Battle of Blair Mountain

The Battle of Blair Mountain was one of the largestcivil uprisings in United States history and the largestarmed rebellion since the American Civil War.[1] For fivedays in late August and early September 1921, in LoganCounty, West Virginia, some 10,000 armed coal min-ers confronted 3,000 lawmen and strikebreakers, calledthe Logan Defenders,[2] who were backed by coal mineoperators during an attempt by the miners to unionizethe southwestern West Virginia coalfields. The bat-tle ended after approximately one million rounds werefired,[3] and the United States Army intervened by presi-dential order.[4]

1 Background

Child Labor in American coal mines, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylva-nia, 1906

The Battle of Blair Mountain was the result of economicexploitation of workers during a period of social transfor-mation in the southern West Virginia coalfields.[5][6] Be-ginning in 1870–1880, coal operators had established thecompany town system.[7][8] Coal operators paid privatedetectives as well as public law enforcement agents to en-sure that union organizers were kept out of the region.[7]In order to accomplish this objective, agents of the coaloperators used intimidation, harassment, espionage andeven murder.[7] Throughout the early 20th century, WestVirginia coal miners attempted to overthrow this systemand engaged in a series of strikes, including the PaintCreek-Cabin Creek strike of 1912, which coal operatorsattempted to stop through violent means. Mining familieslived under the terror of Baldwin-Felts detective agentswho were professional strikebreakers under the hire ofcoal operators. During that dispute, agents drove a heav-ily armored train through a tent colony at night, openingfire on women, men, and children with a machine gun.[9]

They would repeat this type of tactic during the LudlowMassacre in Colorado the next year, with even more dis-astrous results.[10]

By 1920, theUnitedMineWorkers of America (UMWA)organized most of West Virginia. The southern coal-fields, however, remained non-unionized bastions of coaloperator power. In early 1920, UMW president John L.Lewis targeted Mingo County for organizing. Certainaspects of Mingo made it more attractive to union lead-ers than neighboring Logan County, which was under thecontrol of the vehemently anti-union Sheriff Don Chafinand his deputized army.[11] Mingo’s political structurewas more independent, and some politicians were pro-union. Cabell Testerman, the mayor of the indepen-dent town of Matewan was one supporter of the unioncause. He appointed 27-year-old Sid Hatfield as town po-lice chief.[11] As a teenager, Hatfield had worked in thecoalmines and he was sympathetic to the miners’ condi-tion. He also was a member of the famous Hatfield fam-ily of the Hatfield and McCoy feud. These men providedunion organizers an opportunity to gain a foothold, andunionizing accelerated rapidly in the county.[12]

In response to the organizing efforts, coal operators usedevery means to block the union. One of their primarytactics of combating the union was firing union sympa-thizers, blacklisting them, and evicting them from theirhomes. Their legal argument for evictions is best statedby S.B. Avis, a coal company lawyer; “It is like a ser-vant lives at your house. If the servant leaves your em-ployment, if you discharge him, you ask him to get outof the servants’ quarters. It is a question of master andservant.”[13][14] The UMW set up tent colonies for thehomeless miner families, and soon a mass of idle and an-gry miners was concentrated in a small area along the TugFork River.[15] Even with the coal operators’ suppression,by earlyMay 3,000 out of 4,000Mingominers had joinedthe union.[11] At the StoneMountain Coal Companyminenear Matewan, every single worker unionized, and wassubsequently fired and evicted.[9]

On May 19, 1920, 12 Baldwin-Felts agents arrived inMatewan, including Lee Felts, and promptly met up withAlbert Felts who was already in the area. Albert and Leewere the brothers of Thomas Felts, the co-owner and di-rector of the agency. Albert had already been in the area,and had tried to bribe Mayor Testerman with 500 dollarsto place machine guns on roofs in the town, which Tester-man refused.[16] That afternoon, Albert and Lee alongwith eleven other men set out to the Stone Mountain CoalCompany property. The first family they evicted was a

1

2 2 THE BATTLE

woman and her children, whose husband was not homeat the time. They forced them out at gunpoint, and threwtheir belongings in the road under a light but steady rain.The miners who saw it were furious, and sent word totown.[17]

As the agents walked to the train station to leave town, SidHatfield and a group of deputizedminers confronted themand told the agents they were under arrest. Albert Feltsreplied that in fact, he had a warrant for Sid’s arrest.[18]Testerman was alerted, and he ran out into the street af-ter a miner shouted that Sid had been arrested. Hatfieldbacked into the store, and Testerman asked to see the war-rant. After reviewing it, the mayor exclaimed, “This isa bogus warrant.” With these words, a gunfight eruptedand Sid Hatfield shot Albert Felts. Mayor Testerman fellto the ground in the first volley, mortally wounded. Inthe end, 10 men were killed, including Albert and LeeFelts.[18] 3 of the men were from the town, the 7 otherswere from the agency.This gunfight became known as the Matewan Massacre,and its symbolic significance was enormous for the min-ers. The seemingly invincible Baldwin-Felts had beenbeaten by the miners’ own hero, Sid Hatfield.[19] Sid be-came an immediate legend and hero to the union miners,and became a symbol of hope that the oppression of coaloperators and their hired guns could be overthrown.[20]Throughout the summer and into the fall of 1920, theunion gained strength in Mingo County, as did the re-sistance of the coal operators. Low-intensity warfare waswaged up and down the Tug River. In late June, state po-lice under the command of Captain Brockus raided theLick Creek tent colony near Williamson, West Virginia.Miners were said to have fired on Brockus and Martin’smen from the colony, and in response the state police shotand arrestedminers, ripped the canvas tents to shreds, andscattered the mining families’ belongings.[21] Both sideswere bolstering their arms, and Sid Hatfield continued tobe a problem, especially when he converted Testerman’sjewelry store into a gun shop.[22]

On January 26, 1921, the trial of Sid Hatfield for killingAlbert Felts began. This trial was in the national spot-light, and it brought much attention to the miners’ cause.Hatfield’s stature and mythical status grew as the trial pro-ceeded. Sid Hatfield posed and talked to reporters, fan-ning the flames of his own stature and legend. All menwere acquitted in the end, but overall the union was fac-ing significant setbacks.[23] Eighty percent of mines hadreopened with the importation of replacements and thesigning of yellow dog contracts by ex-strikers returningto mines.[24] In mid-May 1921, union miners launcheda full assault on nonunion mines. In a short time, theconflict had consumed the entire Tug River Valley. This“Three Days Battle” was finally ended by a flag of truceand the implementation of martial law.[25] The enforce-ment of martial law was from the beginning decidedlyagainst the striking miners.[26] Miners in the scores andhundreds were arrested without habeas corpus and other

basic legal rights. The smallest of infractions could meanimprisonment, while those on the other side of this 'lawand order' were immune.[27] The miners responded withguerrilla tactics and violence against this oppressive state-sanctioned system.[27]

In the midst of this tense situation, Sid Hatfield traveledto McDowell County on 1 August 1921 to stand trial forcharges of dynamiting a coal tipple. Along with him trav-eled a good friend, Ed Chambers, and their two wives.[28]As they walked up the courthouse stairs, unarmed andflanked by their wives, a group of Baldwin-Felts agentsstanding at the top of the stairs opened fire. Hatfieldwas killed instantly, while Chambers’ bullet-riddled bodyrolled to the bottom of the stairs. Over Sally Cham-bers’ protestation, one of the agents ran down the stairsand shot Chambers once more in the back of the headpoint blank.[29] As Sid and Ed’s bodies were returned toMatewan, word of the slayings spread through the moun-tains. The miners believed that Hatfield was slain in coldblood, and it soon appeared the assassins would escapepunishment.[30]

Hatfield’s death enraged the miners, and they began topour out of the mountains to take arms. Miners along theLittle Coal River were among the first to militarize, andbegan actions such as patrolling and guarding the area.Sheriff Don Chafin sent Logan County troopers to LittleCoal River area, with the end result the troopers were ap-prehended, disarmed, and sent fleeing by the miners.[31]On August 7, 1921, the leaders of the UMW District17, which encompasses much of southern West Virginia,called a rally at the state capitol in Charleston. Theseleaders were Frank Keeney and Fred Mooney, who wereveterans of previous mine conflicts in the region. Bothwere local, and were well read and articulate. Keeneyand Mooney met with Governor Ephraim Morgan, andpresented him with a petition of the miners’ demands.[32]Morgan summarily rejected these, and the miners be-came even more restless. Talk began to spread of amarch on Mingo to free the confined miners, end mar-tial law, and organize the county. But directly in the waystood Blair Mountain, Logan County, and Sheriff DonChafin.[33]

2 The battle

At a rally onAugust 7, MaryHarris “Mother” Jones calledon the miners not to march into Logan and Mingo coun-ties and set up the union by force. Accused by someof losing her nerve, she rightly feared a bloodbath in abattle between lightly armed union forces and the moreheavily armed deputies from Logan County. Yet, feel-ing they had been lied to again by West Virginia’s Gover-nor Morgan, armed men began gathering at Lens CreekMountain, near Marmet in Kanawha County on August20, where four days later up to 13,000 had gathered andbegan marching towards Logan County. Impatient to get

3

to the fighting, miners near St. Albans, in West Vir-ginia’s Kanawha County, commandeered a Chesapeakeand Ohio freight train, renamed by the miners as the 'BlueSteel Special', to meet up with the advanced column ofmarchers at Danville in Boone County on their way toBloody Mingo. During this time, Keeney and Mooneyfled to Ohio, while the fiery leader Bill Blizzard assumedquasi-leadership of the miners. Meanwhile, the reviledand anti-union Sheriff of Logan County, Don Chafin(1887–1954),[34] had begun to set up defenses on BlairMountain. Chafin was supported financially by the LoganCounty Coal Operators Association, creating the nation’slargest private armed force of nearly 2,000.The first skirmishes occurred on the morning of Au-gust 25. The bulk of the miners were still 15 mi (24km) away. The following day, President Warren Hard-ing threatened to send in federal troops and ArmyMartinMB-1 bombers. After a long meeting in the town ofMadison, the seat of Boone County, agreements weremade convincing the miners to return home. However,the struggle was far from over. After spending days toassemble his private army, Chafin was not going to bedenied his battle to end union attempts at organizing Lo-gan County coal mines. Within hours of the Madisondecision, reports came in that Sheriff Chafin’s men weredeliberately shooting union sympathizers in the town ofSharples, West Virginia, just north of Blair Mountain—and that families had been caught in crossfire during theskirmishes. Infuriated, the miners turned back towardsBlair Mountain, many traveling in other stolen and com-mandeered trains.

A group of miners display one of the bombs dropped by Chafin’sairplanes.

By August 29, battle was fully joined. Chafin’s men,though outnumbered, had the advantage of higher posi-tions and better weaponry. Private planes were hired todrop homemade bombs on the miners. A combinationof gas and explosive bombs left over from the fightingin World War I were dropped in several locations nearthe towns of Jeffery, Sharples and Blair. At least onedid not explode and was recovered by the miners; it wasused months later to great effect during treason and mur-der trials following the battle. On orders from the fa-mous General Billy Mitchell, Army bombers fromMary-land were also used for aerial surveillance. One Mar-tin bomber crashed on the return flight, killing the threemembers of the crew.[35][36] Sporadic gun battles contin-ued for a week, with the miners at one time nearly break-ing through to the town of Logan and their target desti-nations, the non-unionized counties to the south, Loganand Mingo. Up to 30 deaths were reported by Chafin’sside and 50–100 on the union miners’ side, with hundredsmore injured. By September 2, federal troops had ar-rived. Realizing he would lose a lot of good miners if thebattle continued with the military, union leader Bill Bliz-zard passed the word for the miners to start heading homethe following day. Miners fearing jail and confiscation oftheir guns found clever ways to hide rifles and hand gunsin the woods before leaving Logan County. Collectorsand researchers to this day are still finding weapons andammunition embedded in old trees and in rock crevices.Thousands of spent and live cartridges have made it intoprivate collections.Following the battle, 985 miners were indicted formurder, conspiracy to commit murder, accessory to mur-der, and treason against the State of West Virginia.Though some were acquitted by sympathetic juries, manywere also imprisoned for a number of years, though theywere paroled in 1925. It would be Bill Blizzard’s trialwhere the unexploded bomb was used as evidence of thegovernment and companies’ brutality, and ultimately re-sulted in his acquittal.In the short term, the battle was an overwhelming victoryfor management. UMW membership plummeted frommore than 50,000 miners to approximately 10,000 overthe next several years, and it was not until 1935— follow-ing the Great Depression and the beginning of the NewDeal under President Franklin Delano Roosevelt — thatthe UMW fully organized in southern West Virginia.

3 Legacy

In the long-term, the battle raised awareness of the ap-palling conditions faced by miners in the dangerous WestVirginia coalfields, and led directly to a change in uniontactics in political battles to get the law on labor’s sidevia confrontations with recalcitrant and abusive manage-ments and thence to the much larger organized labor vic-tory a few years later during the New Deal in 1933. That

4 6 IN MUSIC

in turn led to the UMWA helping organize many better-known unions such as the Steel Workers during the mid-thirties. To some degree, it is important also to note thatthis defeat had major implications for the UMWA as awhole. After World War I, as the coal industry began tocollapse, union mining was no longer financially sustain-able. Because of the defeat in West Virginia, the unionwas undermined in Pennsylvania and Kentucky also. Bythe end of 1925, Illinois was the only remaining unionizedstate which could compete, in term of soft coal produc-tion, with the others listed.In the final analysis, management’s success was a pyrrhicvictory that helped lead to a much larger and stronger or-ganized labor movement in many other industries and la-bor union affiliations and umbrella organizations like theAmerican Federation of Labor (AFL) and Congress ofIndustrial Organizations (CIO).

4 Future of site

In April 2008, Blair Mountain was chosen for the listof protected places on the National Register of His-toric Places. This decision was contested by the state ofWest Virginia, and the listing was placed under review.As of mid-2010, "[s]ubsidiaries of two of the UnitedStates’ largest coal producers — Arch Coal, Inc., andMassey Energy Company, ... — hold permits to blastand strip-mine huge chunks of the upper slopes and ridgeof Blair Mountain, removing much of the mountaintop,”the National Geographic reported. Starting in the sum-mer of 2006, Kenneth King, a local avocational archae-ologist led a team of professional archaeologists to furtherinvestigate the battlefield. King and the team’s initial sur-vey “mapped 15 combat sites and discovered more than athousand artifacts, from rifle and shotgun shell casings tocoins and batteries [and] little sign of disturbance” to thesite, challenging earlier surveys conducted by Arch.[37]Currently, preservation efforts are being led by the BlairMountain Heritage Alliance, which is located in Blair,WV and which runs the Blair Community Center andMuseum. In addition, in the summer of 2011, a marchcommemorating the 90th anniversary occurred, tracingthe 50-mile march of the miners.[38]

In October 2012, a federal district judge ruled that acoalition of preservation groups did not have standing tosue to protect the historic site.[39] On August 26, 2014,the United States Court of Appeals for the District ofColumbia Circuit voted 2-1 to overturn the ruling and re-turned the case.[40]

5 In fiction

The Blair Mountain march, as well as the events leadingup to it and those immediately following it, are depicted

in the novels Storming Heaven (Denise Giardina, 1987)and Blair Mountain (Jonathan Lynn, 2006). The first partof The Ballad of Trenchmouth Taggart (Glenn Taylor,2008) concerns the relationship between the book’s maincharacter and Sid Hastings, his involvement in the Mate-wan massacre and the ensuing battle. John Sayles' 1987filmMatewan depicts theMatewanMassacre, a small partof the Blair Mountain story. Diane Gilliam Fisher's po-etry collection, Kettle Bottom, published by Perugia Press,also focuses on the events of the Battle of Blair Mountain,from the perspective of the miners’ families.

6 In music

Tom Breiding’s “Union Miner” from “The Unbroken Cir-cle: Songs of the West Virginia Coalfields” (2008) ac-curately depicts events surrounding the Battle of BlairMountain from the perspective of a coal miner preparingto march. “Union Miner” can be heard at virtually everyevent sponsored by the United Mine Workers of Amer-ica today. Tom Breiding has provided the music for theUMWA’s “Fairness at Patriot” campaign (2013–14), theUMWA centennial commemoration of the Ludlow Mas-sacre in Colorado (2014), the inauguration of UMWAofficers (2014), and various other Mine Workers events.“The Unbroken Circle: Songs of the West Virginia Coal-fields” can be found at http://www.tombreiding.com“Miners’ Rebellion” (2012) by alt country band TheMin-ers tells the story of the Battle of Blair Mountain. Thesong is contained on The Miners debut EP also entitledMiners’ Rebellion.When Miners March (2007) contains 16 recently writtensongs (not music from the 1920s) from the audiobookWhen Miners March — The Battle of Blair Mountain.“Battle of Blair Mountain” (2004) is a song by folk singerDavid Rovics and can be found on his album Songs forMahmud.The song “Battle of Blair Mountain” (2010) written byLouise Mosrie and Mike Richardson can be found onLouise Mosrie’s album Home (Zoe Cat Music/BMI).The song “Red Neck War” by Byzantine is based on theBattle of Blair Mountain and can be found on the group’s2005 album ... And They Shall Take Up Serpents (Pros-thetic Records). The song “Black Lung” by The RadioNationals (band) is also based on this conflict.Blair Pathways (2011) is a multimedia project, includinga CD and maps, tracing the history of the Blair Mountainarea and its labor disputes. It contains music by a num-ber of traditional artists, including Riley Baugus and TimEriksen.Folk punk band My Life in Black and White released thesong “Bombs on Blair Mountain” on their 2009 albumHold the Line.

5

7 See also• Anti-union violence

• Labor history of the United States

8 Notes[1] Kinder 2005, p. 149.

[2] Patel 2012.

[3] Ayers, Rothrock and King 2007

[4] Proclamation 1606, August 30, 1921

[5] Blizzard 2005.

[6] Nida 2010, p. 3.

[7] Corbin 1998.

[8] Savage 1990.

[9] Shogan 2004, p. 18.

[10] McGuire & Reckner 2003.

[11] Shogan 2004, p. 13.

[12] Savage 1990, p. 12.

[13] Corbin 1982

[14] Shogan 2004, p. 16.

[15] Savage 1990, p. 18.

[16] Savage 1990, p. 16.

[17] Savage 1990, pp. 20–22.

[18] Savage 1990, p. 21.

[19] Savage 1990, p. 26.

[20] Savage 1990, p. 28.

[21] Savage 1990, p. 60.

[22] Savage 1990, p. 50.

[23] Shogan 2004, p. 98.

[24] Shogan 2004, p. 81.

[25] Savage 1990, p. 53.

[26] Savage 1990, p. 57.

[27] Savage 1990, p. 58.

[28] Shogan 2004, pp. 154–156.

[29] Shogan 2004, pp. 157–158.

[30] Savage 1990, p. 73.

[31] Savage 1990, p. 75.

[32] Shogan 2004, pp. 164–165.

[33] Shogan 2004, p. 166.

[34] The Herald-Dispatch: Funeral Rites Thursday For Color-ful Don Chafin. August 10, 1954

[35] Laurie, Clayton D. (1991). “The United States Army andthe Return to Normalcy in Labor Dispute Interventions:The Case of the West Virginia Coal Mine Wars, 1920–1921”. West Virginia History (West Virginia Archives andHistory) 50: 1–24. Retrieved 18 January 2013.

[36] Torok 2004, p. 48.

[37] Pringle, Heather, “Coal Firms to Strip-Mine Historic Bat-tlefield?", National Geographic, June 2, 2010. Retrieved2011-11-24.

[38] Polsgrove, Carol (June 14, 2011). “Berkeley Grad Stu-dent Plays Leading Role in West Virginia March on BlairMountain”. Berkeley Daily Planet. Retrieved January 18,2013.

[39] Ward, Ken (Oct 2, 2012). “Judge Rules Against Groupsin Blair Mountain List Case”. Coal Tattoo. West VirginiaGazette. Retrieved Sep 15, 2013.

[40] Nyden, Paul J. “Federal appeals court says groups can sueover Blair Mountain”. wvgazette.com. The CharlestonGazette. Retrieved 30 August 2014.

9 References• Blizzard, William C. (2005). When Miners March.Gay, WV: Appalachian Community Press. ISBN978-0-9764706-0-1.

• Corbin, David, ed. (1998). The West VirginiaMine Wars: An Anthology. Martinsburg, WV: Ap-palachian Editions. ISBN 978-0-9627486-0-8.

• Kinder, Chuck (2005). Last Mountain Dancer:Hard-Earned Lessons in Love, Loss, and Honky-Tonk. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-7867-1653-1.

• Lee, Howard B. (1969). Bloodletting in Appalachia:The Story of West Virginia’s Four Major Mine Warsand Other Thrilling Incidents of Its Coal Fields.Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press.ISBN 978-0-87012-041-1.

• McGuire, Randall; Reckner, Paul (2003). “Buildinga Working-Class Archaeology: The Colorado CoalField War Project”. Industrial Archaeology Review25 (2): 83–95. doi:10.1179/iar.2003.25.2.83.

• Mooney, Fred (1967). Struggle in the coal fields:The Autobiography of Fred Mooney. Morgantown,WV: West Virginia University Library. OCLC795742.

• Patel, Samir S. (January–February 2012).“Mountaintop Rescue”. Archaeology 65 (1).Retrieved 18 January 2013.

6 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Savage, Lon (1990). Thunder in the Mountains:The West Virginia Mine War, 1920–21. Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-3634-3.

• Shogan, Robert (2004). The Battle of Blair Moun-tain: The Story of America’s Largest Union Uprising.Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4096-8.

• Torok, George D. (2004). A guide to historic coaltowns of the Big Sandy River Valley. knoxville, TN:University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-282-9.

10 External links• HistoryPodcast and transcription: “The Battle ofBlair Mountain” Accessed January 13, 2008

• Official Matewan, WV Tourism Website at Visit-Matewan.com

• Blair Mountain Heritage Alliance to help preserva-tion efforts for the Blair Mountain battlefield and thecommunity of Blair, WV

• Blair Community Center andMuseum to learnmoreabout this important part of American history

• Baseball and rebellion: The treason trial of Bill Bliz-zard Appalachian Voice, Spring 2008.

• The Battle for Blair Mountain (2010) for informa-tion on past and present conflicts at Blair Mountain

• Zinn Education Guide: Teaching Guide for BlairMountain

• '"A Moment in the Sun": An Extended Interviewwith Independent Filmmaker, Author John Sayles’,Democracy Now, June 17&November 24, 2011 air-dates; audio download and transcript. Includes dis-cussion of Matewan, Sayles’ film about an aspect ofthe 1920s BlairMountain conflict; also discussion of“second battle” in the 21st century

• The Blair Pathways Project

• “Detective Tells Story of Fatal Matewan Riot”.New-York tribune. February 13, 1921. Retrieved24 November 2012.

Coordinates: 37°51′45.35″N 81°51′22.57″W /37.8625972°N 81.8562694°W

7

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