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Chapter 10

Basics of Group Behavior

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Learning Objectives

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1 Distinguish between the different types of groups.

2 Describe the punctuated-equilibrium model of group development.

3 Show how role requirements change in different situations.

4 Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an individual’s behavior.

5 Show how status and size differences affect group performance.

6 Describe how issues of cohesiveness and diversity can be integrated for group effectiveness.

7 Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.

Groups and Group Identity

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Group

Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives

1 Formal Group A designated work group defined by an organization’s structure.

2 Informal GroupA group that is neither formally structured nor organizationallydetermined; such a group appears in response to the need for socialcontact.

Types of Groups

Groups and Group Identity

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Social Identity Theory

What are the consequences of high or low identification with the organization or the group?

A perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.

Ingroups and Outgroups

Ingroup favoritismPerspective in which we see members of our ingroup as better than otherpeople, and people not in our group as all the same.

OutgroupThe inverse of an ingroup; an outgoup can mean anyone outside the group,but more usually it is an identified other group.

Stages of Group Development

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Punctuated Equilibrium Model

A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.

1Setting group direction: The firstmeeting sets the group’s direction.

2First phase of inertia: The first phase ofgroup activity is one of inertia and thusmakes slower progress.

3Halfway point transition: A transitiontakes place exactly when the group hasused up half its allotted time.

4Major changes: This transition initiatesmajor changes.

Stages of Punctuated Equilibrium Model

5Second phase of inertia: A second phaseof inertia follows the transition.

6Accelerated activity: The group’s lastmeeting is characterized by markedlyaccelerated activity.


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Group Properties

1 Roles

2 Norms

3 Status

4 Size

5 Cohesiveness

6 Diversity


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Group Property 1: Roles

RoleA set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a givenposition in a social unit.

Role Identity

Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role.

Role Perception

An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.

Role Expectation

How others believe a person should act in a given situation.

Role Conflict

A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.


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Group Property 1: Roles

Psychological ContractAn unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from anemployee and vice versa.

Interrole conflictA situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different, separategroups are in opposition.

What is the relation between the psychological contract and role expectations?

What is the relation between interrole conflict and role conflict?


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Group Property 2: Norms

NormsAcceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by thegroup’s members.

Performance norms - Appearance norms - Social arrangement norms - Allocation of resources norms … etc.

1 Norms and Emotions

Classes of Norms


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2 Norms and Conformity

ConformityThe adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of thegroup

Reference GroupImportant groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong andwith whose norms individuals are likely to conform.

Asch Studies Demonstrated the power of conformance.

3 Norms and Behavior

The Hawthorne StudiesBy Elton Mayo at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works inChicago between 1924 and 1932


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4 Positive Norms and Group Outcomes

5 Negative Norms and Group Outcomes

Deviant WorkplaceBehavior

Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational normsand, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization or itsmembers.

Positive group norms may well beget positive outcomes, but only if other factors are present, too

… such as what?

Also called

antisocial behavior - workplace incivility - counterproductive work behavior

Typology

Production – Property – Political – Personal Aggression

Group norms can influence the presence of deviant behavior


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6 Norms and Culture

Do people from different cultures have different norms?

Why?


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Group Property 3: Status

StatusA socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members byothers.

Status Characteristics

Theory

A theory that states that differences in status characteristics create statushierarchies within groups.

Status derived from one of three sources:

1 The power a person wields over others.

2 A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.

3 An individual’s personal characteristics.


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Status Effects:

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Status and norms

Status and group interaction

High-status members are less restrained by norms and pressureto conform.

High-status members are more assertive

Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status members solong as it doesn’t affect group goal achievement.

Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and creativity


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Status Effects:

3 Status inequityIf status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in variousforms of corrective behavior

4 Status and StigmatizationThe “stigma by association” effect can result in negativeopinions and evaluations of the person affiliated with thestigmatized individual.

5 Group StatusThe “us and them” mentality … the influence over bias anddiscrimination.


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Group Property 4: Size

SizeAccording to the number of members there is “large” group and “small”group.

Social LoafingThe tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectivelythan when working individually.

Free Riders

What are the causes for social loafing?

Culture – personality – equity concerns – diffusion of responsibility … etc.

What is the proper size? What are the differences between large and small size groups?


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Group Property 4: Size

Prevent social loafing by:

1 Set group goals, so the group has a common purpose to strive toward.

2 Increase intergroup competition, which focuses on the shared group outcome.

3 Engage in peer evaluations.

4 Select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups.

5 Base group rewards in part on each member’s unique contributions.48


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Group Property 5: Cohesiveness

CohesivenessThe degree to which group members are attracted to each other and aremotivated to stay in the group.

Pe

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Cohesiveness

High Low

High Productivity Moderate Productivity

Low Productivity Moderate to Low Productivity

Relation between group cohesiveness, performance norms, and productivity:


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Group Property 5: Cohesiveness

How to achieve positive outcomes of cohesiveness?

1 Make the group smaller. 2 Encourage agreement with group goals.

3Increase the time members spendtogether.

4Increase the group’s status and the

perceived difficulty of attainingmembership.

5 Stimulate competition with other groups. 6Give rewards to the group rather than toindividual members.

7 Physically isolate the group.


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Group Property 6: Diversity

DiversityThe extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, oneanother.

Challenges OF Group Diversity (Research Findings):

1More difference the greater the potential

for conflicts

2Diversity can be bad for groups, unlessmanaged effectively.

3It is difficult to be in a diverse group inthe short term.

4Over time diversity may help them bemore open-minded and creative.

5If the initial difficulties are overcome,diverse groups may perform better.

6Not necessarily that positive effects areespecially strong.

Faultlines

The perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work

experience, and education.

Group Decision Making

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Groups versus the Individual

Strengths of Group Decision Making

1Generate more complete informationand knowledge

2Offer increased diversity of views andgreater creativity

3 Increased acceptance of decisions 4Generally more accurate (but not asaccurate as the most accurate groupmember)

Weaknesses of Group Decision Making

1 Time-consuming activity 2 Conformity pressures in the group

3Discussions can be dominated by a fewmembers

4 A situation of ambiguous responsibility


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Groups versus the Individual

Effectiveness and Efficiency

1Group decision making is moreeffective

2Individual decision making is moreefficient

Why?


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Group Think

A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.

When appears more?

How to minimize?

1Reduce the size of the group to 10 orless

2Encourage group leaders to beimpartial

3 Appoint a “devil’s advocate” 4 Use exercises on diversity


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Group Shift or Group Polarization

A change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more

extreme version of the group’s original position.

What are the consequences?


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Group Decision Making Techniques

1 Interacting GroupsTypical groups in which members interact with each other face toface.

2 BrainstormingAn idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and allalternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives.

3Nominal GroupTechnique (NGT)

A group decision making method in which individual members meetface to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independentfashion.


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Group Decision Making Techniques Effectiveness

Effectiveness Criteria

Type of Group

Interacting Brain-storming Nominal

Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High

Social Pressure High Low Moderate

Money Costs Low Low Low

Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate

Task Orientation Low High High

Potential for Interpersonal Conflict High Low Moderate

Commitment to Solution High N/A Moderate

Development of Group Cohesiveness High High Moderate

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