesBarnesBarnesBarnes andandandand NobleNobleNobleNoble orororor Amazon.comAmazon.comAmazon.comAmazon.com on the Net, great selection, easyto order. Also alibris.comalibris.comalibris.comalibris.com and abebooks.comabebooks.comabebooks.comabebooks.com et al for access to second-hand books. Otherwise there are real finds to discoverin libraries, opp shops and second-hand book emporiums as well. Earlier doyens of home winemaking were CJJCJJCJJCJJ BerryBerryBerryBerry andandandand BenBenBenBenTurner.Turner.Turner.Turner. AndreAndreAndreAndre Simon,Simon,Simon,Simon, HughHughHughHugh Johnson,Johnson,Johnson,Johnson, JancisJancisJancisJancis RobinsonRobinsonRobinsonRobinson,,,, BryceBryceBryceBryce Rankine,Rankine,Rankine,Rankine, MaynardMaynardMaynardMaynard Amerine,Amerine,Amerine,Amerine, etetetet al,al,al,al, are all quite good on thoseconventional vineberry varieties of winemaking.

Also recommended is finding a simple hobby text, withwithwithwith photosphotosphotosphotos, photocopying any relevant sections, (for your own non-profiteducational use, of course), interleaving/adding your own notes, and relevant Web data. An excerpts library can be built up fromall sorts of sources, and there is so much cutting-edge data available for those interested. WinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking isisisis asasasas muchmuchmuchmuch ArtArtArtArt asasasasScienceScienceScienceScience, and will vary according to conditions, skills, ingredients, equipment, luck, etc., but the general principles are always thesame, especially for learners, as outlined at the beginning of this Factfile. ToToToTo quicklyquicklyquicklyquickly summarise:summarise:summarise:summarise:

• Do not make wine from any ingredient that does not already have a recipe, and/or browse any information you can find onpotentially poisonous ingredients.

• Be careful of overall sanitation, use food grade plastics, glass, and stainless steel. Beware chlorine and iodine sanitisers.

• Start with kit beer making, then fruit juice and/or grape juices from the supermarket, or wherever, easy to use needingminimal processing, as they are already pasteurised, and juices are often usually clarified. Get confident with these basicingredients, and the common equipment, then move on to greater things.

• Adhere to correct temperature ranges, aspire to ingredient quality and balance, practice good sanitation standards, and bepatient in waiting for best results.

TheTheTheThe dominantdominantdominantdominant generalgeneralgeneralgeneral principleprincipleprincipleprinciple, applicable for any wine, (or beer making), is that of giving the appropriate yeast type the bestconditions, diet, and temperatures, to go to work for you to produce a desired and appreciated result. Home or countrywinemaking, as you will have now realised, means initially creating a must that closely resembles, (sugars, acids, tannins, nutrients,etc.), the must resulting from the crushing of optimally grown and ripened vitis vinifera berries, or, eveneveneveneven betterbetterbetterbetter ifififif possiblepossiblepossiblepossible, from thepoint of view of the yeast which so obligingly does the real work! Art, science, and skill, in equal proportions, are all needed foroptimum must development by any good winemaker, however humble. May it also never be forgotten that the first winemakerswere home winemakers, however humble their homes may have been, or, whatever their latitude, longitude, and original mustingredients were, for that matter...

Tell the wine snobs that grapes are also a fruit, (a berry), and that many fruits have the potential to make good, aged, and evengreat wines. Wines from other ingredients may also be made, the common factors are the type or style of wine planned,appropriate yeasts and the necessary must balance common to all wines, yours orororor the professionals. There has never been a lawthat says real wine can only be made from grapes, even though some may even quote biblically to this effect, and then call anythingelse merely “fermented beverages”. Or, that real wine can only made only with “approved” vineberry products within theconventional winemaking geographical latitudes. That sort of attitude is unjustifiably and regrettably patronizing.

What gustatory, olfactory, and digestive riches there are, and will continue to be, in the encouragement of diverse winemaking andandandandblending, using allallallall the edible fruits and other produce of the world’s gardens, orchards, vineyards, and agriculture, regardless ofregion or latitude! Indeed, tastes and aromas of grape wines are often likened to fruits and other flavour sources, often veryungrapelike, so why not enjoy wines of the real thing(s), as appropriate to food and occasion, of course, whenever or wherever thisis possible, in either blends or original forms? Quality control and truth-in-labeling may still be invoked!

Most importantly, the human race still wrestles with the problems of alcohol consumption, and those who are unable or unwilling todrink alcohol, for health or other reasons, should not be pressured or ridiculed. Winemaking and wine drinking help to create anaesthetic approach to appreciation and consumption of alcoholic beverages that is sorely needed to achieve a mature multiculturalattitude to alcohol in general. Not least is the need to gain full respectability of home winemaking as a fine hobby and legitimatecultural pursuit. Remember to show, as a winemaker, an example of moderation in consumption, and sound organoleptic,academic, and practical appreciation of all aspects of winemaking.

There is such a rich diversity of history, geography, botany, horticulture, chemistry, terroir, style, etc., in this field of endeavour, bothfor the professional, the amateur, and the bon vivant consumers of the final product. There is here a lifetime of study andenjoyment, full or part-time for those seeking a rewarding, many-faceted profession or pastime. EnjoyEnjoyEnjoyEnjoy yourself,yourself,yourself,yourself, andandandand bebebebe proudproudproudproudproductsproductsproductsproducts ofofofof youryouryouryour efforts!efforts!efforts!efforts!

PSPSPSPS: Do not forget, wine in moderation, and the actual winemaking, are both good for you and yours as well, all things being equal.

18

Meanwhile, some goodgoodgoodgood winewinewinewine andandandand beerbeerbeerbeer booksbooksbooksbooks worth consulting:AncientAncientAncientAncient Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine,**** P. McGovern, Princeton UP 2003, ISBN 0691070806069107080606910708060691070806

AAAA CenturyCenturyCenturyCentury ofofofof Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine, ed. S. Brooks, Octopus 2000, ISBN 840002530840002530840002530840002530

ConciseConciseConciseConcise WineWineWineWine Companion,Companion,Companion,Companion, J. Robinson, OUP 2001, ISBN 0198662742019866274201986627420198662742, and other works

EncyclopediaEncyclopediaEncyclopediaEncyclopedia ofofofof HomeHomeHomeHome Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking, Drapeau and Vanasse, Nexus 1999, ISBN 1854861999185486199918548619991854861999

HughHughHughHugh JohnsonJohnsonJohnsonJohnson’’’’ssss WineWineWineWine Companion,Companion,Companion,Companion, Colporteur 1983, ISBN 0863990037,0863990037,0863990037,0863990037, and other works

DaveDaveDaveDave MillerMillerMillerMiller’’’’ssss HomebrewingHomebrewingHomebrewingHomebrewing Guide,Guide,Guide,Guide, Storey 1995,,,, ISBN 088269052,088269052,088269052,088269052, a great introduction to beer

FirstFirstFirstFirst StepsStepsStepsSteps inininin Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking, CJJ Berry, Kent 2000, ISBN 0900841834090084183409008418340900841834, the ideal beginner’s book

HomeHomeHomeHomeWinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking ChemChemChemChem 101,101,101,101, C. Irion, Xlibris 2000, ISBN 0738828122,0738828122,0738828122,0738828122, and BrewBrewBrewBrew ChemChemChemChem 101,101,101,101, L. Janson, Storey 1996 ISBN0882669400;0882669400;0882669400;0882669400; both of these little books are very useful references re the underlying chemical complexity of both home wine andbeer making.

HomewinemakingHomewinemakingHomewinemakingHomewinemaking StepStepStepStep bybybyby Step,Step,Step,Step, J. Iverson, Ed.3, Shoemark 2000 ISBN 096579363X096579363X096579363X096579363X

MakingMakingMakingMaking GoodGoodGoodGood Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine, B. Rankine, Macmillan 2004, ISBN 140503601140503601140503601140503601

ModernModernModernModern Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking, P. Jackisch, Cornell 1985, ISBN 0801414555080141455508014145550801414555

Polyphenols,Polyphenols,Polyphenols,Polyphenols, WineWineWineWine &&&& Health,Health,Health,Health, ed. Cheze et al, Kluwer Academic 2001, ISBN 0792367359079236735907923673590792367359

TechniquesTechniquesTechniquesTechniques inininin HomeHomeHomeHomeWinemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking, D. Pambianchi, Véhicule 2002, ISBN 1550651579155065157915506515791550651579

TheTheTheThe ArtArtArtArt andandandand ScienceScienceScienceScience ofofofof Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine, J. Halliday & H. Johnson, Beazley 1992, ISBN 0855339462085533946208553394620855339462

TheTheTheThe BiotechnologyBiotechnologyBiotechnologyBiotechnology ofofofof MaltingMaltingMaltingMalting &&&& Brewing,Brewing,Brewing,Brewing, J. Hough, CUP 1991, ISBN 0521395534052139553405213955340521395534

TheTheTheThe BotanistBotanistBotanistBotanist &&&& thethethethe Vintner,Vintner,Vintner,Vintner,∗∗∗∗∗∗∗∗ C. Campbell, Algonquin 2005, ISBN 15612460156124601561246015612460

TheTheTheThe CompleteCompleteCompleteComplete HandbookHandbookHandbookHandbook ofofofof WinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking, American Winemaking Society, Kent 1998, ISBN 0961907223096190722309619072230961907223

TheTheTheThe OxfordOxfordOxfordOxford CompanionCompanionCompanionCompanion totototo Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine, ed.ed.ed.ed. IIIIIIII,,,, ed. J. Robinson, OUP 1999, ISBN 019866236X;019866236X;019866236X;019866236X; sadly, dismissive of homewinemaking

TheTheTheThe ProductionProductionProductionProduction ofofofof GrapesGrapesGrapesGrapes andandandandWineWineWineWine inininin CoolCoolCoolCool Climates,Climates,Climates,Climates, Jackson & Schuster, Brasell & Gypsum 2001, ISBN 0909049173090904917309090491730909049173

TheTheTheThe WineWineWineWine DrinkerDrinkerDrinkerDrinker’’’’ssss Handbook,Handbook,Handbook,Handbook, S. Sutcliffe, Pan 1985, ISBN 0330289330033028933003302893300330289330

UnderstandingUnderstandingUnderstandingUnderstanding WineWineWineWine Technology,Technology,Technology,Technology, D. Bird, DBQA 2000, ISBN 0953580202095358020209535802020953580202

VineyardVineyardVineyardVineyard andandandand VintageVintageVintageVintage View,View,View,View, MVECMVECMVECMVEC JournalJournalJournalJournal, is well worth browsing, (just enter into Google), and Vol. 19(2) has a very usefularticle,WinesWinesWinesWines fromfromfromfrom CherriesCherriesCherriesCherries andandandand SoftSoftSoftSoft FruitsFruitsFruitsFruits, as an example of content that will be of interest to the home winemaker.

Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine, A. Dominé, Koneman 2001, 3829048564;3829048564;3829048564;3829048564; a great introduction to wine from the vine-berry!

Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine,M. Sandler & R. Pindler, Princeton UP 2003, ISBN 0415247349041524734904152473490415247349

WinemakingWinemakingWinemakingWinemaking BasicsBasicsBasicsBasics, C. Ough, Food Products Press 1992-, ISBN 1560220058156022005815602200581560220058

Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking,Winemaking, ed.ed.ed.ed. II,II,II,II, R. Vine et al, Kluwer Plenum 2002, ISBN 036472724036472724036472724036472724

As well, these good references have their own bibliographies, so interest and research for the home winemaker and brewer can goas far as you would like them to. TheTheTheThe BotanistBotanistBotanistBotanist andandandand thethethethe VintnerVintnerVintnerVintner******** is a most interesting and well written account of the vine-berryphylloxera era, and AncientAncientAncientAncient WineWineWineWine**** is also an interesting account of scientific method and technology used for determining accuratewine and winemaking history, both ancient and modern. Note also that palaeobotany and DNA techniques are increasingly usedto identify both ancient and modern winemaking ingredients, both fresh and preserved. Genetically modified grapes are nowplanned, and no doubt other fruits and vegetables will be increasingly developed, to ensure better quality and control of growth,including climate tolerance and disease resistance, and, of ultimate processing and vinification. The proof of the many and variedvintages of the future will still be in the drinking, however, no doubt of that!

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HomeHomeHomeHome BulkBulkBulkBulk BottlingBottlingBottlingBottling ofofofof Wine:Wine:Wine:Wine:Although strongly defending the identity and validity of winemaking using natural produce other than vitis vinifera vine-berries,beverages of same are nevertheless consumed by this householder, plus friends and their families, for pleasure, for health, and, notleast to spin out the homemade product as well. So, the logical next step was to try a bulk home bottling of conventional wine froma local winery as a further Wine Experience. Contact was made through the local brewing and winemaking emporium, a samplewas received and appreciated, in this case a very respectable Cabernet, a group order was placed, and the new project waslaunched.

Although there was all the usual equipment available in house to be used, and the project seemed fairly straightforward enough,there were some differences and changes of procedure worth noting, and consequently of interest to other home bottlerscontemplating the same venture. Various ideas came to mind during the toil of the bulk bottling, and as the result of ad hoc stepsand decisions. One recommendation is to have flexible tubing near the top of the bottling wand to allow more flexibility and tocushion bumps or jerks. Another wand sacrificed will produce at least 3 suitable sections, one of which is pushed up into the tap,and the flexible tube then connects this to the now longer wand length.

Champagne bottles should have a medium punt if a bottling wand is used, so that the plunger can be easily and fully released, notjamming with the wand in the bottles’ base angle. A rigid clear plastic siphoning wand (transversely drilled and with end plug),attached to a flexible hose, is preferable to just using a siphoning hose to transfer wine, if taps cannot be fitted to interim containers.Also, such a wand is still a useful a low-tech alternative to newer, and more expensive, hand-suction siphons. Another useful tip isto try to obtain transportation containers with the bung on the opposite side to the cap to make tapping and running off the winemore easier.

AfterAfterAfterAfter severalseveralseveralseveral yearsyearsyearsyears ofofofof NofrillstechNofrillstechNofrillstechNofrillstech brewingbrewingbrewingbrewing andandandand winemaking,winemaking,winemaking,winemaking, andandandand especiallyespeciallyespeciallyespecially sincesincesincesince thethethethe homehomehomehome bulkbulkbulkbulk bottling,bottling,bottling,bottling, twotwotwotwo particularparticularparticularparticularwish-listwish-listwish-listwish-list itemsitemsitemsitems havehavehavehave nownownownow becomebecomebecomebecome evident,evident,evident,evident, viz:viz:viz:viz:

1. Have a dedicated PreparationPreparationPreparationPreparation RoomRoomRoomRoom, for wine and beermaking, food and preparation such as food bottling or freezing, jam-making, etc., set up with plumbing, storage, benches, incubators, frig and freezer etc., and especially for those with homeproduce as a financial mainstay, or even as a small home business. Always, of course, kept separate from the rest of thehouse, and nevernevernevernever allowed to be cluttered by overflows from elsewhere, an area where stages of preparation may be continuedat will without constant setting up and putting away so common to the interrupted use of the family kitchen. Certainly not acheap utility in the short term, but oh, what a time and logistics boon over the long term.

2. Always purchase bulk bottles and jars, etc., newnewnewnew from a wholesaler, all clean, of standard size, and already in standard boxes.There will be repeated use of these, but nothing like the inspection, washing, label removing, sanitising etc., of before. Salvageof containers in small amounts, perhaps cleaned as part of normal kitchen duties, may not mean much in terms of time and hotwater, but in-bulk collecting and cleaning of containers over years can be very time, labour, and hot water-consuming. Afterwhich, keep those bright clean standard containers, of whatever provenance, close by from then on, extracting promises andeven deposits if any containers leave your home!

ApartApartApartApart fromfromfromfrom which,which,which,which, thisthisthisthis particularparticularparticularparticular homehomehomehome bottlingbottlingbottlingbottling wentwentwentwent asasasas followsfollowsfollowsfollows: 140 litres of the very respectable 2001 Cabernet werepurchased in seven 20 litre plastic containers, and bottled the following day. A optimum formula had been devised for fair andequitable distribution, those not present got what they paid for, less a small impost, and extras beyond the sum of all orders weredivided up between householder and helper.

TheTheTheThe principleprincipleprincipleprinciple decisiondecisiondecisiondecision waswaswaswas totototo callcallcallcall oneoneoneone litrelitrelitrelitre thethethethe equivalentequivalentequivalentequivalent ofofofof oneoneoneone finishedfinishedfinishedfinished bottle,bottle,bottle,bottle, andandandand becausebecausebecausebecause thethethethe bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles werewerewerewere tiragetiragetiragetiragesealed,sealed,sealed,sealed, thethethethe totaltotaltotaltotal volume,volume,volume,volume, totototo thethethethe ringringringring belowbelowbelowbelow thethethethe seal,seal,seal,seal, waswaswaswas .790.790.790.790 ml.ml.ml.ml. TheTheTheThe bottlebottlebottlebottle totaltotaltotaltotal inininin thisthisthisthis casecasecasecase waswaswaswas projectedprojectedprojectedprojected asasasas beingbeingbeingbeing 140:-140:-140:-140:-.790=.790=.790=.790= 177.2,177.2,177.2,177.2, everyeveryeveryevery participantparticipantparticipantparticipant notnotnotnot presentpresentpresentpresent totototo helphelphelphelp waswaswaswas leviedleviedleviedlevied anananan extraextraextraextra halfhalfhalfhalf bottlebottlebottlebottle inininin costcostcostcost forforforfor everyeveryeveryevery dozendozendozendozen bottledbottledbottledbottled forforforfor them,them,them,them,thethethethe remainderremainderremainderremainder ofofofof thethethethe costcostcostcost ofofofof thethethethe 177177177177 projectedprojectedprojectedprojected bottlesbottlesbottlesbottles waswaswaswas paidpaidpaidpaid forforforfor bybybyby thethethethe householder,householder,householder,householder, anyanyanyany extraextraextraextra afterafterafterafter bottling,bottling,bottling,bottling, includingincludingincludingincludingthethethethe levy,levy,levy,levy, waswaswaswas totototo bebebebe divideddivideddivideddivided upupupup asasasas described.described.described.described.

The order was to the nearest 20 litres, as this was the most convenient container size, so there were bound to be some extras, paidfor or otherwise, not least because the containers were filled, most generously at the winery, almost to their limits of capacity.

The .210 liters difference, between a litre purchased and bottle filled and received, meant that the householder gained a proportionof “free” wine, which also helped to cover sundry expenses like containers, caps, hot water, metabisulphite, pre-preparation time,etc., lunch was bring or donate a plate, and petrol for the bulk pick-up was shared. Bottles were variously donated, and pre-prepared by the householder, prior to bottling, and washed once more at bottling, (hence the wish-list item for new standard bottlesas above, to reduce the pre-preparation workload...), this extra labour also compensated for by the householder’s levy on those notpresent on the day.

With only two for the job, the 180-odd bottles took a solid 8 hours to be washed, rinsed, dipped, flushed with CO2, filled from the 7containers, capped, counted, apportioned, and then there was the clean-up and put-away. A couple more hands would havereduced the time dramatically, and the house being split level, (see wish-list items), meant time lost with stair work and carrying.The usual sanitary precautions were carried out at all times. Under those circumstances, not an activity for the faint-hearted,although practice would make perfect, and some small technical glitches had to be overcome which would not be problematic in thefuture.

The 20 litre containers were carefully flushed with hothothothot caustic solution, soap and water, (and brushed), plus soda bicarb solution,before use, to ensure they were neutral as to any possible odours. They were carried on rubber mats in a utility to ensure noworrying of their bases could occur, with resulting leaks. However, the wine should be, and was, transferred to bottles within 24hours, so as not to leach the plastic which will occur with the alcohol of the wine. Keep cool, 10C-15C at least, before bottling, andafter, which means optimal cellaring temperatures.

20

The CO2 flush was provided by a SodaStreamSodaStreamSodaStreamSodaStream canister, removed from its fixture, with trigger attached, a hose extension fittedsuitable for venting into bottles and container head-space, and the trigger gentlygentlygentlygently pulled when required. After all, the CO2 settlingin a generous layer is as good as a full flush. One fill at A$12 per refill was more than enough for the entire task. The local wineand brewing shop also suggested this measure, and SodaStreamSodaStreamSodaStreamSodaStream were contacted re a model developed for the needs of thelegions of home wine-makers, or anyone else flushing with CO2 on a small scale, who could benefit from such a useful technicaladdition to their equipment. We are now in wait-and-see mode as to whether the suggestion will be followed up.

Tirage caps meant the bottles were filled to within 2 cm of the top, the bulk fill done with the CO2 layer, via a bottle filler, and a quickaddition of the extra 40 mls required, a short settling period under a loose cap for any bubbles to rise, and then the capping. Therewould be some residual CO2 in the wine anyway, so the theory is that even with the slight backwash of air as the bottler isremoved, and with the 40 ml top-up following, oxygen contact would be as minimal as possible under the circumstances.Certainly, there is no gap under the cap as would be the case with a cork, whose ingress must force any gases present in the ullageback into the wine below.

Bottling was done, as usual, in daylight, from a kitchen table, against a white background of paper spread below on the floor, so asto see the rise of wine in the bottle, or, an electric light would do the same thing. A conventional screw-in tap and valved bottlerwand were used, although siphoning was initially required to lower the generous level inside the containers.

There were 3 cappers involved, of the 2 with tirage bells, one, the “industrial-strength” model was fixed for the most common size ofchampagne bottle used, the other adjustable for the non-standard bottles. The third capper was for small green beer bottles thatserve as half-bottles, or testerstesterstesterstesters, to aid in checking the developing state of the wine in the future. The wine could be laid down foras long as 5 years, according to the Winemaker, although up to two years would be optimum, given that oxygen contact wasminimised, rather than fully controlled, as the CO2 was not administered within a sealed delivery system, as would have been thecase in the winery.

CostsCostsCostsCosts andandandand necessitiesnecessitiesnecessitiesnecessities totototo consider,consider,consider,consider, notnotnotnot includingincludingincludingincluding labour,labour,labour,labour, wouldwouldwouldwould bebebebe containers,containers,containers,containers, CO2CO2CO2CO2 andandandand dispenser,dispenser,dispenser,dispenser, bottles,bottles,bottles,bottles, hothothothot water,water,water,water,rinsingrinsingrinsingrinsing water,water,water,water, metabisulphite,metabisulphite,metabisulphite,metabisulphite, bottlebottlebottlebottle washwashwashwash powder,powder,powder,powder, crowncrowncrowncrown capscapscapscaps ofofofof eithereithereithereither size,size,size,size, logistics,logistics,logistics,logistics, workworkworkwork area,area,area,area, timetimetimetime involved,involved,involved,involved, helphelphelphelp ononononthethethethe day,day,day,day, fuel,fuel,fuel,fuel, deliverydeliverydeliverydelivery andandandand pickuppickuppickuppickup ofofofof bottles,bottles,bottles,bottles, emptyemptyemptyempty andandandand full,full,full,full, pre-preparation,pre-preparation,pre-preparation,pre-preparation, bottling,bottling,bottling,bottling, clean-upclean-upclean-upclean-up andandandand putputputput away,away,away,away, sparesparesparespare partspartspartspartslikelikelikelike tapstapstapstaps orororor extraextraextraextra CO2CO2CO2CO2 bottle,bottle,bottle,bottle, functioningfunctioningfunctioningfunctioning cappers,cappers,cappers,cappers, (relatively)(relatively)(relatively)(relatively) coolcoolcoolcool storagestoragestoragestorage orororor cellaringcellaringcellaringcellaring space.space.space.space. OnceOnceOnceOnce started,started,started,started, thethethethe tasktasktasktaskmustmustmustmust bebebebe completed,completed,completed,completed, andandandand withinwithinwithinwithin 24242424 hours,hours,hours,hours, sosososo somesomesomesome thoughtthoughtthoughtthought andandandand planning,planning,planning,planning, asasasas forforforfor allallallall winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking orororor brewingbrewingbrewingbrewing activities,activities,activities,activities, isisisisadvisedadvisedadvisedadvised beforebeforebeforebefore takingtakingtakingtaking onononon thethethethe project.project.project.project.

Finally, at the end of this particular project, as to quality and potability, what of the wine in question? Well, we had, in bottle, avery pleasant, very dark young 2001 Cabernet, not a heavy tannins, would suit many types of food, andandandand red wine drinkers, for thatmatter, which can only get better with time, as above. Indeed, a wine to be proudly and confidently brought forth, in times to come,for guests to enjoy, and the story of its existence recounted. In the end, well worth the labour, including the visit to the winery tosee what a modern winery is like, to chat to the Winemaker, to admire the rows of vines just picked, and all under a brilliant sunnyautumn sky on the day..! Yes, more bulk vine-berry bottlings are planned.

ThanksThanksThanksThanks areareareare nownownownow due,due,due,due, forforforfor theirtheirtheirtheir patiencepatiencepatiencepatience andandandand goodwill,goodwill,goodwill,goodwill, totototo RonRonRonRon Booth,Booth,Booth,Booth, ofofofof HighlandHighlandHighlandHighland Brewers,Brewers,Brewers,Brewers, MossMossMossMoss Vale,Vale,Vale,Vale, NSW,NSW,NSW,NSW, forforforfor thethethethe carboncarboncarboncarbondioxidedioxidedioxidedioxide dispensingdispensingdispensingdispensing advice,advice,advice,advice, andandandand forforforfor contactingcontactingcontactingcontacting SouthernSouthernSouthernSouthern HighlandsHighlandsHighlandsHighlands Winery,Winery,Winery,Winery, SuttonSuttonSuttonSutton Forest,Forest,Forest,Forest, NSW,NSW,NSW,NSW, onononon ourourourour behalf;behalf;behalf;behalf; andandandand ofofofofcourse,course,course,course, totototo SouthernSouthernSouthernSouthern HighlandsHighlandsHighlandsHighlands Winery,Winery,Winery,Winery, andandandand especiallyespeciallyespeciallyespecially EddieEddieEddieEddie Rossi,Rossi,Rossi,Rossi, beingbeingbeingbeing WinemakerWinemakerWinemakerWinemaker ofofofof thatthatthatthat finefinefinefine Cabernet,Cabernet,Cabernet,Cabernet, andandandand Carlyle,Carlyle,Carlyle,Carlyle,theirtheirtheirtheir mostmostmostmost affableaffableaffableaffable salesman,salesman,salesman,salesman, forforforfor thethethethe decantingdecantingdecantingdecanting job...job...job...job... SeeSeeSeeSee youyouyouyou allallallall againagainagainagain veryveryveryvery soon.soon.soon.soon. (February(February(February(February 2004)2004)2004)2004)

SouthernSouthernSouthernSouthern HighlandHighlandHighlandHighland WinesWinesWinesWines’’’’ WebsiteWebsiteWebsiteWebsite isisisis www.southernhighlandwines.comwww.southernhighlandwines.comwww.southernhighlandwines.comwww.southernhighlandwines.com

HighlandHighlandHighlandHighland BrewersBrewersBrewersBrewers’’’’ emailemailemailemail isisisis highbrew@bigpond.comhighbrew@bigpond.comhighbrew@bigpond.comhighbrew@bigpond.com

ContentsContentsContentsContents ReturnReturnReturnReturn

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RecordkeepingRecordkeepingRecordkeepingRecordkeeping inininin winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking is absolutely necessary, given the number of vintages, stages, and processes,as well as the time spans involved. JackJackJackJack KellerKellerKellerKeller has an excellent wine-log example on his website, and there are many others tochoose from, especially in winemaking text-books. One important tip is to develop a set of records that youyouyouyou are comfortable withusing, that are standardisedstandardisedstandardisedstandardised for easy reference purposes, with spaces or headings included to record extra observances or actionstaken.

NofrillstechNofrillstechNofrillstechNofrillstech uses the following headings for home winemaking, with each vintage record spread across two pages, 30cm x 20cmtotal area, of a good quality hard-cover notebook. Any smaller size would not be enough for the details and ongoing commentsthat usually need recording:

WineWineWineWine No.No.No.No. andandandand DateDateDateDate: The date will refer to the time of original must development.

WineWineWineWine Type:Type:Type:Type: Still, red, white, rosé, table, etc.

WineWineWineWine Ingredients:Ingredients:Ingredients:Ingredients: A small précis for easy ingredient identification purposes.

StartStartStartStart ofofofof Process:Process:Process:Process: Details may include yeast type; starter type and/or if any; and pre-fermentation waiting periods,such as for metabisulphite action or temperature adjustment.

TemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperature Control:Control:Control:Control: Details may include starting temperature of the fermentation, also whether inthermostatically controlled conditions, or by ice, ventilation, hot water cupboard, in situ room ambience, etc.

Progress:Progress:Progress:Progress: Comments may include whether fast, slow, heavy cap, temperature manipulation, taste and smell atvarious stages, stirring frequency, CO2 production, etc.

Strained:Strained:Strained:Strained: Including date, must constituent adjustments, sugar, taste and smell, progress, etc.

RackRackRackRack 1111: Including date, comments on progress, taste and smell etc.

RackRackRackRack 2:2:2:2: Repeated if necessary, similar comments.

Bottled:Bottled:Bottled:Bottled: Including date, final adjustments and/or additions, comments on progress, taste and smell, testers bottled,etc.

On the opposite page:

ListListListList ofofofof Ingredients:Ingredients:Ingredients:Ingredients: Fully detailed constituent descriptions, type, age, ripeness, all additives etc. for the initialmust.

Method(s)Method(s)Method(s)Method(s) ofofofof Process,Process,Process,Process, detailed account of steps in materials processing, must development, must and wineadjustments, and at what dates and stages, etc.

CommentsCommentsCommentsComments: Usually post-bottling, about appearance over time, tester sampling, tastes and smells, comments on mature wine,and also pre-tablepre-tablepre-tablepre-table cellarcellarcellarcellar tastingtastingtastingtasting notesnotesnotesnotes, food association suggestions, and references for future vintages or vintage variations.

TastingTastingTastingTasting NotesNotesNotesNotes templates are also widely available, but once again, you should develop such Notes that suit youryouryouryour needs, and thenstandardise them for easy and consistent reference purposes. CellarCellarCellarCellar tastingtastingtastingtasting notesnotesnotesnotes will be a useful start to more comprehensivetable tasting notes, indeed, a copy of table tasting notes should be easily available for reference, with cellar-tasting notes, whenfuture musts are developed, especially if using similar ingredients, or trying must variations. Principles being more important thanrecipes with any given set of potential must ingredients, so, good records and notes will be a boon to new must development, andalso for possible blending of wines, finished or otherwise.

WineWineWineWine Blending,Blending,Blending,Blending, if carried out, must be under the same controlled conditions as bottling to exclude oxygen, and to ensure ongoingsecurity of storage in glass or stainless steel; plastic wine sacs will be your choice, as well. The exception, of course, is an ad hocblending shortly before meal-time deployment, when your decanter will take pride of place on the table.

ContentsContentsContentsContents ReturnReturnReturnReturn

22

CommonCommonCommonCommon ChemicalsChemicalsChemicalsChemicals andandandand ConstituentsConstituentsConstituentsConstituents associated with winemaking and brewing:acetal, di-ethyl acetal, BOP, miscible in alcohol, sweetish odour

acetaldehyde, ethanal, an aldehyde, BOP, miscible in water and alcohol, strong odour, binds SO2

acetic acid, aka a volatile acid, see also ethyl acetate, BOP, vinegar odour

amylase, enzyme used instead of heat in winemaking to break down starch, cf brewing and boiling

amylum, aka starch, plant equivalent of glycogen

anthocyanins, aka colour and some of the good molecules in wine for humans

anti-oxidants, inhibit, delay, or prevent oxidation

argol, aka winestone, BOP, mainly deposited tartaric acid salts of potassium and sodium

arabinose, a hexose sugar

ascorbic acid, vitamin C, antioxidant, health of connective tissue in animals, water soluble

beerstone, aka beerscale, deposit of calcium oxylate acid, plus protein and sugar

benzoic acid and sodium benzoate, in acid medium, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal

bio-flavinoids, common in plant, good molecule for humans, especially blood for vessel health

biotin, B vitamin, yeast nutrient, B vitamins are water soluble

calcium sulphate, water conditioner, as required, precise presence determined by testing.

calcium carbonate, ditto

calcium chloride, ditto

calcium pantothenate, vitamin, co-enzyme, yeast nutrient

carbon, carbon dioxide, op cit below, Elements Of Life

catechol, plant chemical, a phenol, related to tannin, good molecule for humans

co-enzymes, organic molecules that associates with specific enzymatic actions, eg vitamins

citric acid, common fruit acid, especially citrus, citrus taste

copper, trace element, undesirable in winery in forms that will react to cause copper casse.

di-ammonium phosphate, DAP

diastase of malt, aka amylase

dextrin, int. polycsaccharide, hydrolyis of starch to maltose, cf bubbles in Guiness

diacetyl, dimethyl diketone, BOP, butter aroma and taste, miscible in water and alcohol

ethanol, aka alcohol, BOP

ethyl acetate, aka a volatile acid, BOP

ethyl carbamate, aka urethane, a BOP.

fructose, b/d-fructose, levulose, monosaccharide, sweetest natural sugar

fusel oil, composed of fatty acids, alcohols, and esters, being BOPs

gelatine, water soluble protein derived from collagen, clarifier and tannin remover

glycerine, aka glycerol, BOP, sweetener and conditioner in wine, explosive with some oxidisers

hydrogen, op cit, below

lactic acid, BOP, from MLF conversion of malic acid

lactose, milk sugar, non-fermentable by yeast

linalool, C10H180, a wine fragrance

lupulin, aka hop flour, oilsand resins for taste, smell, also preservative action

malic acid, common fruit acid, especially apples, apple odour, bitter

maltose, malt sugar

magnesium carbonate, water conditioner

magnesium sulphate, Epsom Salts, water conditioner

metabisuphate, op cit

methanol, the simplest of the many alcohols, and a BOP, toxic when concentrated

methyl anthranilate, foxy or bubblegum overtone in vitis labrusca wines and blends

nitrogen, op cit, below

ovalbumin, egg albumin, used in clarification

23

oxalic acid, aka ethanedoic acid, common plant acid, toxic if concentrated, eg, rhubarb leaves

oxygen, op cit, below

potassium tartrate, BOP

pantothenic acid, a B Vitamin, yeast nutrient

pectin, plant cell component

pectinase, pectic enzyme

pyruvate, intermediate substance in sugar fermentation before alcohol formation

resveratrol winemaking BOP, good molecule

sodium benzoate, plant product, preservative and anti-fungal agent

sodium bicarbonate, de-acidifier

sodium bitartrate, BOP

sodium chloride, water conditioner

sorbate, potassium sorbate, preservative and yeast reproduction inhibiter

sorbic acid, plant chemical, preservative

sorbitol, sweetener and substitute for glycerol

sotolon, adds to the distinctive taste and smell of wines made from botytised grapes

succinic acid aka butanedoic acid

sucrose, cane/beet s., polysach. easily hydrolysed, sucrase/heat/acids, to dextrose and fructose

sulphur, op cit, below

tannin(s), astringent plant chemicals, wine preservative and taste balance

tartaric acid, various forms incl. racemic acid, major grape acid, taste, wine preservative

thiamine, Vitamin B1, yeast nutrient

vanillin, an aromatic aldehyde, taste derived from maturation in or with oak

water, aka oxygen hydride or hydrogen oxide

winewinewinewine diseasediseasediseasedisease is caused by microorganisms,,,, winewinewinewine conditionconditionconditioncondition is due more to process and handling, BOPBOPBOPBOP isisisis byproductbyproductbyproductbyproduct ofofofof processprocessprocessprocess,

in this case fermentation; some of the very many are herein noted ...a list ad infinitum, but never ad nauseum, for the quietly sipping

home wine connoisseurs drinking their own fine wines!

SelectedSelectedSelectedSelected winewinewinewine andandandand beerbeerbeerbeer chemicalschemicalschemicalschemicals inininin detail:detail:detail:detail: The following are more detailed definitions anddescriptions of selected winemaking and brewing constituents and/or byproducts. Any feedback to improve or enlarge this data by abetter qualified reader would be much appreciated. This minor inventory will grow slowly with time, so watch this space, or asksuch questions of your favourite Search Engine, thus accessing what has now become the world’s largest library, aka The WorldWide Web.

AccountingAccountingAccountingAccounting forforforfor thethethethe Halogens:Halogens:Halogens:Halogens: This group of non metallic compounds is noteworthy for including iodine and chlorine, elements thatin their various forms, and even as residues, may cause tainting of wine and beer. Just put halogenshalogenshalogenshalogens into Google, there will beplenty of data resulting, or consult relevant reference texts. In the meantime, with special thanks to Purdue Uni and Yinon Bentor,as you will see for yourself on the Web, here is a precis of the main characteristics of TheTheTheThe HalogensHalogensHalogensHalogens:

Six elements in VIIA of the Periodic Table, hydrogen,hydrogen,hydrogen,hydrogen, fluorine,fluorine,fluorine,fluorine, chlorine,chlorine,chlorine,chlorine, bromine,bromine,bromine,bromine, iodine,iodine,iodine,iodine, andandandand astatineastatineastatineastatine, all form diatomicmolecules, and negatively charged ions. They have similar chemistry, are highly reactive, and not found in their pure state ininininnaturenaturenaturenature. Chlorine and hydrogen as the partial exceptions may exist so only transitorily. Hydrogen is the exception as to electronsin the outer and only valence shell, viz one only, but the others all have 7 electrons in their outer valence shell, giving them anoxidation number of minus one, (-1), and thesethesethesethese othersothersothersothers areareareare knownknownknownknown collectivelycollectivelycollectivelycollectively asasasas thethethethe halogens.halogens.halogens.halogens. Their chemistry is dominatedby redox reactions, and chlorine, bromine and iodine can expand their valence shells to 14 electrons. Halogens also form isotopes.

All the halogens are very reactive, (fluorine being the most active element known), their collective name means saltsaltsaltsalt formersformersformersformers, fromthe Greek words halshalshalshals, salt, and gennangennangennangennan, to form. At normal temperatures, when in pure form, iodine and astatine are solid,bromine is a liquid, and fluorine and chlorine are gases. Their gaseous forms, and any reactions with other substances, are alsocharacterised by violence, fumes and stench. Astatine is radioactive, and has the most unstable compounds and isotopes.Hydrogen halides are compounds with hydrogen attached to a halogen, and aqueous hydrogen halides form the so-called mineralacids, such as hydrochloric acid. Also, interhalogen compounds are possible.

Halogens with relevance to winemaking in particular are chlorine and iodine.Both iodine and chlorine are used for disinfectants/sanitisers, and chlorine is used for water purification. Iodine is necessary forthyroid function in human diets, obtained more advisedly from seafood, rather than relying on the more traditional iodised salt.Iodine compounds are also used as catalysts, drugs, dyes, and as silver iodide for photographic use. Chlorine compounds are

24

also used as bleaching and solvent agents. Note that hydrogenhydrogenhydrogenhydrogen is beneficial as a component of water, and organic acids;chlorine,chlorine,chlorine,chlorine, (trace), andandandand hydrogenhydrogenhydrogenhydrogen are essential elements, for both plants and animals.

Chlorine is named for its colour, after the Greek chloroschloroschloroschloros, meaning green, (but has no connection with chlorophyll, also green,“which is formed of variously substituted porphyrin rings with magnesium”, Chambers Chemical Dictionary). Iodine as a solid isdensely colored greyish black, but iodine vapour is an intense violet, named after the Greek word for this colour, iodesiodesiodesiodes. Iodine isan essential trace element for humans.

Fluorine compounds are added to drinking water for dental/medical reasons, but apparently do not affect winemaking or brewing inany way. Chlorine in water reacts with OH- ions to form chloride, Cl-, and hypochlorite, OCl-, ions, the latter an example a ofhalogen oxyacid of chlorine, and both are causes of taint in wine and beer. Both chlorine and iodine compounds reactunfavourably, in relation to taste, with tannins, and probably with other constituents in winemaking or brewing.

As noted, chlorine, or chlorinated compounds, will react with, and pit, stainless steel, and chlorinated compounds will react withcommon household acids to produce chlorine gas, highly reactive and dangerous for any human or animal tissues, and with corksto produce trichloranisole. So, if you mustmustmustmust use these elements in their various compound forms, beware, and always rinsethoroughly after, if there is sufficient fresh water to do so. Chlorinated drinking water should be stirred regularly while standingover 12 hours, or boiled for 10-15 minutes to remove all traces of the gas. Boiling will, of course, remove oxygen, which will needto be replenished by agitation so that primary fermentation yeast proliferation will be assured.

AlcoholAlcoholAlcoholAlcohol: Aka ethylethylethylethyl alcoholalcoholalcoholalcohol, or more specifically EthanolEthanolEthanolEthanol: C2H5OH, product of natural fermentation, for winemakers andbrewers, of sugars, principally by Saccharomyces, the sugar fungus. An organic compound with an hydroxyl/aliphatic groupsattached directly to carbon atoms. The name derives from the addition of the suffix -ol to the corresponding paraffin hydrocarbon.Miscible with water, alcohol also forms esters with acids, important for aroma/bouquet in fermented beverages.

Not to be confused with ethanalethanalethanalethanal, acetaldehyde, CH3CHCH3CHCH3CHCH3CH, also a BOP. Or methanol/methylmethanol/methylmethanol/methylmethanol/methyl alcohol/woodalcohol/woodalcohol/woodalcohol/wood alcohol,alcohol,alcohol,alcohol, CH3OH,CH3OH,CH3OH,CH3OH, alsoa minorminorminorminor BOP, and a definite toxin and rapid cumulative poison, especially damaging the optic nerve, as well as other brain andnervous tissue. Nor to be confused with methanal/ormaldehydemethanal/ormaldehydemethanal/ormaldehydemethanal/ormaldehyde, HCHOHCHOHCHOHCHO, or rubbing alcohol, 70% denatured ethanol, or, any ofthe other higher (tending to be oily or solids), or lower alcohols, (tending to be miscible with water), extant.

Alcohol for humans, anyway, acts as a relaxant, and a depressant, especially in relation to behaviour controls, and this may varyaccording to individual susceptibility, age, health, gender, etc. Some individuals may become addicted, some racial groups lackthe full liver enzyme complement necessary for metabolising alcohol in the liver after transport there by blood circulation, and thehangover of myth and legend will usually strike anyone else who overindulges. The Demon? Or, Nature’s Own Best Medicine,along with laughter, of course, as long as one does not exceed the stated dose, and note that alcohol acts synergistically withaspirin and barbiturates.

However, alcohol should really only be consumed on “good” days, or with a meal, nevernevernevernever habitually as a stress reliever self-medicated, and associations with social or cultural events should be carefully monitored, both for public health and safety, andregarding examples set for children and minors to follow. Human society may owe much of its more complex early development tothe necessity for, and the domestication of, systematic cropping of cereals that produced bread and beer, and fruits, particularly thegrape, that provided the basis for early wines, and later, the distillation of spirits from these beverages. WeWeWeWe andandandand thethethethe sugarsugarsugarsugar fungusfungusfungusfungusgogogogo backbackbackback aaaa long,long,long,long, longlonglonglong waywaywayway, and the rituals from that history, as well as many habits and tastes, are still with us, although moresensible consumption seems to be gaining in favour these days.

Alcohol does not undergo digestive changes, is absorbed readily into the blood from the GE tract, especially in the presence ofcarbon dioxide gas, and rapidly concentrates in the brain. In optimal daily amounts, alcohol has proven medical benefits,especially of a cardiovascular nature, see AIM,AIM,AIM,AIM, Alchowine,Alchowine,Alchowine,Alchowine, andandandand TheTheTheThe SocietySocietySocietySociety ofofofof thethethethe MedicalMedicalMedicalMedical FriendsFriendsFriendsFriends ofofofof Wine,Wine,Wine,Wine, andandandand theirtheirtheirtheir links,links,links,links, forforforformoremoremoremore information.information.information.information. ForForForFor badbadbadbad news,news,news,news, totototo bebebebe fair,fair,fair,fair, trytrytrytry AlphaAlphaAlphaAlpha DeTox.DeTox.DeTox.DeTox. NoNoNoNo healthhealthhealthhealth measuremeasuremeasuremeasure guardsguardsguardsguards againstagainstagainstagainst alcoholalcoholalcoholalcohol damagedamagedamagedamage moremoremoremoreeffectivelyeffectivelyeffectivelyeffectively thanthanthanthan moderationmoderationmoderationmoderation ofofofof intake.intake.intake.intake. FattyFattyFattyFatty liver,liver,liver,liver, fromfromfromfrom alcohol-inducedalcohol-inducedalcohol-inducedalcohol-induced inhibitioninhibitioninhibitioninhibition ofofofof liverliverliverliver function,function,function,function, maymaymaymay bebebebe reversed,reversed,reversed,reversed, butbutbutbutcirrhosiscirrhosiscirrhosiscirrhosis nevernevernevernever.... ForForForFor winewinewinewine drinkers,drinkers,drinkers,drinkers, 2-42-42-42-4 standardstandardstandardstandard glassesglassesglassesglasses perperperper daydaydayday isisisis beneficial,beneficial,beneficial,beneficial, less,less,less,less, andandandand especially,especially,especially,especially, moremoremoremore thanthanthanthan 4444 standardstandardstandardstandardglasses,glasses,glasses,glasses, areareareare notnotnotnot so.so.so.so.

Excerpt:Excerpt:Excerpt:Excerpt: ETHANOL,ETHANOL,ETHANOL,ETHANOL, NADH,NADH,NADH,NADH, ANDANDANDAND THETHETHETHE LIVERLIVERLIVERLIVER‘The human body can dispose fairly readily of most toxic products of its own manufacture, such as carbon dioxide andnitrogenous wastes. In contrast, most ingested toxic substances, such as ethanol (beverage alcohol), must first bebroken down by the liver, which possesses special enzymes not present in other tissues.

It has been known for many years that heavy drinkers are at great risk for severe, and often fatal, liver disease.Studies conducted by Charles 5. Lieber and his colleagues at the Bronx Veterans Ad ministration Hospital and theMount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City have demonstrated that the origin of the problem lies in the simplechemical steps involved in the breakdown of ethanol. Enzymes in the liver first oxidize ethanol (CH3CH2OH) toacetaldehyde (CH3CHO), removing two hydrogen atoms and reducing a molecule of NAD+ ; this is the reverse of thesecond reaction shown in Figure 9-5a on page 193. The acetaldehyde is then oxidized to acetic acid, which is, inturn, oxidized to carbon dioxide and water and eliminated from the body.

The chief culprits in the development of liver disease are the hydrogen atoms, (electrons and protons), removed fromethanol. These “extra” hydrogens, carried by NADH, follow two principal pathways within the cell. Most are fed directlyinto the electron transport chain, producing water and ATP. Because of the high levels of NADH present in the cellfrom the oxidation of ethanol, the production of NADH by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle is reduced.

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As a result, sugars, amino acids and fatty acids are not broken down but are instead converted to fats. The fatsaccumulate in the liver. The mitochondria also swell, presumably as a result of the distortion of their normal function,the electron transport chain is doing very heavy duty, while the Krebs cycle is effectively shut down.

Other hydrogen atoms are used in the synthesis of glycero-phosphates and fatty acids from the carbohydrateskeletons that are not being processed in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. More fats accumulate. It does not takelong. In human volunteers fed a good high-protein, low-fat diet, six drinks (about 10 ounces) a day of 80 proof alcoholproduced an eightfold increase in fat deposits in the liver in only 18 days. Fortunately, these early effects arecompletely reversible.

The liver cells work hard to get rid of the excess fats. The fats are not soluble in water (or in blood plasma). Beforebeing released into the bloodstream, they are coated with a thin layer of protein. This coating and secretion process iscarried out on the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. The liver cells of heavy drinkers show enormousproliferation of the endoplasmic reticulum

(a) Normal liver tissue from a rat fed a balanced liquid diet for 24 days.(b) (b) In this liver tissue from another rat fed a liquid diet in which ethanol provided 36 percent of the total

calories, many globular fat droplets have accumulated. This rat was also maintained on its special diet for 24days.

As we noted, the fat deposits are initially reversible, but after a few years, depending on how much alcohol isconsumed, liver cells engorged with fat begin to die, triggering the inflammatory process known as alcoholic hepatitis.Liver function becomes impaired. Cirrhosis is the next step; it is the formation of scar tissue which interferes with thefunction of the individual cells and also with the supply of blood to the liver. This leads to the death of more cells. Theliver can no longer carry out its normal activities, such as breaking down nitrogenous wastes, which is why cirrhosis isa cause of death. In fact, cirrhosis of the liver is the seventh leading cause of death in the nation, and the third leadingcause of death between the ages of 25 and 65 in New York City.

Not so long ago, it was commonly believed that a good diet was all that was required to protect even a heavy drinkerfrom the deleterious effects of alcohol. In fact, if one were just to add a few vitamins to the alcohol itself somesophisticates maintained, most of the long-term physical damage of alcohol would disappear. This new evidencerefutes these comforting notions, and it comes at a time when alcohol is enjoying a resurgence of popularity amongpersons of high school and college age. (In populations of postgraduate age, as in other human societies the worldover, it never lost its status as the drug abuse of choice.)’

Excerpt from Biology,Biology,Biology,Biology, H. Curtis, Worth NY 1984, 4th EditionISBNISBNISBNISBN 0-87901-186-6,0-87901-186-6,0-87901-186-6,0-87901-186-6, p. 206, Section 2, Energetics,Energetics,Energetics,Energetics,

HelenaHelenaHelenaHelena CurtisCurtisCurtisCurtis obviouslyobviouslyobviouslyobviously caredcaredcaredcared aboutaboutaboutabout thethethethe healthhealthhealthhealth ofofofof herherherher students,students,students,students, asasasas wellwellwellwell asasasas cateringcateringcateringcatering forforforfor theirtheirtheirtheir knowledgeknowledgeknowledgeknowledge ofofofofBiology.Biology.Biology.Biology.

ForForForFor otherotherotherother informationinformationinformationinformation onononon thisthisthisthis theme,theme,theme,theme, see AIMAIMAIMAIM,,,, and TheTheTheThe SocietySocietySocietySociety ofofofof thethethethe MedicalMedicalMedicalMedical FriendsFriendsFriendsFriends ofofofof WineWineWineWine,,,, both have goodcommonsense information of wine and health, well worth the quest to educate yourself in these matters. NewNewNewNew ScientistScientistScientistScientist has anAlcoholAlcoholAlcoholAlcohol Supplement,Supplement,Supplement,Supplement, also interesting.

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EthylEthylEthylEthyl Carbamate:Carbamate:Carbamate:Carbamate: Op cit, nitrogen nutritional balance usingusingusingusing DAP,DAP,DAP,DAP, diammoniumdiammoniumdiammoniumdiammonium phosphate,phosphate,phosphate,phosphate, isisisis necessarynecessarynecessarynecessary totototo preventpreventpreventpreventformationformationformationformation ofofofof thethethethe BOPBOPBOPBOP ureaureaureaurea which the yeast cannot metabolise. Urea,Urea,Urea,Urea, (carbamide(carbamide(carbamide(carbamide CH4N2O)CH4N2O)CH4N2O)CH4N2O) plusplusplusplus ethanol,ethanol,ethanol,ethanol, (C2H5OH)(C2H5OH)(C2H5OH)(C2H5OH)producesproducesproducesproduces ethylethylethylethyl carbamate,carbamate,carbamate,carbamate, anananan esteresteresterester ofofofof carbamiccarbamiccarbamiccarbamic acid,acid,acid,acid, (NH2.COOH),(NH2.COOH),(NH2.COOH),(NH2.COOH), alsoalsoalsoalso beingbeingbeingbeing bothbothbothboth aaaa urethane,urethane,urethane,urethane, andandandand aaaa carcinogen.carcinogen.carcinogen.carcinogen. ThusThusThusThususeuseuseuse onlyonlyonlyonly foodfoodfoodfood gradegradegradegrade DAP,DAP,DAP,DAP, whichwhichwhichwhich hashashashas nononono ureaureaureaurea contamination,contamination,contamination,contamination, andandandand addaddaddadd thethethethe DAPDAPDAPDAP beforebeforebeforebefore fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation beginsbeginsbeginsbegins forforforfor optimumoptimumoptimumoptimumresults.results.results.results.

EnsureEnsureEnsureEnsure thatthatthatthat thethethethe DAPDAPDAPDAP supplementsupplementsupplementsupplement isisisis notnotnotnot excessive,excessive,excessive,excessive, asasasas excessexcessexcessexcess nitrogennitrogennitrogennitrogen nutritionnutritionnutritionnutrition willwillwillwill leadleadleadlead totototo ECECECEC formationformationformationformation also.also.also.also. Removepits from stone fruits as they are very likely to contain sugar-bound cyanides, pre-cursors of ethyl carbamate. AllAllAllAll fermentedfermentedfermentedfermentedfoodsfoodsfoodsfoods andandandand beveragesbeveragesbeveragesbeverages willwillwillwill containcontaincontaincontain tracestracestracestraces ofofofof EC,EC,EC,EC, sosososo minimisingminimisingminimisingminimising occurrenceoccurrenceoccurrenceoccurrence ofofofof thisthisthisthis unwantedunwantedunwantedunwanted BOPBOPBOPBOP isisisis recommendedrecommendedrecommendedrecommended.

For more detailed information regarding EC and winemaking in general, seeseeseesee EthylEthylEthylEthyl CarbamateCarbamateCarbamateCarbamate PreventativePreventativePreventativePreventative ActionActionActionAction ManualManualManualManual, C.Butzke et al; just put this into your Search Engine. The Summary will be of especial interest for any sort of winemaking.

ImportantImportantImportantImportant ElementsElementsElementsElements ofofofof LifeLifeLifeLife and some related compounds are discussed that would be of interest to the homewinemaker/brewer. These elements and compounds, in particular occurrences and combinations, manifest properties that all havesome bearing on winemaking and brewing.

WaterWaterWaterWater isisisis composedcomposedcomposedcomposed ofofofof 2222 elementselementselementselements:

1)1)1)1)Oxygen:Oxygen:Oxygen:Oxygen: symbol 0, non-metallic element, seldom found as 02 apart from the 19%-21% in atmosphere, also found as theallotrope ozone, O3, in the upper atmosphere, and occasionally at sea level, though mainly as a pollutant due to photochemicaleffects. The remainder of oxygen is in combination with other elements as an oxide, proportions in the lithosphere 47%, in oceans89%, and 3 stable isotopes. Oxygen will combine with most elements as an oxide, especially with the addition of heat.DiscoveredDiscoveredDiscoveredDiscovered bybybyby JosephJosephJosephJoseph Priestley,Priestley,Priestley,Priestley, 1774177417741774, who derived it in pure form after heating mercuric oxide.

Properties:Properties:Properties:Properties: Colourless, odourless, and tasteless gaseous element, important as an oxidising agent, being an electron donor, andelectro-negative, seldom found as O2 because of inherent reactivity, supporter of combustion, and constituent of water. Supporterof respiration for many terrestrial life forms, originating as a by-product of photosynthesis in plant life-forms, which, in turn, utilisecarbon dioxide originating from oxygen respiration of other life forms as per TheTheTheThe CarbonCarbonCarbonCarbon CycleCycleCycleCycle.

Oxygen is important in winemaking as a constituent of water, for yeast proliferation during primary fermentation, and also for micro-oxygenation, wine aging, etc. Undesirable oxidation of wine may be exacerbated by chemical and/or microbiological means, andthus must be carefully controlled throughout the winemaking process, especially with the making white wines.

2)2)2)2)HydrogenHydrogenHydrogenHydrogen: symbol H, the lightest element, being a single proton with one electron attached, plus 2 stable isotopes; mostlyfound in gaseous form as H2. Most abundant element in the Universe, being a constituent of water, minerals and organiccompounds on Earth. Hydrogen combines with many elements to form hydrides. DiscoveredDiscoveredDiscoveredDiscovered bybybyby RobertRobertRobertRobert Boyle,Boyle,Boyle,Boyle, 1659,1659,1659,1659, andandandand itsitsitsitspropertiespropertiespropertiesproperties werewerewerewere elucidatedelucidatedelucidatedelucidated bybybyby HenryHenryHenryHenry Cavendish,Cavendish,Cavendish,Cavendish, 1766.1766.1766.1766.

PropertiesPropertiesPropertiesProperties: Colourless, but very reactive, a proton donor, a strong reducing agent, and the active constituent of acids in the H+ orionic form. The nature of the electrostatically charged portions of contiguous polar molecules produces hydrogen bonds in watermolecules responsible for surface tension, the phenomena of latent heat, heat capacity, and heat of vapourisation. The hydrogenpart of the molecule is therefore more negative and the oxygen poles are more positive. This type of bonding is also important forthe tertiary structure of proteins. Hydrogen is important for winemaking as a constituent of water, amino acids, and of organicacids such as acetic acid, citric, tartaric, benzoic, etc.

WaterWaterWaterWater inininin general:general:general:general: Symbol H20, hydrogen oxide, oxygen hydride, the covalently bonded, 104°5' chevron-shaped molecule,with a single hydrogen at the apex, and the two oxygen atoms as each leg. Seldom seen in the ionic form, HOˉ+ H3O+, as thepurepurepurepure liquid form, although often existing with other dissolved salts as an ionic and/or electrolytic solution. Water is also theuniversal solvent, due to polar properties of the molecule. In pure liquid form, each molecule will be associated with four otherwater molecules because of polarity, thus water can be considered a continuous compound. Water is also commonly associatedin compounds as waterwaterwaterwater ofofofof crystallizationcrystallizationcrystallizationcrystallization. Water was ‘discovered’ conclusively by HenryHenryHenryHenry CavendishCavendishCavendishCavendish, (1731-1810), in 1781178117811781,when inflammableinflammableinflammableinflammable airairairair, now known as hydrogen, combusted with the atmosphere, ie with the oxygen component thereof, formingwater vapour that condensed into droplets on the walls of the experimental vessel he was using, although he did not fullyunderstand the true chemical nature of the reaction.

Properties:Properties:Properties:Properties: COT in pure form. Latent heat and fire-quenching properties, including vapourisation, that will help to exclude,cover, or inhibit other combustible gases or materials. Also capable of extensive range of mechanical activity involving physicalassociation with, and transfer of, materials by means other than by chemical combination. In, brief, pure water is mainlycharacterised by solvent power, thermal capacity, permittivity, pH neutral, and general abundance, especially in the biosphere.biosphere.biosphere.biosphere.Ionic changes in water solutions will depend on the solutes involved, but the measure of acidity, or H+ ions, and alkalinity, OH- ions,are described by the pH scale. As well as the hydrogenhydrogenhydrogenhydrogen bondingbondingbondingbonding phenomenon described above, water solutions also manifestsweaker vanvanvanvan derderderder VaalsVaalsVaalsVaals interactionsinteractionsinteractionsinteractions that are necessary for enzyme reactions.

Ionic/electrovalentIonic/electrovalentIonic/electrovalentIonic/electrovalent bondsbondsbondsbonds and hydrophobichydrophobichydrophobichydrophobic bondsbondsbondsbonds are also biologically important. Water is vital for all organic life forms,especially for respiration, plus many inorganic processes, as well as physical transport of material. Osmosis and electricalconduction in cells depend on ionisationionisationionisationionisation. WaterWaterWaterWater potentialpotentialpotentialpotential refers to the free energy of water in solution in a cell which enablesmovement by diffusion,diffusion,diffusion,diffusion, osmosis,osmosis,osmosis,osmosis, orororor vapourvapourvapourvapour transport.transport.transport.transport.

BP 100˚C, FP 0˚C, greatest density at 4˚C, the most common form on our planet being as a liquid between these temperaturepoints, also as vapour, or ice. Both boiling and freezing points can be altered depending on solutes or other additives, also air

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pressure. Water has the highest heat capacity and latent heat of all substances, also characterised by latent heat of evaporationrequired to allow transition from liquid to vapour. Water also demonstrates the phenomenon of sublimation, whereby ice maytransform to vapour, in certain conditions, (gradually), without assuming the intermediate liquid form. Ice is 11% greater in volumethan water.

HardHardHardHard waterwaterwaterwater, containing mostly calcium and magnesium ions, is considered beneficial to some brewing processes because of tasteenhancement. Softer water has more sodium ions, or is attained by replacing Ca and Mg with Na/sodium ions, or is just pure, andthus ion-free water. There may even be combinations of all three ions in some groundwater. Ca, Mg, and Na ions will all andsingly affect pH. Ca and Mg ions, better for darker beers, will lower the pH slightly; bicarbonate of soda, NaHCO3, will raise pH,which is better for pale beers. Kit beer concentrate should be self-contained, so clean, untainted water would be the generalstandard for that process.

However, that sort of detail can only be made relevant with proper water testing. The term water hardness is more related to soapand detergent use in water, but the types of soluble and reactive ions that also affect pH are important here, and there may also beions present that react unfavourably with brewing and winemaking at different stages, including possible toxicity that may inhibit oreven destroy yeasts.

Water for winemaking should be clean, pure and untainted, and ion-freeion-freeion-freeion-free, especially for commercial winemaking, because someprocedures such as ion exchange require water to be as pure as possible, and therefore ion-neutral in nature. Rainwater orfiltered water would be optimum for homewinemakers. Even the water from a clear mountain stream would need scrutiny for allallallallbrewing and winemaking processes, for mineral content, and especially for wildlife, which boiling, filtering and/or treatment withmeta would deal with, although there still would be cleaning procedures to consider. (See also whiskywhiskywhiskywhisky and whisky distillation,appropriate water sources are most important!)

CleaningCleaningCleaningCleaning proceduresproceduresproceduresprocedures for both brewing and winemaking can also be affected by water ion content and pH, as cleaning agents maybe reduced in efficiency, so their type and efficiency should be related to water quality and content.

The fact that water is so abundant on this planet in liquid form is a happy cosmic accident, as are the carbon-based life forms thathave evolved here due, collectively, to the proximity from a local medium-sized star, our Sun, with a sufficient variety of elementspresent, plus the narrow margin of conditions suitable for life that have produced a suitable atmosphere, and a temperature rangethat will sustain carbon-based life forms, which, in turn, is also maintained as a balance in large part due to the latent heat/heatcapacity properties of water in its various forms. (The hydrospherehydrospherehydrospherehydrosphere refers to the water zone of the planet).

Temperature auto-regulation for many life forms is due to the physical properties of water, and water is a major constituent of cells,and of organic processes. Water will absorb significant amounts of heat, but conversely will lose heat relatively slowly, so a bodyof water, such as in a wine must, will need temperature regulation that ensures an optimum range for the well-being of the yeast.BoundBoundBoundBound waterwaterwaterwater, found within the hydrationhydrationhydrationhydration spheres of ions is immobilised, and the more bound water in cell or solution, the lowerthe potential freezing point, and higher the potential boiling point.

HydrophobicHydrophobicHydrophobicHydrophobic surfaces lack surface charges and are not wettable, hydrophilichydrophilichydrophilichydrophilic surfaces vice versa, which also explains capillarity,as water molecules can be drawn upwards by electrostaticelectrostaticelectrostaticelectrostatic attractionattractionattractionattraction. Insoluble substances are electrically negative, with nopotential for electrostatic reaction with water, and hydrogen bonds are re-established which exclude the insoluble substance, andwater molecules clump together on insoluble or water-repellent surfaces, or vice versa. Hydrophobia is the basis for thespontaneous development of cell membranes which have an exclusive or inclusive function in organisms. A surfactant alters thissurface tension-inducing hydrogen bonding, which also explains why detergent residue inhibits the formation of a head on pouredbeer.

Relevant water-related terms of interest: absorption,absorption,absorption,absorption, adsorption,adsorption,adsorption,adsorption, dehydrate,dehydrate,dehydrate,dehydrate, deliquescent,deliquescent,deliquescent,deliquescent, electrostatic,electrostatic,electrostatic,electrostatic, emulsion,emulsion,emulsion,emulsion, hard,hard,hard,hard,hydrate,hydrate,hydrate,hydrate, hydrophilia,hydrophilia,hydrophilia,hydrophilia, hydrology,hydrology,hydrology,hydrology, hydrolysis,hydrolysis,hydrolysis,hydrolysis, hydrometer,hydrometer,hydrometer,hydrometer, hydrophobia,hydrophobia,hydrophobia,hydrophobia, hydroxide,hydroxide,hydroxide,hydroxide, soft,soft,soft,soft, solution,solution,solution,solution, suspension..?suspension..?suspension..?suspension..?

CarbonCarbonCarbonCarbon dioxide:dioxide:dioxide:dioxide: CO2, a COT gaseous covalently-bonded linear molecule with no electrical polarity, carbon molecule in thecentre, oxygen molecules at each end, nownownownow (2004),(2004),(2004),(2004), 0.038%0.038%0.038%0.038% ofofofof thethethethe atmosphere.atmosphere.atmosphere.atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the principle source of carbon,which is, in turn, the principal structural element of living tissue.CO2 dissolves readily in water, a low-energy and easily reversible reaction, forming hydro-carbonic acid, H2CO3. (Alsoresponsible for the bite in your fizz, as well as the fizz itself, and also influenced in nature and behaviour by surface tension)

UsesUsesUsesUses inininin winemaking:winemaking:winemaking:winemaking: As a sparging gas, and to protect from atmospheric oxygen and inhibit spoilage bacteria on wine surfacesalthough more likely to be used for treatment or processing of white wines rather than red. Also important to maintain winepalatability, even still red wines need some dissolved CO2 for this reason, and sparkling wines need extra CO2 for that fizz. Seealso nitrogennitrogennitrogennitrogen, below. NoteNoteNoteNote thatthatthatthat carecarecarecare mustmustmustmust bebebebe takentakentakentaken totototo ensureensureensureensure thatthatthatthat thisthisthisthis colourlesscolourlesscolourlesscolourless andandandand oxygen-displacingoxygen-displacingoxygen-displacingoxygen-displacing gasgasgasgas doesdoesdoesdoes notnotnotnotbuildbuildbuildbuild upupupup inininin confinedconfinedconfinedconfined spaces,spaces,spaces,spaces, andandandand ensureensureensureensure adequateadequateadequateadequate ventilationventilationventilationventilation whenwhenwhenwhen necessary.necessary.necessary.necessary.

Carbon:Carbon:Carbon:Carbon: Symbol C, non-metallic element plus 2 stable isotopes, occurs in the free state as well as in carbon compounds.Present in all living organisms as part of the CarbonCarbonCarbonCarbon CycleCycleCycleCycle in Nature, which cycles carbon from the atmosphere to plants, animals,dead organisms, and carbon deposits that have provided fossil fuel energy, and back to the atmosphere. Carbon forms stablecovalent bonds with other carbon atoms, and with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, in various chain or ring configurations.

TheTheTheThe WebWebWebWeb ofofofof LifeLifeLifeLife therefore depends on a particular web of elements, compounds, organic compounds, plus their interactions,especially water, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, nitrogen and sulphur as above. Both carboncarboncarboncarbon dioxidedioxidedioxidedioxide and oxygenoxygenoxygenoxygen arevital for life processes; CO2 provides carbon for building necessary organic molecules like proteins and carbohydrates, and oxygenis necessary for life forms whose respiration depends on oxygen, which is important as an electron receiver for energy transfer incell metabolism.

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Plants process carbon dioxide by photosynthesis to form oxygen and water, so, without plants, that key aspect of the carbon cyclewould be deleted, and the basis of oxygen dependent life forms could not be naturally sustained. A balance of free carbon dioxidein the atmosphere must be maintained at a level that balances plant intake, or increased global warming will ensue. The WebWebWebWeb ofofofofLifeLifeLifeLife, TheTheTheThe CarbonCarbonCarbonCarbon CycleCycleCycleCycle, and TheTheTheThe EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy CycleCycleCycleCycle should all remain in balance to sustain life on this planet, not least so thathorticulture, winemaking, winemakers and brewers, and their helpful yeasts, may continue to thrive!

OxygenOxygenOxygenOxygen will dissolve in water, and, as well, aquatic plants release some oxygen into water. Plant life, terrestrial and aquatic, is theprincipal source of atmospheric oxygen that sustains so much other non-flora life forms on Earth. Dissolved oxygen is importantfor primary fermentation in wine and beer making, micro-oxygenation control is important in remaining stages, and macro-oxygenation is most unununundesirable.

HydrogenHydrogenHydrogenHydrogen is necessary for the formation and interaction of acids in ionic solutions, especially organic acids, but before any ofthis occurs, hydrogen is converted, by fusion, to helium in the sun, providing for the release of the light and heat energy sonecessary for release of chemical energy for life forms here on Earth. One of these vital chemical energy release reactionsconcerns the respiration of glucose, so vital to life forms such as humans, and also to the well-being of the yeast that aids themaking of our beer and wine.

Note that there is a small minority of organisms that do not use CO2 and O2 for respiration, notably thermphiles that exist aroundundersea volcanic vets, utilizing hydrogen sulphide for cell respiration. They go back much further than the rest of us, as well!

Nitrogen:Nitrogen:Nitrogen:Nitrogen: Symbol N, colourless, odourless gas, usually occurring atmospherically as N2, or, in chemical combination with otherelements, especially as nitrates and nitrites, and as a protein component, some 16%, of plant and animal tissues, including that ofthe winemaker and brewer, and their chosen yeast.

UsesUsesUsesUses inininin Winemaking:Winemaking:Winemaking:Winemaking: As an “inert” sparging gas, or to limit contact with atmospheric oxygen, and inhibit the growth of spoilageyeast on the wine surface, whenever required, during the wine-making or storing processes. Nitrogen is less soluble that CO2, soit is more likely to be used with still red table wines than CO2. Nitrogen may be used alone, or in combination with CO2, in winetreatment or processing, dependingon the circumstances, one of which is to limit dissolved CO2 in a given volume of sparging gas when necessary.

Nitrogen gas bubbled through wine will also remove residual oxygen, but it is better to limit oxygen throughout the winemakingprocess beforehand, as this bubbling will also remove desirable volatile compounds. See also carboncarboncarboncarbon dioxidedioxidedioxidedioxide above. NoteNoteNoteNote thatthatthatthatcarecarecarecare mustmustmustmust bebebebe takentakentakentaken totototo ensureensureensureensure thatthatthatthat thisthisthisthis colourlesscolourlesscolourlesscolourless andandandand oxygen-displacingoxygen-displacingoxygen-displacingoxygen-displacing gasgasgasgas doesdoesdoesdoes notnotnotnot buildbuildbuildbuild upupupup inininin confinedconfinedconfinedconfined spaces,spaces,spaces,spaces, andandandandensureensureensureensure adequateadequateadequateadequate ventilationventilationventilationventilation whenwhenwhenwhen necessarynecessarynecessarynecessary....

Suphur:Suphur:Suphur:Suphur: Symbol S, yellow non-metallic element, can occur naturally, and has various natural forms, is chemically very reactive,and will combine with most other elements. Sulphur is essentialessentialessentialessential elementelementelementelement in plant and animal tissue, eg as a component of theessentialessentialessentialessential aminoaminoaminoamino acid methionine, and sulphur is also required for amino acid synthesis in plants and animals.

UsesUsesUsesUses inininin winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking are mainly as reducing agent of free oxygen, and an inhibiter and eliminator of undesirable organisms,usually in sodium or potassium metabisulphite forms. Historically sulphur in natural form was burnt for the sanitizing of vats andbarrels. Sulphur is also used in vineyard sprays, such as copper sulphate, or as sulphur dust, but becomes undesirable if residueslater persist as hydrogen sulphide gas dissolved in finished wine, so care must be used in these applications. Care must also betaken in using metabisulphite in winemaking so that free excess does not taint finished wine.

AminoAminoAminoAmino Acids:Acids:Acids:Acids: Water-soluble organic molecules mainly composed of carbon,carbon,carbon,carbon, hydrogenhydrogenhydrogenhydrogen, oxygen,oxygen,oxygen,oxygen, nitrogennitrogennitrogennitrogen, including a basicbasicbasicbasicaminoaminoaminoamino group,group,group,group, NH2NH2NH2NH2, and a carboxylcarboxylcarboxylcarboxyl group,group,group,group, COOH,COOH,COOH,COOH, that combine as peptides, which in turn combine to make up the 20 aminoacids, in various proportions, that constitute proteins found in all living organisms, including the brewer/winemaker, and their yeast.Many amino acids are classed as essential, some amino acids do not function as protein building components, but still areimportant, even essential, for cell growth and function.

EssentialEssentialEssentialEssential ElementsElementsElementsElements forforforfor plantsplantsplantsplants andandandand animalsanimalsanimalsanimals:::: PrincipalPrincipalPrincipalPrincipal elementselementselementselements areareareare inininin bold.bold.bold.bold.Hydrogen,Hydrogen,Hydrogen,Hydrogen, carbon,carbon,carbon,carbon, nitrogen,nitrogen,nitrogen,nitrogen, oxygen,oxygen,oxygen,oxygen, sodium,sodium,sodium,sodium, magnesium,magnesium,magnesium,magnesium, phosphorus,phosphorus,phosphorus,phosphorus, sulphursulphursulphursulphur, chlorine, potassium,potassium,potassium,potassium, calcium,calcium,calcium,calcium,manganese,iron, copper, zinc, selenium. PotassiumPotassiumPotassiumPotassium and chloridechloridechloridechloride ionsionsionsions are important electrolytes in cells and body fluids, especially forosmosis and electrical potential. PhosphorusPhosphorusPhosphorusPhosphorus has its own cycle, too, between plants and animals!There are other minerals essential to particular species, such as iodine for humans. Other essential trace elements include silicon,vanadium, cobalt, molybdenum, boron, fluorine, chromium, bromine, lithium, aluminium, nickel, strontium, barium, rubidium and tin.

ButButButBut, information on which of these are required, for optimal nutrition and function of whatever species, is well beyond the scope ofthis humble Winemaking Beginner’s Factfile. This sort of information extrapolation is a matter of how far you personally may wishto push the limits of your brewing and winemaking knowledge, however, even this small sample easily demonstrates theinterconnectedness of winemakers, brewers, and their yeasts to just about everything else in our one and only natural biosphere!

VolatileVolatileVolatileVolatile AcidityAcidityAcidityAcidity akaakaakaaka thethethethe presencepresencepresencepresence ofofofof acetic/ethanoicacetic/ethanoicacetic/ethanoicacetic/ethanoic acidacidacidacid andandandand ethylethylethylethyl acetate/ethylacetate/ethylacetate/ethylacetate/ethyl ethanoate/aceticethanoate/aceticethanoate/aceticethanoate/acetic acidacidacidacid ethylethylethylethyl ester,ester,ester,ester, ininininfinishedfinishedfinishedfinished wine:wine:wine:wine:

AceticAceticAceticAcetic acid:acid:acid:acid: CH3COOH, colourless liquid with a pungent vinegar odour.EthylEthylEthylEthyl acetate:acetate:acetate:acetate: CH3CO2C2H5, colourless liquid with a fruity odour, pearpearpearpear drops,drops,drops,drops, but with solvent overtones when concentrated.

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TheTheTheThe threethreethreethree mainmainmainmain causescausescausescauses ofofofof VAVAVAVA presencepresencepresencepresence, during winemaking, are as BOPs, as byproducts of MLF, and by other bacterial action,especially that of acetic acid bacteria. These compounds are unavoidable as BOPs, butbutbutbut careful,careful,careful,careful, carefullycarefullycarefullycarefully planned,planned,planned,planned, andandandandotherwiseotherwiseotherwiseotherwise hygienichygienichygienichygienic winemakingwinemakingwinemakingwinemaking proceduresproceduresproceduresprocedures willwillwillwill limitlimitlimitlimit theirtheirtheirtheir presencepresencepresencepresence. Small amounts are acceptable, even desirable to sometastes, but there are risks in making wine without regard to limiting volatile acidity, because the taint of unwanted VA cannot beremoved once the wine is made.

Apart from BOP origin, (by yeast activity and some esterificationesterificationesterificationesterification), and MLF origin, oxidationoxidationoxidationoxidation ofofofof alcoholalcoholalcoholalcohol will produce VA products,and also oxygen will further aid bacteria in creating more VA. Both products usually occur concurrently, although the vinegarodour is usually dominant.

RespirationRespirationRespirationRespiration which involves fermentation, is in broad terms an energy–producing and transfer process necessary to maintaincell metabolism in humans, saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts, and many other forms of cellular life, when specifically derived fromglycolosisglycolosisglycolosisglycolosis and the pyruvicpyruvicpyruvicpyruvic acidacidacidacid cyclecyclecyclecycle in cell respiration. There are other forms of cell life that utilize respiration involving similar‘fermentations’, which are more likely to be classed as biochemicalbiochemicalbiochemicalbiochemical reactionsreactionsreactionsreactions, (apparently about 10 in number), and malolacticmalolacticmalolacticmalolactic‘‘‘‘fermentationfermentationfermentationfermentation’’’’ is one of these, utilizing, as it does, malic acid in the cellular energy-producing and transfer process, with byproductsof CO2 and lactic acid.

Fermentation,Fermentation,Fermentation,Fermentation, as undertaken by the unicellular moisture-dwelling fungus, saccharomyces cerevisiae, is the similar energy-derivingexergonic catabolic conversion of pyruvate to CO2 and alcohol, primarily in an increasingly oxygen-poor environment, whilstmetabolizing pyruvate as a facultative anaerobe, and, cataboliccataboliccataboliccatabolic meaning the process of breaking down of larger to smallermolecules. (Believe it or not..!)

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ThisThisThisThis lastlastlastlast sectionsectionsectionsection,,,, pp. 23-31, from CommonCommonCommonCommon ChemicalsChemicalsChemicalsChemicals to VolatileVolatileVolatileVolatile AcidityAcidityAcidityAcidity, plus various other details and comments in thisFactfile, (by no means exhaustive in treatment), were compiled with relevant help from:

BiologicalBiologicalBiologicalBiological Science,Science,Science,Science, IV Ed., Keeton & Gould, Norton, 1986198619861986

Biology,Biology,Biology,Biology, VIVIVIVI Ed.,Ed.,Ed.,Ed., Campbell & Reece, Addison-Wesley 2002200220022002

Biology,Biology,Biology,Biology, IVIVIVIV Ed.,Ed.,Ed.,Ed., H. Curtis, Worth NY 1984198419841984

ChambersChambersChambersChambers ScienceScienceScienceScience &&&& TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology Dictionary,Dictionary,Dictionary,Dictionary, 1992,,,, op cit

ConsumerConsumerConsumerConsumer’’’’ssss FoodFoodFoodFood ChemicalChemicalChemicalChemical GuideGuideGuideGuide, J. Emsley, Corgi 1996

DaveDaveDaveDave MillerMillerMillerMiller’’’’ssss HomebrewingHomebrewingHomebrewingHomebrewing Guide,Guide,Guide,Guide, Storey,,,, 1995,1995,1995,1995, op cit

DictionaryDictionaryDictionaryDictionary ofofofof BeerBeerBeerBeer andandandand Brewing,Brewing,Brewing,Brewing, Rabin & Forget, Brewer’s Publs, Boulder, C., 1998199819981998

Ecology,Ecology,Ecology,Ecology, Begon, Harper & Townsend, Blackwell Scientific Pub., 1986198619861986

ElementsElementsElementsElements ofofofof OrganicOrganicOrganicOrganic Chemistry,Chemistry,Chemistry,Chemistry, Corwin & Bursey, Addison-Wesley,,,, 1966196619661966

OxfordOxfordOxfordOxford DictionaryDictionaryDictionaryDictionary ofofofof Biology,Biology,Biology,Biology, 2000200020002000

MakingMakingMakingMaking GoodGoodGoodGood WineWineWineWine, Bryce Rankine, Macmillan, 2004,2004,2004,2004, op cit

MerckMerckMerckMerck Index,Index,Index,Index, 1968196819681968

PenguinPenguinPenguinPenguin DictionaryDictionaryDictionaryDictionary ofofofof Chemistry,Chemistry,Chemistry,Chemistry, 1990199019901990

TheTheTheThe HutchinsonHutchinsonHutchinsonHutchinson DictionaryDictionaryDictionaryDictionary ofofofof Science,Science,Science,Science, 1995199519951995

and, not forgetting DavidDavidDavidDavid Attenborough,Attenborough,Attenborough,Attenborough, etetetet al,al,al,al, etetetet passimpassimpassimpassim

KodakKodakKodakKodak

ContentsContentsContentsContents ReturnReturnReturnReturn

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Notes:Notes:Notes:Notes: