bbn ang 183 typography lecture 8: diacritics …seas3.elte.hu/typo/08-diacritics.pdfbbn–ang–183...
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BBN–ANG–183 Typography
Lecture 8: Diacritics and ligatures
Zoltán Kiss & Péter Szigetvári
Dept of English Linguistics, Eötvös Loránd University
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outlineintroductiondiacritics one by one
acute accentgrave and double acute accentbreve, caroncircumflex, macrondieresis and umlautdot, ringcedilla, comma, ogonektilde, bar
diacritics in Arabic scriptsligatures
character ligaturesstylistic ligaturessuppression of stylistic ligatures
sample exam questionskz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 2 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 3 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter◮ two ways of producing letters with diacritics
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 3 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter◮ two ways of producing letters with diacritics
1. the letter with the diacritic is one unique, precomposed character, i.e.,one glyph (with a code of its own): e.g., ISO 8859, Unicode, etc.
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 3 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter◮ two ways of producing letters with diacritics
1. the letter with the diacritic is one unique, precomposed character, i.e.,one glyph (with a code of its own): e.g., ISO 8859, Unicode, etc.
2. composition: adding the diacritic to the letter
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 3 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter◮ two ways of producing letters with diacritics
1. the letter with the diacritic is one unique, precomposed character, i.e.,one glyph (with a code of its own): e.g., ISO 8859, Unicode, etc.
2. composition: adding the diacritic to the letter
TEX/LATEX are truly compositional: any diacritic can be added toany letter: \’a yields á, \’q yields q (\’@ yields @!)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 3 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter◮ two ways of producing letters with diacritics
1. the letter with the diacritic is one unique, precomposed character, i.e.,one glyph (with a code of its own): e.g., ISO 8859, Unicode, etc.
2. composition: adding the diacritic to the letter
TEX/LATEX are truly compositional: any diacritic can be added toany letter: \’a yields á, \’q yields q (\’@ yields @!)
HTML only imitates compositionality (has mnemonic names forcharacters): á yields á, &qacute; has nomeaning
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 3 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter◮ two ways of producing letters with diacritics
1. the letter with the diacritic is one unique, precomposed character, i.e.,one glyph (with a code of its own): e.g., ISO 8859, Unicode, etc.
2. composition: adding the diacritic to the letter
TEX/LATEX are truly compositional: any diacritic can be added toany letter: \’a yields á, \’q yields q (\’@ yields @!)
HTML only imitates compositionality (has mnemonic names forcharacters): á yields á, &qacute; has nomeaning
◮ when unavailable diacritics can be replaced either by some otherdiacritic, the addition of some other character, or even simply omitted:e.g., ő → õ or ô; á → ’a, a’, a1, aa, etc.; François as Francois
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 3 / 28
introduction
diacritics
◮ do not occur in isolation, they are typically “carried” by a letter◮ two ways of producing letters with diacritics
1. the letter with the diacritic is one unique, precomposed character, i.e.,one glyph (with a code of its own): e.g., ISO 8859, Unicode, etc.
2. composition: adding the diacritic to the letter
TEX/LATEX are truly compositional: any diacritic can be added toany letter: \’a yields á, \’q yields q (\’@ yields @!)
HTML only imitates compositionality (has mnemonic names forcharacters): á yields á, &qacute; has nomeaning
◮ when unavailable diacritics can be replaced either by some otherdiacritic, the addition of some other character, or even simply omitted:e.g., ő → õ or ô; á → ’a, a’, a1, aa, etc.; François as Francois
◮ a site devoted to diacritics: http://diacritics.typo.cz/
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diacritics one by one acute accent
diacritics one by one
acute accent
x
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 4 / 28
diacritics one by one acute accent
diacritics one by one
acute accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Welsh),
length (Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, Irish), quality (French,Italian, Portuguese), etymology (Polish), high tone (Yoruba),rising tone (Vietnamese), diphthong (Faroese, Icelandic),disambiguation (Dutch, Danish)
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diacritics one by one acute accent
diacritics one by one
acute accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Welsh),
length (Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, Irish), quality (French,Italian, Portuguese), etymology (Polish), high tone (Yoruba),rising tone (Vietnamese), diphthong (Faroese, Icelandic),disambiguation (Dutch, Danish)
◮ on consonants: length (Slovak: ĺ, ŕ), palatality (Polish, Croatian)
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diacritics one by one acute accent
diacritics one by one
acute accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Welsh),
length (Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, Irish), quality (French,Italian, Portuguese), etymology (Polish), high tone (Yoruba),rising tone (Vietnamese), diphthong (Faroese, Icelandic),disambiguation (Dutch, Danish)
◮ on consonants: length (Slovak: ĺ, ŕ), palatality (Polish, Croatian)
some Polish typographers insist that theacute accent in Polish (a.k.a. kreska) isdifferent from the acute accent — this isprobably a source of national pride ,
(cf. http://www.twardoch.com/download/polishhowto/kreska.html)
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diacritics one by one grave and double acute accent
diacritics one by one
grave (/grA:v/) accent
x
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 5 / 28
diacritics one by one grave and double acute accent
diacritics one by one
grave (/grA:v/) accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Catalan), quality (Italian,
Catalan, French), shortness (Welsh: mwg), low tone(Yoruba), falling tone (Vietnamese), contracted vowels(Portuguese), disambiguation (French, Italian, Norwegian),pronunciation of the vowel (English: learnèd, blessèd)
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diacritics one by one grave and double acute accent
diacritics one by one
grave (/grA:v/) accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Catalan), quality (Italian,
Catalan, French), shortness (Welsh: mwg), low tone(Yoruba), falling tone (Vietnamese), contracted vowels(Portuguese), disambiguation (French, Italian, Norwegian),pronunciation of the vowel (English: learnèd, blessèd)
double acute accent
x
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diacritics one by one grave and double acute accent
diacritics one by one
grave (/grA:v/) accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Catalan), quality (Italian,
Catalan, French), shortness (Welsh: mwg), low tone(Yoruba), falling tone (Vietnamese), contracted vowels(Portuguese), disambiguation (French, Italian, Norwegian),pronunciation of the vowel (English: learnèd, blessèd)
double acute accent
x◮ is a Hungarian speciality (national pride! ,)
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diacritics one by one grave and double acute accent
diacritics one by one
grave (/grA:v/) accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Catalan), quality (Italian,
Catalan, French), shortness (Welsh: mwg), low tone(Yoruba), falling tone (Vietnamese), contracted vowels(Portuguese), disambiguation (French, Italian, Norwegian),pronunciation of the vowel (English: learnèd, blessèd)
double acute accent
x◮ is a Hungarian speciality (national pride! ,)◮ before the 19th c. a combination of acute and umlaut was
used: ö (cf. http://www.font.hu/hrant.html)
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diacritics one by one grave and double acute accent
diacritics one by one
grave (/grA:v/) accent
x◮ on vowels: marks stress (Italian, Catalan), quality (Italian,
Catalan, French), shortness (Welsh: mwg), low tone(Yoruba), falling tone (Vietnamese), contracted vowels(Portuguese), disambiguation (French, Italian, Norwegian),pronunciation of the vowel (English: learnèd, blessèd)
double acute accent
x◮ is a Hungarian speciality (national pride! ,)◮ before the 19th c. a combination of acute and umlaut was
used: ö (cf. http://www.font.hu/hrant.html)◮ also used for extra high tone (Tanacross), ő is used to replace ø in
Faroese; in linguistic publications a double grave accent is used toindicate short low vowels, e.g., `a, in South Slavic
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 5 / 28
diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 6 / 28
diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x◮ on vowels: marks shortness/nonsyllabicity (Cyrillic �i ( = j),
cf. i ( = i)), Esperanto u ( = w)), different quality(Rumanian ă ( = @))
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 6 / 28
diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x◮ on vowels: marks shortness/nonsyllabicity (Cyrillic �i ( = j),
cf. i ( = i)), Esperanto u ( = w)), different quality(Rumanian ă ( = @))
◮ on consonants: marks “weakness” (Turkish, Azerbaijani ğ ( = j))
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 6 / 28
diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x◮ on vowels: marks shortness/nonsyllabicity (Cyrillic �i ( = j),
cf. i ( = i)), Esperanto u ( = w)), different quality(Rumanian ă ( = @))
◮ on consonants: marks “weakness” (Turkish, Azerbaijani ğ ( = j))
caron (Czech háček, Slovak mäkčeň, Serbocroat kvaka)
x
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diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x◮ on vowels: marks shortness/nonsyllabicity (Cyrillic �i ( = j),
cf. i ( = i)), Esperanto u ( = w)), different quality(Rumanian ă ( = @))
◮ on consonants: marks “weakness” (Turkish, Azerbaijani ğ ( = j))
caron (Czech háček, Slovak mäkčeň, Serbocroat kvaka)
x◮ on consonants: marks palatality (Czech, Slovak, Serbocroat
(note č 6= ć))
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diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x◮ on vowels: marks shortness/nonsyllabicity (Cyrillic �i ( = j),
cf. i ( = i)), Esperanto u ( = w)), different quality(Rumanian ă ( = @))
◮ on consonants: marks “weakness” (Turkish, Azerbaijani ğ ( = j))
caron (Czech háček, Slovak mäkčeň, Serbocroat kvaka)
x◮ on consonants: marks palatality (Czech, Slovak, Serbocroat
(note č 6= ć))◮ on vowels: marks palatality of the preceding consonant
(Czech ě), falling rising tone (Mandarin)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 6 / 28
diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x◮ on vowels: marks shortness/nonsyllabicity (Cyrillic �i ( = j),
cf. i ( = i)), Esperanto u ( = w)), different quality(Rumanian ă ( = @))
◮ on consonants: marks “weakness” (Turkish, Azerbaijani ğ ( = j))
caron (Czech háček, Slovak mäkčeň, Serbocroat kvaka)
x◮ on consonants: marks palatality (Czech, Slovak, Serbocroat
(note č 6= ć))◮ on vowels: marks palatality of the preceding consonant
(Czech ě), falling rising tone (Mandarin)◮ developed from c (along with x for length, these are Jan Hus’s
inventions) — the original shape is still retained in Polish ż
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 6 / 28
diacritics one by one breve, caron
diacritics one by one
breve
x◮ on vowels: marks shortness/nonsyllabicity (Cyrillic �i ( = j),
cf. i ( = i)), Esperanto u ( = w)), different quality(Rumanian ă ( = @))
◮ on consonants: marks “weakness” (Turkish, Azerbaijani ğ ( = j))
caron (Czech háček, Slovak mäkčeň, Serbocroat kvaka)
x◮ on consonants: marks palatality (Czech, Slovak, Serbocroat
(note č 6= ć))◮ on vowels: marks palatality of the preceding consonant
(Czech ě), falling rising tone (Mandarin)◮ developed from c (along with x for length, these are Jan Hus’s
inventions) — the original shape is still retained in Polish ż◮ has a different shape with some consonants: Ť∼ť, Ď∼ď, Ľ∼ľ
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diacritics one by one breve, caron
Č č Ň ň Š š Ť ť Ď ď Ľ ľ
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 7 / 28
diacritics one by one circumflex, macron
diacritics one by one
circumflex or caret
x
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 8 / 28
diacritics one by one circumflex, macron
diacritics one by one
circumflex or caret
x◮ on vowels: marks length (Welsh gwn), etymological length
(Latin VsC is often spelt VC in French: L costa∼F côte,OF beste∼F bête), diphthong (Slovak ô ( = [wo])), differentquality (Rumanian â, earlier î ( = [W])), openness (Portuguese ê( = [E]), é ( = [e]))
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diacritics one by one circumflex, macron
diacritics one by one
circumflex or caret
x◮ on vowels: marks length (Welsh gwn), etymological length
(Latin VsC is often spelt VC in French: L costa∼F côte,OF beste∼F bête), diphthong (Slovak ô ( = [wo])), differentquality (Rumanian â, earlier î ( = [W])), openness (Portuguese ê( = [E]), é ( = [e]))
◮ on consonants: in Esperanto it is used like the caron: c = [Ù], inChichewa w stands for [B]
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 8 / 28
diacritics one by one circumflex, macron
diacritics one by one
circumflex or caret
x◮ on vowels: marks length (Welsh gwn), etymological length
(Latin VsC is often spelt VC in French: L costa∼F côte,OF beste∼F bête), diphthong (Slovak ô ( = [wo])), differentquality (Rumanian â, earlier î ( = [W])), openness (Portuguese ê( = [E]), é ( = [e]))
◮ on consonants: in Esperanto it is used like the caron: c = [Ù], inChichewa w stands for [B]
macron /makr@n/
x
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 8 / 28
diacritics one by one circumflex, macron
diacritics one by one
circumflex or caret
x◮ on vowels: marks length (Welsh gwn), etymological length
(Latin VsC is often spelt VC in French: L costa∼F côte,OF beste∼F bête), diphthong (Slovak ô ( = [wo])), differentquality (Rumanian â, earlier î ( = [W])), openness (Portuguese ê( = [E]), é ( = [e]))
◮ on consonants: in Esperanto it is used like the caron: c = [Ù], inChichewa w stands for [B]
macron /makr@n/
x◮ on vowels: marks length (Latin, Latvian, Lithuanian), mid
tone (Mandarin)
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diacritics one by one circumflex, macron
diacritics one by one
circumflex or caret
x◮ on vowels: marks length (Welsh gwn), etymological length
(Latin VsC is often spelt VC in French: L costa∼F côte,OF beste∼F bête), diphthong (Slovak ô ( = [wo])), differentquality (Rumanian â, earlier î ( = [W])), openness (Portuguese ê( = [E]), é ( = [e]))
◮ on consonants: in Esperanto it is used like the caron: c = [Ù], inChichewa w stands for [B]
macron /makr@n/
x◮ on vowels: marks length (Latin, Latvian, Lithuanian), mid
tone (Mandarin)◮ on consonants: in medieval scripts it marks doubling: m, n,
in handwriting it may be used to distinguish u and n
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 8 / 28
diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 9 / 28
diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 9 / 28
diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
◮ Albanian ë is [@], Malagasy n is [N]
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diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
◮ Albanian ë is [@], Malagasy n is [N], Dutch ÿ is a ligature for ij
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 9 / 28
diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
◮ Albanian ë is [@], Malagasy n is [N], Dutch ÿ is a ligature for ij
ij, ij-ligature, ÿ, y
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diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
◮ Albanian ë is [@], Malagasy n is [N], Dutch ÿ is a ligature for ij◮ umlaut is a different diacritic with the same glyph, marking fronting of
a back vowel, in German replacement is possible: ä/ö/ü→ ae/oe/ue
ij, ij-ligature, ÿ, y
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 9 / 28
diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
◮ Albanian ë is [@], Malagasy n is [N], Dutch ÿ is a ligature for ij◮ umlaut is a different diacritic with the same glyph, marking fronting of
a back vowel, in German replacement is possible: ä/ö/ü→ ae/oe/ue
ij, ij-ligature, ÿ, y schoen, schoen, schön
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 9 / 28
diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
◮ Albanian ë is [@], Malagasy n is [N], Dutch ÿ is a ligature for ij◮ umlaut is a different diacritic with the same glyph, marking fronting of
a back vowel, in German replacement is possible: ä/ö/ü→ ae/oe/ue◮ heavy metal umlaut: decoration applied for a Gothic feeling, e.g.,
Motörhead, Ümlaut
ij, ij-ligature, ÿ, y schoen, schoen, schön
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diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
diacritics one by one
dieresis /dAjEr@sIs/ or trema and umlaut
x◮ dieresis/trema marks hiatus, i.e., that two vowels are
pronounced separately: naïve, or that the vowel is pronouncedat all: French aigüe [Egy] (vs. algue [alg]), English Brontë
◮ Albanian ë is [@], Malagasy n is [N], Dutch ÿ is a ligature for ij◮ umlaut is a different diacritic with the same glyph, marking fronting of
a back vowel, in German replacement is possible: ä/ö/ü→ ae/oe/ue◮ heavy metal umlaut: decoration applied for a Gothic feeling, e.g.,
Motörhead, Ümlaut
ij, ij-ligature, ÿ, y schoen, schoen, schön
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 9 / 28
diacritics one by one dieresis and umlaut
Deutsche Kurrentschrift (1865)
= ch, ck, th, sch, sz, st
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 10 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants
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diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants◮ the tittle of lowercase i and j is taken off when these letters get an
upper diacritic: i→ ı→ î (not i)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants◮ the tittle of lowercase i and j is taken off when these letters get an
upper diacritic: i→ ı→ î (not i)◮ in Turkish i and ı are different characters ([i] and [W]), their uppercase
pairs are İ and I: cf. İstanbul, İzmir, Niğde, Ağrı, Iğdır, kapı
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants◮ the tittle of lowercase i and j is taken off when these letters get an
upper diacritic: i→ ı→ î (not i)◮ in Turkish i and ı are different characters ([i] and [W]), their uppercase
pairs are İ and I: cf. İstanbul, İzmir, Niğde, Ağrı, Iğdır, kapı
ring
x
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants◮ the tittle of lowercase i and j is taken off when these letters get an
upper diacritic: i→ ı→ î (not i)◮ in Turkish i and ı are different characters ([i] and [W]), their uppercase
pairs are İ and I: cf. İstanbul, İzmir, Niğde, Ağrı, Iğdır, kapı
ring
x◮ Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Walloon å is rounded
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants◮ the tittle of lowercase i and j is taken off when these letters get an
upper diacritic: i→ ı→ î (not i)◮ in Turkish i and ı are different characters ([i] and [W]), their uppercase
pairs are İ and I: cf. İstanbul, İzmir, Niğde, Ağrı, Iğdır, kapı
ring
x◮ Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Walloon å is rounded◮ Czech u developed from o
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants◮ the tittle of lowercase i and j is taken off when these letters get an
upper diacritic: i→ ı→ î (not i)◮ in Turkish i and ı are different characters ([i] and [W]), their uppercase
pairs are İ and I: cf. İstanbul, İzmir, Niğde, Ağrı, Iğdır, kapı
ring
x◮ Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Walloon å is rounded◮ Czech u developed from o◮ IPA i
˚, y marks voicelessness, in Indo-European studies,
syllabicity
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one dot, ring
diacritics one by one
dot
x x.◮ Lith. e is long, Maltese c, g, ż and Pol. ż is palatal◮ in translitterations of Semitic scripts d. , t., z., s.
represent emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants◮ the tittle of lowercase i and j is taken off when these letters get an
upper diacritic: i→ ı→ î (not i)◮ in Turkish i and ı are different characters ([i] and [W]), their uppercase
pairs are İ and I: cf. İstanbul, İzmir, Niğde, Ağrı, Iğdır, kapı
ring
x◮ Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Walloon å is rounded◮ Czech u developed from o◮ IPA i
˚, y marks voicelessness, in Indo-European studies,
syllabicity (note the position of the diacritic depending on the presenceof a descender)kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 11 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç◮ developed in Spain from the lower part of a hand-written z
(Z) — hence the name (‘little zed’) — for “soft” c: e.g.,Barcelona→Barça
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç◮ developed in Spain from the lower part of a hand-written z
(Z) — hence the name (‘little zed’) — for “soft” c: e.g.,Barcelona→Barça
◮ in Turkish, Azerbaijani, etc. ç and ş occur (for [Ù S])
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç◮ developed in Spain from the lower part of a hand-written z
(Z) — hence the name (‘little zed’) — for “soft” c: e.g.,Barcelona→Barça
◮ in Turkish, Azerbaijani, etc. ç and ş occur (for [Ù S])
s,
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç◮ developed in Spain from the lower part of a hand-written z
(Z) — hence the name (‘little zed’) — for “soft” c: e.g.,Barcelona→Barça
◮ in Turkish, Azerbaijani, etc. ç and ş occur (for [Ù S])
s,◮ Rumanian and Latvian have a similar diacritic, a comma:
s, t, and g‘ k, l, n,
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç◮ developed in Spain from the lower part of a hand-written z
(Z) — hence the name (‘little zed’) — for “soft” c: e.g.,Barcelona→Barça
◮ in Turkish, Azerbaijani, etc. ç and ş occur (for [Ù S])
s,◮ Rumanian and Latvian have a similar diacritic, a comma:
s, t, and g‘ k, l, n,◮ these are often replaced by a cedilla, but careful
typographers use a comma
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç◮ developed in Spain from the lower part of a hand-written z
(Z) — hence the name (‘little zed’) — for “soft” c: e.g.,Barcelona→Barça
◮ in Turkish, Azerbaijani, etc. ç and ş occur (for [Ù S])
s,◮ Rumanian and Latvian have a similar diacritic, a comma:
s, t, and g‘ k, l, n,◮ these are often replaced by a cedilla, but careful
typographers use a comma
ogonek
o
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one cedilla, comma, ogonek
diacritics one by one
cedilla
ç◮ developed in Spain from the lower part of a hand-written z
(Z) — hence the name (‘little zed’) — for “soft” c: e.g.,Barcelona→Barça
◮ in Turkish, Azerbaijani, etc. ç and ş occur (for [Ù S])
s,◮ Rumanian and Latvian have a similar diacritic, a comma:
s, t, and g‘ k, l, n,◮ these are often replaced by a cedilla, but careful
typographers use a comma
ogonek
o◮ Polish ą, ę and Lithuanian ą, ę, i, u represent historically
nasalized vowels; today they are simply long in Lithuanian,variably nasalized in Polish
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 12 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs◮ in Spanish, Galician, Basque ñ represents [ñ]
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs◮ in Spanish, Galician, Basque ñ represents [ñ]◮ p stands for [
>kp] in scripts of Vanuatu, in Guaraní g is [N]
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs◮ in Spanish, Galician, Basque ñ represents [ñ]◮ p stands for [
>kp] in scripts of Vanuatu, in Guaraní g is [N]
bar or slash
ł Ł ð đ Ð ø Ø
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs◮ in Spanish, Galician, Basque ñ represents [ñ]◮ p stands for [
>kp] in scripts of Vanuatu, in Guaraní g is [N]
bar or slash
ł Ł ð đ Ð ø Ø◮ ł is [w] in Polish (historically
coming from a dark l)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs◮ in Spanish, Galician, Basque ñ represents [ñ]◮ p stands for [
>kp] in scripts of Vanuatu, in Guaraní g is [N]
bar or slash
ł Ł ð đ Ð ø Ø◮ ł is [w] in Polish (historically
coming from a dark l)◮ in Icelandic and Faroese ð/Ð
represent [D] (Scandinavians were close when the IPA was developed)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs◮ in Spanish, Galician, Basque ñ represents [ñ]◮ p stands for [
>kp] in scripts of Vanuatu, in Guaraní g is [N]
bar or slash
ł Ł ð đ Ð ø Ø◮ ł is [w] in Polish (historically
coming from a dark l)◮ in Icelandic and Faroese ð/Ð
represent [D] (Scandinavians were close when the IPA was developed)◮ in Serbocroat đ/Ð is the voiced counterpart of ć ([dý])
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
diacritics one by one
tilde or swung dash
x◮ developed from an abbreviation mark originally replacing
nasals: e.g., con→ cõ, later anything else: e.g., que→ q◮ in Portuguese ãe, ão, and õe stand for nasalized diphthongs◮ in Spanish, Galician, Basque ñ represents [ñ]◮ p stands for [
>kp] in scripts of Vanuatu, in Guaraní g is [N]
bar or slash
ł Ł ð đ Ð ø Ø◮ ł is [w] in Polish (historically
coming from a dark l)◮ in Icelandic and Faroese ð/Ð
represent [D] (Scandinavians were close when the IPA was developed)◮ in Serbocroat đ/Ð is the voiced counterpart of ć ([dý])◮ in Danish, Faroese, and Norwegian ø is [ø] (real close ,)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 13 / 28
diacritics one by one tilde, bar
the first seven lines of Homer’s Iliad
M¨nin �eide je� Phlhi�dew >Aqill¨o
oÎlomènhn, ¡ mur�� >AqaioØ �lge� êjhke,
poll� d� Êfj�mou yuq� ^�idi proòayen
�r¸wn, aÎtoÌ dà ál¸ria teÜqe kÔnessin
oÊwnoØs� te p�si, Diä d� âtele�eto boul ,
âx oÝ d� t� prÀta diast thn âr�sante
>Atre�dh te �nax �ndrÀn kaÈ dØo >AqilleÔ .
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 14 / 28
diacritics in Arabic scripts
diacritics in Arabic scripts
short vowels may be rendered by diacritics
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 15 / 28
diacritics in Arabic scripts
diacritics in Arabic scripts
short vowels may be rendered by diacritics
individual consonants are often distinguished by diacritics
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 15 / 28
diacritics in Arabic scripts
more and more diacritics
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 16 / 28
diacritics in Arabic scripts
more and more diacritics
“Allahu akbar” — Allah is great
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 16 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
types of ligature
character ligatures
etymologically ligatures, but today considered as a single character
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 17 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
types of ligature
character ligatures
etymologically ligatures, but today considered as a single character: glyphsoften occurring together merged into one symbol in scribal conventions(this was a kind of abbreviation), with time they yield a new, “symbiotic”character
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 17 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
types of ligature
character ligatures
etymologically ligatures, but today considered as a single character: glyphsoften occurring together merged into one symbol in scribal conventions(this was a kind of abbreviation), with time they yield a new, “symbiotic”character, e.g.,
& or %
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 17 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some scribal abbreviations
suarum recensiti sunt per nomina singulorum a viginti annis et supra omnesqui ad bella procederent: quadraginta quinque milia sescenti quinquaginta. De filiis Iuda per generationes et familias ac domoscognationum suarum per nominasingulorum a vicesimo anno et
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 18 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
Tironian et
→
survives in◮ Irish◮ the abbreviation viz. ← vi+et ← videlicet
Tiro was Cicero’s scribe; he developed anelaborate system of shorthands, later used bymedieval scribes
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 19 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign◮ ¶: pilcrow
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign◮ ¶: pilcrow◮ §: section sign
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign◮ ¶: pilcrow◮ §: section sign◮ %: percent sign◮ %�: permille sign◮ %��: permyriad sign
(basis point)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign◮ ¶: pilcrow◮ §: section sign◮ %: percent sign◮ %�: permille sign◮ %��: permyriad sign
(basis point)◮ ß: scharfes S, Eszett
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign◮ ¶: pilcrow◮ §: section sign◮ %: percent sign◮ %�: permille sign◮ %��: permyriad sign
(basis point)◮ ß: scharfes S, Eszett◮ w/W: double U (or V)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign◮ ¶: pilcrow◮ §: section sign◮ %: percent sign◮ %�: permille sign◮ %��: permyriad sign
(basis point)◮ ß: scharfes S, Eszett◮ w/W: double U (or V)◮ æ/Æ, œ/Œ
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures character ligatures
some character ligatures
◮ &: ampersand◮ @: at-sign◮ ¶: pilcrow◮ §: section sign◮ %: percent sign◮ %�: permille sign◮ %��: permyriad sign
(basis point)◮ ß: scharfes S, Eszett◮ w/W: double U (or V)◮ æ/Æ, œ/Œ◮
�/�, �/�: from I + A,I + O(Y)
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 20 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
types of ligature
stylistic ligatures
glyphs intruding in each other’s bounding box werecast as one glyph (one piece of lead) in the printingpress, e.g.,
fi vs. f i
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 21 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
stylistic ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 22 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
stylistic ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 22 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
stylistic ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 22 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
further stylistic ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 23 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
extreme cases of stylistic ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 24 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
extreme cases of stylistic ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 24 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
extreme cases of stylistic ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 24 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
a printer’s case with ligatures
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 25 / 28
ligatures stylistic ligatures
avoiding collision
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 26 / 28
ligatures suppression of stylistic ligatures
stylistic ligatures suppressed
some authorities claim that a stylistic ligature must not span across aword/morpheme boundary, e.g.,
◮ Sauerstoffflaschen
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 27 / 28
ligatures suppression of stylistic ligatures
stylistic ligatures suppressed
some authorities claim that a stylistic ligature must not span across aword/morpheme boundary, e.g.,
◮ Sauerstoffflaschen◮ selfish vs. shellfish
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 27 / 28
sample exam questions
sample exam questions
Which is the cedilla?
1. ç
2. ô
3. č
4. o
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 28 / 28
sample exam questions
sample exam questions
Which is the cedilla?
1. ç
2. ô
3. č
4. o
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 28 / 28
sample exam questions
sample exam questions
Which is the cedilla?
1. ç
2. ô
3. č
4. o
Which is not a character ligature?
1. &
2. w
3. @
4. fi
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 28 / 28
sample exam questions
sample exam questions
Which is the cedilla?
1. ç
2. ô
3. č
4. o
Which is not a character ligature?
1. &
2. w
3. @
4. fi
kz & szp (delg) typo/diacritics&ligatures (8) 28 / 28