Slide 1

Beasts of Burden

Erin L.

and

Carol T.

This presentation was done by Mr. Haskvitzs Middle School social studies classes Walnut, California. Some rights reservedcontact information at http://www.reacheverychild.com

Objective

Learn about:

animal functions, advantages, and how they cooperate with each other on the trails

the advantages, disadvantages, and functions of the 3 major ox yokes in relation to the oxen used on the trails

yoking, harnessing, and shoeing trail animals and being alert of animal discomfort and injuries

the reactions of the people on the trail by ownership of the animals

Health and injury care for horses on the trail

Ox, draft horse, and work and draft mule breeds and crossbreeds (used on the trails and modern breeds)

Advertiser

Create authentic ads on at least 5 beasts of burden. Give an explanation of their functions, advantages, and how they cooperate with one another. Interesting facts that will help persuade the buyer may also be added. Include a colored picture and give the name of the store in which the animal can be purchased as well as any special offers it may offer. Remember to include a price.

Yoke adviser

Design a companys brochure describing the 3 major ox yokes. Include their functions, advantages, disadvantages, and any additional information or facts that may help someone looking for a yoke. Include a picture for each, a website readers can go on for more information, and an email address for any questions or comments. (The website and email address is made up).

Carpenter/Blacksmith

Create a manual with instructions on how to construct a yoke, horseshoes, tacks, halters, hitches, straps, and bells as well as harnessing it to the animal. Include diagrams and information on how to be aware of animal discomfort as well as other injurious factors.

Animal interactions manager

Make reviews of the pros and cons of owning a beast of burden as a person on the Oregon and California trails. Model it on the online reviews of products (ex: name of person, star ratings, how many people found it helpful, etc.) Use trail diaries to help.

Veterinarian

In letter format, make a collection of letters from horse owners (written to you) regarding its health and injuries (diseases, diet, medicine, poisonous plants, sore shoulders, etc.). Include the question the owner is asking and reply with an answer, such as the cure or prevention to the problem mentioned, and some suggestions to make the work more efficient. Make up a name for the owners who are writing to you.

Breeds Expert

Create a fact book about ox, draft horse, and mule breeds and common crossbreeds. Give a brief explanation for each breed and include a picture. For oxen and draft horses, bullet facts about their color, weight ranges, uses, and behavior. For mule, explain the different kinds of mule and their functions.

Jobs

In a group of six, each player takes a job: advertiser, yoke adviser, carpenter/blacksmith, animal interactions manager, veterinarian, or breeds expert. For each job, there is a task to be completed. To complete the task, the players can use the links provided on the next page.

Directions

Cow Power

http://motherearthnews.com/library/1998_August_September/Cow_Power

This site supplies you with insights of the real farm power of cows. The complaints of the farmers, types of equipment used to harness and control the cows, yoking of the animals, and substitutions of cows for oxen are all provided in the site. The benefits of owning an ox and the characteristics of cows and oxen in contrast can be learned in this site. The ability of cooperation of the animals is also included.

Yokes and Harnessing

http://www.taws.org/TAWS2004/TAWS04-Conroy-040419-A4-all.pdf

This site provides the three major ox yokes. Harnessing techniques are also shown to reinforce the background you have for yoking. Caution tips are given for yoking. The relationship between the oxens body and how well a yoke may be able to fit on it is given as well. The ability for one who puts on a yoke to understand the discomfort an animal being yoked is feeling and tips for him/her to know whether a yoke is inappropriate for the animal is supplied.

Donkeys, Mules, Horses, and Ox

http://www.gaianar.com/

This site has information on the differences and similarities of donkeys and mules. Basic information about the animals is also provided, along with averages of their lengths and sizes. The many uses of the donkey in comparison and contrast to the mule are described in detail. Donkeys and mules, usually thought of as the same animal with various names, are actually different animals. Categories of horses are shown in charts and have numerous facts about them. The uses each type of horse is used for are also provided. The averages for horses are given and the pros and cons of the horses are shown. Ox and buffalo, two other beasts of burdens with astounding characteristics that are usually not assumed, have many uses to the people traveling west. To the travelers, these strong and bulky animals are an important part of their journey westward. The abilities of these animals cannot be measured.

(click on DOMESTIC ANIMALS and then the animals mentioned above)

Diary Links

http://www.isu.edu/%7Etrinmich/00.n.dairies.htmlhttp://www.octa-trails.org/TheLearningCenter/TrailStories/FuelingJourney.asp

These two links provide diaries of the owners of the beasts of burdens on the trail. The original travelers write the hardships and dangers the people went through. Vivid detail and anguish is expressed through these diaries, along with their discoveries.

Mule, Horse, and Ox (in detail)

http://ruralheritage.com/

(Click: Mule Paddock, Ox Paddock, Horse Paddock, Tack Room, Village Smithy, Equipment Shed, Vet Clinic, Sale Barn)This site provides a number of information regarding mules, oxen, and draft horses. It includes their definition, functions, advantages over the other, health and feet care, hoof care and parts, and curing sores. The anatomy, breeds, behavior problems, housing, and sale is also provided on this site. It also includes information on harnessing, tacks, shoeing, hitches, and halters, as well as straps and bells that can be attached to the animals harness.

Links

Rubric

Completeness: how complete was it? Did they follow the directions in their task?Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5Total /30

Accuracy: how informative were they? Is it detailed?Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5Total /30

Neatness: was it neat? Organized? Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5 Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5Total /30

Creativity: how creative were they? Did they color it?Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5 Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5Total /30.Grand Total /120

Other

Beasts of Burden Worksheet /103 Major Yokes Worksheet /10Ox Hoof Worksheet /12Test /49Total /81

Comments:

3 Major Ox Yokes

Complete the table: List the advantages and disadvantages of the head yoke, neck yoke, and withers yoke.

Head

Yoke

Neck

Yoke

Withers

Yoke

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Answer Key

Head

Yoke

Neck

Yoke

Withers

Yoke

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Best animal control

Discomfort on uneven terrain

Comfort on uneven terrain

Less animal control

Simple and flexible

Animals are hard to control during training

Best for controlling carts or wagons on hilly terrain

Animals have to have rugged horns

Animal flexibility and maneuverability in the field of forest

Animals can fight each other and pull away from each other in the yoke

Does not interfere with movement and comfort of animal

Break more easily than other yokes

For short heavy hauls the ox can more easily lift and start the load

The yoke is more complicated to make and fit

Yoking time is fast

Sore necks and bruised shoulders can easily develop if not fitted properly

Easily constructed with minimal hand tools

Cannot be improved or designed to widen surface area on hump or top of neck as animal grows

No sore necks

Yoking time is slow

No need for horns

Appropriate materials or a flexible wood is necessary for bows

Staves are easily and quickly repaired

Frequently made with narrow pole

Can be used to eliminate problems like sore necks, animals fighting each other holding their heads in the correct position when in the neck yoke

Nova Scotian yokes are so precisely fitted the yokes cannot often be used on another team

One yoke can be used on many teams and different bows can be used to allow the same yoke to be used as animals grow

Difficult to control animals pulling wagons, carts, or sleds on hilly terrain

Can be used on many different teams without special equipment or adjustments

Matching

Directions: Match each description with the corresponding word.

A. Some would say that these animals provide the best farm draft-power.B. These are used to keep control of cows and capture the power of oxen. C. Known for its temperamental tempers and have the ability to climb steep hills.D. A domestic animal with a friendly and docile characteristic and can handle hostile environments and do not require special feed.E. A horse suitable for smaller people and is 75% of the regular riding horse.F. A horse used for war. G. The regular horse used for riding. H. Used to pull wagon trains or stagecoaches. I. Are not usually ridden but are used to pull large objects

______ oxen riding horses ______donkey______draft horse______ pygmy horse______yokes and harnesses______war horse______cows

Answers:

I; G; C; H; E; B; F; A

Ox Hoof

Directions: Write the correct word on each line.

Claw Bones & Tendons

Cross Section of Claw

Answer Key

Claw Bones & Tendons

Cross Section of Claw

Coronary Band

Wall

Bulb

Coronary Band

Coronary Cushion

Wall

Coffin Bone

Lamellae

Sole

Bulb

Digital Cushion

Coffin Joint

1. For what reason have cattle been yoked for thousands of years?2. Why do cattle work in pairs?3. How do cattle differ from equines in their anatomy and physiology?4. What is the reason that cattle are not likely to make good mates with horses in a yoke?5. Who suffers more when the donkey and ox are yoked together?6. What are the anatomical differences of the oxen?7. What provided cattle and sheep good protein?8. How did the beasts of burden, such as cattle, sheep, or horses relate to lack of feed?9. What are the differences between the personalities of the donkey and mule?10. How do you determine an Undead mule from a live mule?11. Why can riding horses manage well in most temperate climates?12. How much taller does a war horse stand than a regular riding horse? What are the physical differences?13. What are the pros and cons of the war horse?14. What are draft horses used for? How are they usually sold?

Test

15. List the similarities and differences between the oxen and the other beasts of burden such as horses, mules, or donkeys.16. What animal was most often used to pull the wagons of pioneers? 17. What complaints did pioneers show for these animals?18. Which yoke works best on humped cattle? Why?19. What is the most popular design of head yokes?20. What is a good yoke or harnessing system for oxen?21. What should you do before giving up on a yoke if the animals breakdown?22. Why is it difficult for oxen to use a horse collar and the driving harness?23. What is the neck yoke designed to do? What part of the neck yoke allows it to do so?24. What signs will an animal give if the yoke is uncomfortable?25. What are the consequences for ignoring the animals comfort?26. What is the best wood and log to make an ox yoke?27. Why should all corners and edges be beveled or rounded?28. What is an ox? 29. What was a disadvantage of the steer, compared to an ox? 30. What is an ox called in Australia or other places?

Test (continued)

31. What are the average weight and appearance of an ox in contrast with a bull? 32. Name the different pure breeds of oxen. 33. Name the four common oxen crossbreeds. 34. What is a draft horse? 35. What is a mule? 36. Name five common classes of mule and their characteristics. 37. Name at least two advantages of draft animals.38. What are the problems for fitting a mule or donkey halter?39. Describe the head or face of a horse, donkey, and mule.40. What should be used when working a horse with sore shoulders?41. What are some of the standard rules when trimming draft horse hooves?42. What are the common causes of chipping and cracking of the hoof wall between the nail holes and shoe?43. How do horseshoes benefit a horse?44. What other things should you do besides trimming the hoof if a foal has knock-knees?45. Name three materials involved in shoeing.46. Name the three styles of horseshoe.47. Name the three common nail heads.48. What are reasons why mule kick?49. What can you do if a mule kicks when you trim or shoe it?

Test (continued)

1. They easily adapt to training without complicated bridles, nose rings, bits, reins and harnesses. Trying to adapt a harnessing system required for another species often shows ignorance toward the cattle being worked.2. They are herd animals that are calmed and more easily controlled by the presence of another animal. Single cattle can be worked, but it takes more effort in training and more complicated yokes to accomplish any task of transport or plowing.3. Cattle hold their heads lower, have more prominent and loosely attached shoulders, walk slower, and are more deliberate and more tolerant in difficult environments. They are also thicker skinned, less likely to become lame, and more likely to stand their ground, rather than run in fright.4. Donkeys are more like cattle in their nature, but are still anatomically very different than cattle in the way they are put together. Simply watching donkeys and cattle yoked together portrays the reasons you cannot expect equines to wear yokes.5. Donkeys and an ox yoked together can be forced to work, but the donkeys suffer miserably.6. An ox has shoulders that protrude at a low angle from his body. These shoulders are highly mobile and more loosely attached than those of a horse or donkey.7. sagebrush; burned, sprayed or disked under to make way for grass species like crested wheat grass8. Thousands of cattle, horses and oxen traveled the same route during the growing season for years on end.9. While donkeys can be temperamental, mules are friendly and docile.10. Undead mule is one of the fiercest of the Undead monsters, while live mules are harmless and good-natured.11. Riding horses have good stamina and can manage in temperate climates.12. They stand about a foot taller than a normal horse, and are strong enough to wear armor as well as an armored rider. This is a faster, tougher, stouter version of the simple riding horse.13. Warhorses handle mountains somewhat better than riding horses, but overheat quickly in the desert. They also must be fed high quality grains and plenty of water. Simple grazing will not do.14. This type of mount is often used serially to pull large objects such as a stagecoach or wagon train. These animals are usually sold in pairs and are trained to function in groups.

Answer Key

15. Oxen are less intelligent than horses but are also less skittish. Like mules, they can get by on grazing alone. Their speed and carrying capacity are somewhere between that of a horse and a giant snail. They are hardy and handle most climates. Like draft horses, they are often sold in pairs. They also make good use in agricultural settings.

16. Oxen17. "We had to risk our lives in roping them. After being kicked across the pen some half-dozen times and run over as often, we at last succeeded in leading them out. It was laughable.""What perverse brutes these mules are. The beasts! How I hate `em."18. Withers yoke; the hitch point pulls the yoke up high on the withers.19. the style that lies on the back of the head and ties to the horns20. One that minimizes breakdowns of the animal and equipment. The system chosen must be comfortable for the animal.21. evaluate the comfort, design, and appropriateness of the yoking system22. The horse collar on an ox must be lifted and pushed forward with each shoulder with every step it takes, especially while doing heavy work such as logging or plowing. The driving harness squeezes the shoulders of the ox under a heavy load when it needs them to move and maneuver with.23. It captures the power of the ox through the use of its neck and shoulders. The dropped hitch point allows it to do so.24. throw their heads up and down, twist their heads back and forth, being reluctant to pull, not holding head up, or straining in the yoke even under light work25. The ox may have wounds, bruising and scar tissue development, and an unwillingness to work when poorly fitted or improperly made yokes are used.26. The best woods are hardwoods that are difficult to split and numerous softwoods but the strength is limited. The best log is one that is free of knots and two to three times the diameter needed. 27. It will protect the yoke from weather, give it a smooth attractive appearance, and prevent any rapid moisture escape and cracking.

28. An ox, to early American farmers who used the beast, was a mature castrated male belonging to the domestic cattle family, or genus Bos, most likely trained to work, and at the end of its life inevitably used for meat.29. A steer may not be trained like an ox to work.30. Bullock

Answer Key (continued)

31. Most oxen weigh about the same as a mature bull of the same breed, but the ox grows taller and leaner in the neck and chest. 32. American Milking Devon, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss , Charolais, Chianina, Dexter, Dutch Belted, Guernsey, Horned Hereford , Holstein, Jersey, Lineback ,Milking Shorthorn , Scotch Highland, Texas Longhorn , Zebu (Brahman)33. Chianina-Holstein , Devon-Holstein, Hereford-Holstein, Shorthorn-Holstein34. a horse of any size trained to pull a load 35. A mule is the hybrid that results from mating a female horse (mare) with a male donkey (jack). The horse's breed is used to designate the mule's breed. A mule inherits its size and strength from the horse, and its surefootedness and supreme sense of self-preservation from the donkey. 36. (any three) Miniature mules: sometimes called "pony mules" because they are bred from pony mares, stand 40" to 48" at the withers. They are teamed for pulling small wagons and used as trick mules by rodeo clowns; Saddle mules: usually 54" or greater in height. They are used primarily for riding; Pack mules: strong, sturdy, and usually short legged. They weigh 1,000 pounds or more, making them capable of carrying a good deal of weight. They have no height limit, but packers prefer short mules to tall ones because they are easier to load; Work mules: may be any weight, but they usually range between 900 and 1,300 pounds. They are strongly built and are used to pull wagons and farm equipment, and to do odd jobs around the farm, homestead, and garden. Soundness and working ability are all-important for this animal. Less important are age, looks, conformation, and coloralthough they are most often a dark color, such as bay, brown, or black; Draft mules: large and heavy but refined animals standing 60" high or more, weighing 1,200 pounds or more, and coming in all colors depending largely on the color of the dam

37. (any two) Draft animals tread lightly on the land and do minuscule damage. They help plant and harvest their own "fuel," making you less dependent on fossil fuels. They cost less than mechanized equipment, they don't depreciate as rapidly, and they don't break down as often. They work well in hilly terrain that defies a tractor. They can work soil that's wet enough to bog down machinery. They let you easily work without human helpersa properly trained team will follow voice commands. Their slower pace gives you plenty of time to think while you work, making you less likely to get hurt in an accident. They offer companionship.

Answer Key (continued)

38. When a halter is at the proper length, the noseband is too tight. When a noseband fits, the halter hangs off the end of the nose even when buckled at the last hole.39. Horse: long, relatively rectangular face; Donkey: deeper through the jaw, shorter in overall length, eye sockets are D-shaped, which accounts for the prominent brow ridges and the characteristic "sad" or "patient expression; Mule: combination of the boxy shape of horses head but with deeper jaw, head is slightly larger than a horse of the same size40. A vinyl-sided collar pad41. The angle of the hoof depends and should match the angle of the horses shoulder and pastern. Toes should be kept as short as possible. The toe or quarters should have no flares. The frog should always touch the ground. The toe and edges may be rolled if necessary to prevent chipping.42. Failing to shoe the horse on a timely schedule, failing to drive the nails high enough to get into good hoof wall, and diet43. It helps the horse stand structurally, improves the horses manner of movement, and controls interference problems.44. Exercise the foal twice daily by hand walking for 15-30 minutes. Massage the legs, top to bottom, for 10 minutes each leg. Ice-bag the knees for 15 minutes using one cup of isopropyl alcohol and three cups of water. Options include using a knee brace, completing a surgery, epiphysial stapling, and casting.45. (any three) horseshoe nails or frost nails, borium, calks, clinches, and clips46. Scotched, rockered toe, and rolled toe47. City, regular, and race48. They are afraid, trying to defend themselves, just plain malicious, hurt and fighting the pain, or the possibility of pain, or remembering a time when pain was inflicted49. Have a vet administer medication to help it overcome its phobia, use a twitch to calm the animal while it is in place, a pull on an attached stud chain to possibly change its ill ways, hobbles to tie up the legs, stocks to restrain it, and desensitizing (having the animal get used to the fear stimulus so that he/she no longer takes notice)

Answer Key (continued)

Picture This

Horse

Mule

Donkey

The general skull shape of long-eared equines is the problem for fitting halters and nosebands on a mule and donkey.

Horse

Mule

Donkey

Perfect!

Loose

Small/Tight

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/tack_room/longhalter.htm

Halters and Nosebands

Claw Bones & Tendons

Coronary Band

Wall

Bulb

Cross Section of Claw

Coronary Band

Coronary Cushion

Wall

Lamellae

Coffin Bone

Sole

Bulb

Digital Cushion

Coffin Joint

Coronary Band: area at top of hoof that is usually soft and shiny and may be pinkWall: consists of tough horn, in a shape of a tube, that is smooth and shiny with faint ridges parallel to the coronary band.Bulb: back part of hoof that is continuous with coronary band, made up of soft, rubbery horn

Ox Hoof

Coronary Cushion: mass of elastic tissue and veins under coronary band, pumps blood through foot back into body when ox exercises Lamellae: hundreds of tiny ridges attached to coffin bone by strong fibers and covered by lower part of inside wall Coffin Bone: triangular bone at end of digit (toe)Sole: bottom of hoof that is rounded inward, thicker towards heel and sloping away from outside wall
Digital Cushion: area within bulb, functions as elastic shock absorber and may work as pump to force blood back up limb as ox walks

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxhoof.htm

Ox Pure Breeds

American Milking Devon

Ayrshire

Brown Swiss

Charolais

Chianina

Dexter

Dutch Belted

Guernsey

Horned Hereford

Holtstein

Jersey

Lineback

Milking Shorthorn

Scotch Highland

Texas Longhorn

Zebu (Brahman)

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds1.htm#devon (and following pages)

Ox Common Crossbreeds

Chianina-Holstein

Devon-Holstein

Hereford-Holstein

Shorthorn-Holstein

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds6.htm#chianholst

American Milking Devon: In early American and English agricultural books, the Devon has been frequently cited as one of the best breeds for draft purposes. They are not recommended for beginning teamsters because of its livelier temperament than other oxen. When trained, they make fine work animals. The Devon is red and is quick as well as being alert.Ayrshire: It is easily recognized by its long horns and tends to be more active than many of the other breeds and may be challenging. They carry more flesh and muscle than other dairy breeds, and their size makes them a good choice as an all-around farm or woods team. The Ayrshire is red and white. Brown Swiss: It tends to be calm, forgiving, and easy going yet slow in motion. This makes them a great choice for the novice teamster. They grow faster and larger than many other breeds which may be a disadvantage for young teamsters or those with limited facilities and small transport trailers. Their color ranges from a light to dark brown.Charolais: It is a large, white beef breed with heavy muscling and a rugged frame. It is used often for draft purposes. They are white, moderately alert, and active.Chianina: They are among the worldst largest breeds of cattle. The true Italian Chianina is white with a black nose. Others are polled, black or dark-colored, smaller in stature, and thicker in muscle than the original. They are alert and excitable. When crossed with other breeds, the animal loses the horns, stature, and athletic build which are desired by ox teamsters. Dexter: It is an Irish breed which has gained popularity with hobby farmers in the U.S. It is one of the smallest recognized breeds. Because of its size, it makes it easy to feed and care for. These rugged animals are quick and alert. When untrained while young or handled regularly, they can be helpful. The Dexter is usually black but may come as dark red or dun.Dutch Belted: They are easily recognized by the white belt around their bellies. Their horns, short hair, and dairy character distinguish it from the Belted Galloway. It is easy to work for being moderately docile but is quite rare.Guernsey: They are not often used as draft animals, but their calm easy-going attitude makes them ideal for beginning teamsters. Their good size makes them fine animals for the small farm or homestead. It is a lean dairy breed and is recommended to choose rugged calves for strong feet and straight legs. They are brown or fawn with white patches.Horned Hereford: It is favored by Nova Scotian ox teamsters who prefer the head yoke over the neck yoke. It is generally calm, easy going, and tends to carry more flesh than dual-purpose or dairy breeds. The earlier the cattle is handled and trained to the yoke the better. They are dark red with a white face.Holstein: It is the most popular dairy breed in the U.S. which makes it easy for teamsters to find in most areas. They have an agreeable disposition of being calm and get quite large. They are usually black and white but are sometimes red and white.Jersey: It is a common first team for youngsters but is not often seen in yokes when young. They are curious by nature and are more headstrong than other breeds. Their small size and light muscling make them unattractive to the teamster looking for rugged, working cattle. They are easier to match than some other breeds and are inexpensive. The Jersey comes in any shade of brown and is sometimes marked with black or white.

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds1.htm#devon (and following pages)

Lineback: It is considered a dual-purpose breed. It is a rare breed of striking color that is desired by teamsters seeking easily matched teammates. They are not as easy going as that of some breeds but are appreciated for being moderately active and excitable. Milking Shorthorn: It is easy to train especially when raised as calves and has a calm temperament. Many believe that this breed is hard to beat for good all-around oxen. It is commonly crossed with the Holstein and may be larger and more angular than animals in the past. They come in red, red and white, white, or roan. Scotch Highland: It is easily recognized by its uniquely long, shaggy hair and long horns. It is a beef breed that is not often trained as an ox and is active. They should be handled as calves. The long hair creates a challenge when worked in warm weather. They come in all black, brown, grey, or white. Texas Longhorn: Although it is a beef breed, it is leaner and more athletic than many other beef breeds. Their long horns are impressive but can be a challenge when yoking, housing, and trucking the animals. They are smart and require a little more effort in training than other breeds, especially when they had run around the pasture and little handling as calves. It comes in any color or combination and is active and alert.Zebu: Also called Brahman, they are the most common used cattle used for oxen globally. This active animal comes in many breeds and colors but is usually gray or grayish brown. American Zebus are much larger than the same breed seen abroad. Like other beef breeds, they are easier and more enjoyable to train when handled frequently.

Chianina-Holstein: Crossing the Holstein and the Chianina make the largest breeds in the dairy and beef industries. The cross combines the height, athletic build, temperament, and strong feet and legs of the Chianina with the body, easy-going attitude, and color of the Holstein. The cross is easier and cheaper to acquire than purebred Chianinas. Calves born on dairy farms make it easy to acquire them and begin training and matching them up at a young age. They come in a black or brownish black color and are moderately active. Devon-Holstein: It is sometimes called the black-Devon and is popular for its striking solid black color, moderate temperament of being quick and alert, and medium size. It combines the athletic ability and temperament of the Devon with the size and black color of the Holstein. Hereford-Holstein: It is a common cross in New England and is leaner than the Hereford and more muscular than the Holstein. Its easy-going temperament makes it desirable among young teamsters. It is black and white with a white head and face.Shorthorn-Holstein: It may be almost all black, black and white, or blue roan. This is cross is common in New England and both pure breeds are often seen in ox teams. They are attractive for its calm temperament, striking color, gentle nature, and good muscling.

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds6.htm

Draft Horse Breeds

American Cream

Spotted Draft

American Belgian (roan)

Clydesdale

Shire

Percheron (gray)

Suffolk

Ardennais

Comtois

Rhinelander

Morgan

Haflinger

Norwegian Fjord

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/horse_paddock/breeds5.htm (and following pages)

American Cream: It is a rare breed for its unusual color that has a compact build, powerful shoulders, and hindquarters, strong leg and feet, muscular back, and long, powerful neck. This horse appeals to people who need a powerful yet not large draft animal. It is not energetic and bold to be intimidating to the novice horse handler. They are calm, trustworthy and determined, commonly used for medium draft work, driving, carriage service, and riding.Spotted: It comes in a flashy brown and white or black and white color. It sometimes has feathering on its legs. It is used for logging, plowing, and other farm and ranch work, and riding. It is willing, docile, and quiet, usually used for a medium to heavy draft work.Belgian: It has been bred for its ability to efficiently convert feed to flesh and muscle. It has heavy muscling, a deep chest, wide barrel, powerful hindquarters, and an active boldness, yet is eager and obedient. It is used for heavy draft and farm work. Clydesdale: In their home country, Clyde River Valley of Scotland, they are known for their size, power, and snappy looks. They can pull heavy loads, but also look stylish while doing it. Because of its abilities and appearance, they are not only called a farm horse, but also a freight horse. A trademark of this breed is the abundant white feathering on its feet. It is active yet gentle and responsive. Shire: It is used to draw heavy carts for farm markets and in large teams to plow the expansive fields of the English Shires, which was the origination of the name of the breed. As the tallest horse breed in the world, it has a long, muscular but refined back. The legs of a Shire are longer than those of most draft horse breeds and have dense, silky feathering, and a snappy active way of going. The Shire has great strength and endurance, as well as a docile, kind, and hardworking temperament. Percheron: They are compact and muscular, have a crested neck, and have an elegance and active way of going. Their face is refined with the large, dark eyes of an Arab. Colors may range from black to dapple gray or blue roan, and some may eventually turn white. In some areas, sorrel is a common color. They have little feathering on the legs and are used for farming and logging. They are active, energetic, good-natured, and intelligent. Suffolk: They are the only draft horse originally developed as a plow horse. This agricultural horse is docile, has power, stamina, health, and longevity. Its short conformation is strong for agriculture. Lack of feathering allows it to work efficiently in heavy or wet grounds. Short cannon bones and muscular shoulders and forearms give them excellent pull and efficient leverage for their size, as well as bringing them closer to the ground and making them easier to harness, groom, and trailer than the taller draft horses.

Ardennais: They are also known as the Belgian Ardennais or Ardennes; a heavy-boned, yet still agile breed of horse. They originate from the Ardennes region of France, Belgium, and Luxemborg. One of the earliest heavy breeds, the Ardennais has a recent strong infusion of Brabant blood for its size and strength. It has a compact and small body, with a short back, and massive legs usually covered with feathering. Having been developed in a harsh environment, this breed of horse is easy to handle, naturally hardy and economical to keep. The color of this heavy breed is bay or roan, sometimes chestnut or black. It is a docile and tolerant breed used for heavy draft, farm work, and logging.Comtois: It came from the Jura regions of France. Earlier this century, this breed of horse faced the great and dangerous possibility of becoming extinct. However, its population was revived by crossbreeding mares with small bay Ardennais stallions, which was a practice stopped in 1925. This active horse has a square head, straight and muscular neck, wide and deep chest, broad croup, and strong legs. The Comtois has been bred for hardiness, endurance, and agility in rugged mountain areas. This breed is chestnut or bay, used for medium draft work, farm work, and logging. Rhineland: Also known as Rhenisch-Deutsches Kaltblut, Rhenish-Belgian, Rhenish-German, or German Coldblood, it is a rare horse breed that was once quite common in Germany but its population has been limited to 2000. It has a short and strong neck, with a wide back, deep and broad chest, and short, powerful, lightly feathered legs. This chestnut, bay, gray roan, strawberry roan, and sometimes brown or black breed is used for heavy draft, agriculture, and forestry. Morgan: This little bay stallion has been improved to a heavier, larger draft type in the early 1900s and later into a taller, finer-boned saddle-type horse for show. The Morgan is powerfully built with a wide, muscular chest and hindquarters, a long, arched, well-muscled neck, a small head with large nostrils, wide eyes and small, alert ears. The legs are strong with no feathering on the pasterns and the hooves are medium-sized. Powerfully built with a wide, muscular chest and hindquarters, the Morgan has a long, arched, well-muscled neck, a small head with large nostrils, wide eyes and small, alert ears. The legs are strong with no feathering on the pasterns and the hooves are medium-sized. This chestnut, bay, or black breed with white markings on its face and lower legs is used for driving and riding and is active and good natured. Quarterhorses: It is merited for its superiorities in western riding and working cattle. Commonly used for light draft, this breed has been divided into two distinct types: racing Quarterhorses, and the old type of Quarterhorses. For light draft, the old type of Quarterhorse is preferred, for its muscular build, and docile temper. The Quarterhorse is medium sized with a compact body, muscular chest, short back with deep heart girth, and powerful hindquarters, giving it strength for pulling, as well as a quick take-off in a race or when working cattle. It has a broad forehead and large eyes, and there is no feathering on its feet.

Haflinger: Known in Austria as Edelweiss Ponies, their name comes from the village of Hafling in the Austrian Tyrolean mountain region near Italy. For farmers of the Alps, it is a small, powerful, economical, and sure-footed tractor. It can do two-thirds the work of a heavy horse for one-third the feed costs. It looks similar to a small Belgian horse but the two are unrelated. Powerful for their size, they are used for draft work on many modern Amish farms. They can readily navigate steep terrain and narrow paths because they evolved in the mountains. They are sturdy enough to carry adults and easily handled, groomed, and harnessed by children and short adults because of its gentle nature and small size. The Haflinger comes in a range of chestnut shades, is determined, and hardworking and used for light draft, driving, riding, packing, and pulling.Norwegian Fjords: They are close descendents of the ancient wild horses painted on cave walls by early humans. Having been domesticated for over 4,000 years, this breed is sturdy, powerfully built, strong, and lives long. Because of the dorsal stripe that runs from the forelock into the tail, the center hair of the mane is often black while the outer hair is white. The mane is usually trimmed short but is wavy when grown out. This horse has a long, proud, stylish, and cheerful way of walking. Because of their hardiness, common sense, willingness to work, and easy keeping, Fjords are used in remote, rugged locations, from Norway to Alaska and areas in the South. They are quick learners, trained easily, and rarely need retraining even after long periods of inactivity. They are one of the most docile and friendly people horses around. They are dun in various shades of cream, silver, red, and gray. Fjords are usually used for light draft and logging, riding, driving, and packing.

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/horse_paddock/breeds5.htm (and following pages)

Work and Draft Mule Breeds

Fyord

Quarterhorse

Shetland (black)

American Cream

Belgian (sorrel)

Percheron (bay)

Shire (black)

Suffolk

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/mule_paddock/mule_whatis.htm

Head

Yoke

Neck

Yoke

Withers

Yoke

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Best animal control

Discomfort on uneven terrain

Comfort on uneven terrain

Less animal control

Simple and flexible

Animals are hard to control during training

Best for controlling carts or wagons on hilly terrain

Animals have to have rugged horns

Animal flexibility and maneuverability in the field of forest

Animals can fight each other and pull away from each other in the yoke

Does not interfere with movement and comfort of animal

Break more easily than other yokes

For short heavy hauls the ox can more easily lift and start the load

The yoke is more complicated to make and fit

Yoking time is fast

Sore necks and bruised shoulders can easily develop if not fitted properly

Easily constructed with minimal hand tools

Cannot be improved or designed to widen surface area on hump or top of neck as animal grows

No sore necks

Yoking time is slow

No need for horns

Appropriate materials or a flexible wood is necessary for bows

Staves are easily and quickly repaired

Frequently made with narrow pole

Can be used to eliminate problems like sore necks, animals fighting each other holding their heads in the correct position when in the neck yoke

Nova Scotian yokes are so precisely fitted the yokes cannot often be used on another team

One yoke can be used on many teams and different bows can be used to allow the same yoke to be used as animals grow

Difficult to control animals pulling wagons, carts, or sleds on hilly terrain

Can be used on many different teams without special equipment or adjustments

3 Major Ox Yokes

Source: http://www.taws.org/TAWS2004/TAWS04-Conroy-040419-A4-all.pdf

Shoe

Good

Bad

Glued shoe: glued with tabs to the outside hoof wall

- Allows to shoe a horse when there is no way to nail a shoe to the hoof, because the walls are broken or chipped away, or because the horse is too young.

- Cost is about $200 over the cost of four steel shoes- Do not stay on well in cold or wet climates because the glue will not hold

Two-piece shoe: steel shoe with a removable plastic insert, nail to the hoof with specially designed nails, and insert a plastic liner into the ground side of the steel shoe

- Adds cushioning to the hoof

- Costs about $150 over the cost of steel shoes- Hard to shape to hoof- Cannot be put on hot- Needs special tools to put on inserts and special nails to nail the shoe to the hoof

Aluminum shoe

Lightweight

Easy to work cold

Can be worked hot with some practice

Cost about $40 over four steel shoes

Wear away and need to be replaced more often than steel

Bends readily if the horse is a trailer or is a stall kicker

Plastic-coated steel or aluminum shoe

- Adds some cushioning that is kind on horses used on hard roads

- Four shoes cost about $100 over the cost of steel shoes

Difficult to shape to some feet

Cannot be put on hot

Too thick for some horses causing the horse to stumble

Horseshoes

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/village_smithy/horseshoes.htm

Shoe

Good

Bad

Plastic shoe

- Provides nice padding that cushions the hoof from shock, aiding in the recovery of hoof injuries and diseases that require cushioning (bruises and soft tissue injuries of the hoof and leg, or bone and joint problems)- Easy to fit to the hoof and can be trimmed with nippers, knife, or rasp

Cost about $40 over the cost of four steel shoes

Slippery on grass and wet pavement, but work better with grabs (traction devices on the ground side of the shoe)

Does not support the hoof equally, and the hoof wall will sometimes chip under the shoe, and mud or stones will collect between hoof and shoe

Nails are sometimes difficult to place

Does not hold up worth a hoot in the forge so cannot hot shoe

Steel shoe: has been around for nearly 2,000 years, has a proven track record, and is inexpensive

Easy to modify cold but easier hot

Can be welded and made into any needed shape

Gives good support to the entire hoof wall

Comfortable

Can be reset (used more than once) most of the time

Nails up nicely

Horseshoes (continued)

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/village_smithy/horseshoes.htm

They are great

maybe not?

Tread lightly on land and therefore causes less damage to it

Help plant and harvest their own fuel, making you less dependent on fossil fuels

Cost less than mechanized equipment, do not depreciate as rapidly, and do not break down often

Work well in hilly terrain

Can work soil that is wet

Let you easily work without human helpersproperly trained team follows voice commands

Slow pacegives you plenty of time to think while you work, making you less likely to get hurt in an accident

Offer companionship

Require training or needs to adjust to new owner

Owner must be trained and never stops learning

Owner needs patiencemust understand the animal even though it cannot tell the owner

Must be worked regularly to keep their bodies in condition and to remind them of their training

Require health care, veterinary checks, and vaccinations

Need frequent hoof trimming and maybe shoesshoeing requires the skill of an experienced professional

Eats even though there is no work to be done

Owners have to be with the animal everyday to feed, exercises, or work them, and to make sure the animal is okay

Require land to live on and to work

Draft Animals

Source: http://ruralheritage.com/horse_paddock/horsepower.htm

Problem

Solution

Becoming Stranded

When horses, mules or oxen came up missing, the wagon party was left at the mercy of the elements. If traveling alone, this could mean death along isolated stretches of the trail.

Traveling in a wagon train had its advantages. Pioneers rarely left a wagon train party behind. The unfortunate pioneers could trade or borrow animals from other wagon large teams.

If traveling as a lone wagon, the pioneer would have to search for the missing animal in hope of locating it before supplies ran out. Riding a horse to speed the search would increase the odds of success.

Livestock Theft

Animals were common targets for theft from unfriendly Native Americans or trail robbers. Horses were a favorite item. The slower and larger Oxen were not deemed useful for the native Americans, thus the least likely to be stolen.

Pioneers had to maintain watch when the animals were resting or grazing. This meant assigning armed men to keep watch over the animals each night.

Lost Animals

Source: http://www.sd129.org/goodwin/journ-4.htm#lost%20animal