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Educational Research
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Being a teacher educator: professional identitiesand conceptions of professional education
Fátima Pereira, Amélia Lopes & Margarida Marta
To cite this article: Fátima Pereira, Amélia Lopes & Margarida Marta (2015) Being a teachereducator: professional identities and conceptions of professional education, EducationalResearch, 57:4, 451-469, DOI: 10.1080/00131881.2015.1078142
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2015.1078142
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Being a teacher educator: professional identities and conceptions ofprofessional education
Fátima Pereira*, Amélia Lopes and Margarida Marta
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Centre for Research and Intervention inEducation (CIIE), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
(Received 9 June 2014; final version received 21 July 2015)
Background: This study consists of an analysis of the conceptions that teachereducators have of their work, identifying the relationship between their professionalidentities and their views of the professional qualities of the future teachers.Method and design: Semi-directive interviews with 19 teacher educators of a primaryeducation teachers course were held, and qualitative analysis was undertaken. It wasimportant to listen to the teacher educators in terms of meanings that were indicativeof their identities, of their conceptions of teaching in primary education and of thecorresponding professional teachers.Findings: The findings are grouped into four categories of professional identities ofteacher educators: academic, cooperative, dual and supervisor (the latter two beingmediating identities), and those different conceptions about school education and tea-cher professional work. The conceptions show similarities and divergences in termsof the knowledge that they think is important, their beliefs and personal values, thematters that they problematise and their performances as professional trainers andeducators of future teachers.Conclusions: These findings enable us to understand that the identity of teachereducators, in the case studied, is largely built on a foundation of past and presentexperience gained in the field of school education. The exception is of the academicsort of teacher educators, whose identity appears to be based on the restricted area ofinitial teacher education.
Keywords: teacher educator’s identities; initial teacher education; teaching as ahelping profession; mediation
Introduction
Contemporary social and educational conditions are characterised by deep and rapidchanges. Over recent decades, these have destabilised the institutions and referencepoints which are the foundations for the construction of social and professional identi-ties in Western countries (Dubet 2002). The complexity of work in education makes aholistic and profound understanding of these changes difficult; their nature, causes andconsequences are not immediately apparent (see Pereira 2010). Material, organisationaland behavioural changes on the surface emerge from invisible changes in values, societyand attitudes – not to mention the economy. To put it more abstractly, they arise fromthe axiological, relational and subjective aspects which are implied in the concept of‘teaching as a helping profession’.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
© 2015 NFER
Educational Research, 2015Vol. 57, No. 4, 451–469, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2015.1078142
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The consideration of teaching as a helping profession is based on phenomenologicalperspectives of the profession that emphasises the experiential dimension (relative to lifeexperience), as well as the ethics of the process of professionalisation (Sommers-Flanagan and Sommers-Flanagan 2007). In the particular instance of first CEB teachers(Teachers in the Primeiro Ciclo de Ensino Básico, i.e. Primary Education [the first fouryears of school]), the object of their work – the education of children – places a veryparticular emphasis on the affective dimension of the profession and its ethical,relational and support components (Pereira 2009). Therefore, initial teacher education(regarded as a secondary socialisation process) is responsible for the creation of theconditions of access to the profession, as well as of learning the knowledge related tothe specialised field of teaching. In addition, it leads to the formation of a basic profes-sional identity or ‘first’ identity (see Dubar 1996; Lopes and Pereira 2012).
This article intends to present and discuss one area of findings from a wider projectentitled ‘Initial teacher education of helping professionals and the identity of the educa-tors – the cases of teaching and of nursing’1. In this context, the project seeks to acquireknowledge about teacher educators’ identities as situated identity (the way in which thesocial and personal identity is translated into concrete identities). It builds knowledgeabout teaching as a helping profession and makes proposals for training modalities andorganisation. In this text, we focus on the conceptions that teacher educators have abouttheir work. Also, we seek to identify the specific features of the teaching profession inprimary education that may show the trainees how their professional skills, knowledgeand attitudes are shaped by their relationship with the identities of their trainers.
In this article, we present the main focus of the theoretical framework used, theresearch methodology and the findings. We end with a discussion of those findings.
Teaching as a helping profession and the new challenges for teachers in primaryeducation
Teaching as a helping profession
Viewing teaching as a ‘helping profession’ is justified by the understanding that it is anactivity generated in complex multidimensional interaction processes, where professionalknowledge takes shape and is used for the promotion of individuals and societies(Hugman 2005). ‘Help’ (or ‘care’) is interpreted from a psychosocial perspective thatconsiders the activity to be within the scope of certain professions as a type of work thatis produced in human relations, conditioning them and determining their impact on eachof the subjects that takes part in them. To this end, Fish (1998) considers that thedesignation ‘caring professions’ covers all the professions where the well-being of the‘client’ – in terms of health, education or social aspects of life – is the primary concernof the practitioner. This approach gives pride of place to a holistic conception of the pro-fession that takes into account not only its visible aspects but also the invisible (e.g. thepractitioner’s capacities, theories, beliefs and values, along with the moral dimension ofher or his practice). With reference to the training of these professionals, Fish (1998, 3)highlights the dimension of critical analysis of the practice as one of the essential compe-tencies that must be taken into account in order to ‘produce a critical appreciation of thepractice [that] involves the practitioner in the investigation of his or her own work’2. Inthis approach, we find a convergence of the concepts of ‘the reflective practitioner’ andof ‘the practitioner researcher’. These concepts were developed in relation to teachingprofessionalism, particularly in the 1980s and 1990s (Schön 1992; Stenhouse 1993;Zeichner 1993), and were important to the conceptual field of teacher education.
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Teaching has long been categorised as a helping profession, but that concept has notbeen translated into the specific theory and practice of initial teacher education. Theeducational relationship is the essence of teaching professionalism, and according toRibeiro (1992), it brings together aspects of authority, conflict, approval and help. Thisfocus on the ‘help’ aspect is related to new conceptions of the person, the citizen andsociety. It conveys new definitions of knowledge and appropriate behaviour, where self-expression, emotions, communication and human capacities occupy prominent positions(see Lopes 2001; Pereira 2013). On that subject, Tardif and Lessard (2005, 23) observethat ‘schooling rests basically on the daily interactions between teachers and pupils.Without those interactions the school is no more than a vast empty shell’. These interac-tions form the basis of social relations in the school, and are the main object of the tea-chers’ work and, consequently, we argue that they must be the focal point of the workof their trainers as well.
Narratives in initial teacher education that characterise the professional work of ateacher
Describing three types of discourse (formal curriculum, teaching practice reports andinterviews with teachers) that relate to the initial education of primary teachers, Pereira(2009) identified five different narratives3 that characterise the professional work of theteacher.
(1) The pedagogue (centred on the nature of the work that he or she does with thechildren; with the justifications and value judgments that he or she pronounceson it, with reference to a humanist ethic);
(2) The specialist (highlighting the cognitive dimension of the teaching task; justify-ing a cognitive-instrumental rationale and an ethic of expertise);
(3) The mediator (focusing on the mediation between children and the social man-dates governing school education, between science and pedagogy, and betweenthe experience of infancy in the world of life and socio-educative action; appeal-ing to an ethic of subjectivity and of service);
(4) The professional ‘under construction’ (referring to the professional researcher;reflective, critical, questioning and self-training; capable of calling his own workinto question; guided by a critical and self-transforming ethic);
(5) The professional at a critical point (highlighting the professional challengesinvolved in working with children and the difficulties of implementing the ideasdemanded of him or her; revealing a critical and reflective attitude towardsteaching; and a sense of ethical responsibility).
These narratives, which constitute heterotopic entities (see Foucault 1986), revealthe diversity of notions about the work of teachers, on the one hand, and on the otherhand, the coexistence of different referential models for initial teacher education relatedto the training profile of the future teachers. This also indicates the complexity thatcharacterises the teacher’s work, and the pain and distress factors caused by that com-plexity. This complexity is one of the main aspects that teacher educators must considerin their educational relationship with the teacher-students. Another pertinent aspect ofthose narratives is the fact that if the educational work of the teacher educators is moreinfluenced by one or another of those narratives, the impact on the teacher profile is
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different. Therefore, it is important to identify the influence of those narratives in theteacher educators’ discourses.
A state of flux: change in the teaching profession
A teacher’s professional challenge must be understood in the context of the disintegra-tion of the social and political consensus that affects the organisation of the modernschool, and of the fracturing of the socio-ethical and ontological mandates for the workof teachers (Pereira 2011). This problem translates into the daily experience of riskyinteractions, that is, interactions characterised by the unpredictability of the behaviour ofothers, and which at any moment can lead to a breakdown of order (Derouet 1993).The professional concern of individual teachers is significant if one accepts that theteaching profession is at a critical point, and is related to a cognitive problem (seeCorreia, Matos, and Canário 2002). This is a problem in terms of the performances andways of expressing meanings that teachers resort to in order to make sense of and todirect their work with children – in other words, acting and signifying in ways whichare fundamental in the educational relationship.
The educational relationship, which is the core of the primary teacher’s professionallife (Pereira and Lopes 2009), has a strong component of mutual assistance and ofworking with others. This component tends to have a low profile in the professionaleducation of teachers, staying on the periphery of training programmes.
Dubet (2002) considers that school education, like health and social work, is ‘work-ing on the other’ (42), meaning that it is work explicitly aimed at transforming the livesof others, which was originally set up with reference to a modern institutional pro-gramme, a programme that has supported the construction of contemporary institutions.This programme is a social process from which values and principles are transformedinto action and into subjectivity through a specific and organised profession. The pro-gramme consists of three levels that make up the professional action of these careerteachers and are to be articulated and given direction. The three levels are social control,service and relationships. These levels are currently becoming more autonomous, andthis is a process which intrinsically produces contradictory logic. This puts the task oflegitimising teachers’ work into their own hands (Derouet 1993), and, therefore, makesnew demands on the teachers as individuals and on their professional training anddevelopment.
In this context, the teaching profession confronts challenges that oblige the rethink-ing of the training conditions of teachers, with emphasis on initial education and therelationship of theory to practice that it engenders.
Teaching practice is considered ‘an original and relatively autonomous space forlearning and training’ (Tardif, Lessard, and Gauthier 2000, 23). Accordingly, the wholeapprenticeship is converted into the trainee’s own experience. For this reason, teachereducation demands ‘a constant shuttling between practice and training, betweenprofessional experience and research, between teachers and university educators’ (Tardif,Lessard, and Gauthier 2000, 24). In other words, it demands a shuttling betweenteacher-mentors in schools and teacher educators in universities.
The current neoliberal tendency concerning educational policies is an important partof the changes in the teaching profession and it puts in question its ‘helping’ dimension.As stated by Grimaldi (2012, 1132) ‘notwithstanding the specificities of localre-contextualisations, the widespread influence of a heterogeneous set of neoliberal
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discourses has the power to weaken and divert education policies intended to pursuesocial justice and inclusion’. In Portugal, this tendency, as in other countries where ithas impact in educational policies, creates practices of governability that transfer thesocial and economic problems to the responsibility of the individuals. This passage ismade by a self-regulatory process that makes the individuals responsible for their owncare (Webb, Gulson, and Pitton 2014). It is argued, therefore, that the impact ofneoliberal policies in the teacher profession tends to produce forms of accountabilitypertaining to school education in general and of teachers’ work in particular, that affectthe educational relationship that teachers develop with the students and the professionalrelationships they have with colleagues.
Being a teacher educator and primary teacher professionalisation
Changes in primary teacher professionalisation in Portugal
The professionalisation of teachers in Portugal took place in a profoundly complexsocio-historic process, full of tensions and contradictions of various kinds (see Nóvoa1995). In the case of primary teachers, their professionalisation has undergone deepchanges in recent decades, in terms of the academic degree conferred, the curriculum,the training context and their relationship with the context of work (see Lopes et al.2007). This has provoked changes in the ‘first’ professional identity of the teachers andin their professional career. In a process clearly intended to increase the social value ofthe profession, initial teacher education in Portugal from 1974 onwards (the beginningof the process of democratisation) was integrated into higher education (in colleges ofeducation in the polytechnic institutes or in the universities). Prospective teachers stud-ied for the degree Licenciatura (the first degree earned after four or five years of study).Recently, the plan of study was restructured as a result of the Bologna Process4 and allteachers will have to have a master’s degree (the second cycle of higher education). Inprevious studies, it has been shown that in some cases, the progressive upgrading of ini-tial teacher education, notably during the 1990s, had a positive impact on the ‘scientific’education of the teachers. But it has been argued that this brought a weakening of the‘professional’ training dimensions (Buchberger et al. 2000), at least in comparison toprevious periods. In particular, after the democratic revolution of 25 April 1974, therewas an effective investment in the professional education of teachers, or, in other words,in the education of teachers as professionals (Lopes et al. 2007).
An analysis of the course programmes of the 1990s shows that they consist mostlyof theoretical content and bibliography (as opposed to accounts of what happened inprevious periods). This fact allows us to advance the hypothesis that the course pro-grammes have undergone ‘academicisation’. In this way, they became theoreticalenough to be intellectually ‘worthy’ of a university degree. This phenomenon couldhave been strongly related to the emphasis that the teacher educator placed on their sta-tus as higher education teachers, or with the curricular organisation where the universityethos could have also made itself felt – or to both. In any case, independently of theirprofessional background and identities at the start, the teacher educator, in fact, adoptedbehaviour more informed by the academic world than by the professional world ofschool teaching (Lopes and Pereira 2012).
In fact, the Bologna Declaration (19/06/99) had profound consequences on therestructuring of higher education in Portugal and, consequently, in initial teacher educa-tion. In 2007, a new policy on teacher education was set to converge with the Bologna
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Process, then, a new legal system5 of professional qualification for pre-school, primaryand secondary school teachers was defined. A certification requirement of two studycycles for teaching was proposed, including, in the case of primary teachers, a bache-lor’s degree in elementary education (three years) and a master’s degree (two years) witha certificate for teaching.
Training courses include the following components: training in general education;specific didactic education; introduction to professional practice; cultural, social andethical education; educational research methodologies and teaching practice.
The component of ‘introduction to professional practice’ should provide studentteachers with ‘experience in planning, teaching and assessment in accordance with rightsand duties assigned to teachers within and outside the classroom’; this component mightallow for continuous professional development and the instauration of a critical andreflective attitude regarding everyday school professional challenges, processes andperformance.
A teacher may teach in primary school with a master’s degree in PreschoolEducation and Primary Education, or in Primary Education and Elementary Education(5th and 6th grades of schooling), or in Primary Education only.
Initial teacher education and identities
The process of constructing professional identities is characterised by biographic andrelational transactions (Dubar 1996), and initial teacher education has a founding role intheir construction (Blin 1997).The relational transaction is established between the train-ers and the training context. As a process of secondary socialisation, initial teachereducation is responsible for the conditions of access to the profession, and learning whatis involved in the specialised field of education. The effect of formative life experiencesinvolved in the construction of the professional identity depends on the ‘situated’interactions; in other words, the way in which the social and personal identities aretranslated into concrete identities – ‘situated identities’ (Hewitt 1991). This is possiblein the context of training, given the way it is structured, but also given the roles playedby the participants. The perceptions and conceptions of the teacher educator about theprofessionalisation of teachers, the specific nature of teaching work and of the missionthat is conferred upon them by society are essential aspects of a knowledge that caninform pertinent transformations in the formative dynamics of initial teacher education.
Murray and Male (2005, 126) distinguish between the work of the teachers, con-sidering it to be ‘first-order practice’ and the work of the trainers of future teachers,which is a ‘second-order practice’. These professionals – practitioners of the secondorder – introduce their students to practices and discourses that are simultaneously rele-vant to school teaching itself and to training school teachers. The situation mentionedby the authors covers, in particular, the TE who began as teachers and later opted for arole in initial teacher education. Referring to this concept from Murray and Male(2005), Swennen, Volman, and Essen (2008), emphasise that, in these cases, the second-order practices, apart from being necessary for acquiring new knowledge and skills, alsoinvolve a process of reconfiguring their professional identities that may be of long dura-tion. Along those lines, Boyd and Harris (2010) speak of a second career and dual iden-tity. To those authors, primary education teachers who become teacher educatorsexperience a very challenging and problematic transition. This is because of the tensionsand standards that exist in higher education, including the specifics of the academic sub-ject, relationships between equals and relationships with schools that welcome (or at
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least accept) trainees. This transition is reflected in the reshaping of their identities,which, in the study on which it is based, it seems, gets closer to their original identityas teachers than to a newly constituted identity. Korthagen (2005), based on the researchof various authors (Schön 1983; Munby, Russel, and Martin 2001; Bass, Anderson-Patton, and Allender 2002; Loughran et al. 2004), states that speaking of teachereducators covers a great diversity and multidimensionality of roles and social actors. Inconvergence with this idea, Zeichner (2010a) highlights the complexity of the role ofteacher educators, and talks about ‘hybrid educators’.
Initial teacher education and its influence on professional practice
One of the main questions asked about the work of teacher educators and initial teachereducation in general is about the difficulty of significantly influencing the professionalpractice of the future teachers. These teachers may, in fact, be more influenced by schoolculture and the constraints of the classroom that are commonly referred to as ‘practiceshock’. As Korthagen (2010a) observes, many studies in diverse countries have revealedthat newly trained teachers confront great difficulties in dealing with the problems theyexperience with their classes, and implement little of what they had learned in their train-ing. One of the main reasons for those difficulties is related to what is traditionally calledthe ‘theory-practice gap’ in teacher education. Although this gap was highlighted longago by Dewey in 1904, it remains a ‘central problem of teacher education world-wide’(as quoted in Korthagen 2010b, 408). Teacher education, as a university institution, hasdifficulty breaking the theory-to-practice model, and, although it is professional training,the hegemony of theoretical knowledge remains a problem with a difficult resolution.Zeichner (2010b, 124) observes, ‘One of the central problems that has plagued collegeand university based pre-service teacher education for many years (is) the (disconnect)between the components of the programmes in the campus and the school’. The authorargues that the work of creating curricular dimensions that articulate scientific andexperiential knowledge in teacher education represents a paradigm shift in the epistemol-ogy of teacher education programmes. It is possible that the articulation of the academicknowledge, the practical knowledge and the knowledge that exists in the communitycould produce forms of teacher learning that are less hierarchical in epistemologicalterms than they are in the current context of teacher education (Zeichner 2010b).
Research questions
The main research questions that informed the data analysis were: what are the percep-tions that teacher educators have about their work and the work of school teachers; andhow are those perceptions related to their identities?
More specifically: What type of knowledge do the teacher educators refer to andvalue in their discourses? What kind of beliefs and values do they have about theirwork and the work of school teachers? What are their perceptions about the professionalactivity of the teacher educators and of the school teachers? What kind of problems doteacher educators refer to when thinking about their work and the work of schoolteachers?
Methodology
The study was developed according to ethical proceedings in research. The initialteacher education institution, where we contacted the participants, signed a research
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agreement with the coordinator of the project; all the teacher educators who haveparticipated in the study signed an informed consent that explained the goals and proce-dures of the research, the specific goals of the interview, the possibility of abandoningthe study at any time they desired to without constraints and the guarantee of data confi-dentiality and access to the study results.
Semi-directive interviews with 19 teacher educators in a primary teacher educationcourse were held. Of those, 14 were university-based teacher educators and five school-based teacher educators (cooperating teaching practice supervisors). A qualitativeresearch method was selected (Lessard-Hébert, Goyette, and Boutin 1994), since it wasimportant to listen to the educators in terms of meanings that are indicative of theiridentities, and of their conceptions of teaching in primary education and of thecorresponding ‘professional teacher’.
An initial guiding script was drafted for the collection of the information, in accor-dance with the aspects considered to be fundamental to the objectives of the project. Ithad the additional function of organising the interviews without sacrificing the flexibilitythat is fundamental to the process of qualitative research. The guiding script consideredthe past, present and future of the teacher educator’s professional life, focusing onaspects such: entrance to the profession, its evolution, and the facilities and difficultiesof this process (these questions related to the past); the different meanings around beinga teacher educator and the main components of professional development (these ques-tions related to the present); and the ideal model of being a teacher educator and thechanges that must be made for achieving this model (these questions related to thefuture).
The data collected were submitted to content analysis in accordance with an induc-tive logic supported in technical terms by the programme Nvivo9. The analysis con-sisted in a first stage that identified some emergent categories and made possible theformulation of an open model of analysis. This model organised the second stage analy-sis that made possible the identification of some subcategories for each category. Thefinal model was introduced in the Nvivo9 programme and the technical work of analysiswas completed. The analysis gave rise to a metasystem of categories that take intoaccount: (1) contextual aspects, including: an appreciation of training in the school interms of relations between equals, the quality of the training and the characteristics ofthe students; and (2) personal aspects, including: personal characteristics, history priorto starting teacher education, starting to be a teacher educator, being a teacher educator,views of the relationship between theory and practice, feelings about the work today,views of the management element and views of the research component.
After this first analysis, we observed that the discourses revealed differences accord-ing to the specific characteristics of the career and teaching experience of the teachereducator. The content analysis suggested that the identities of the teacher educatorscould be better understood if we interpreted those discourses according to their relationto four categories of teacher educator: (1) those who only had experience of teaching asteacher educator, whom we call ‘academic’; (2) those who had already been teachers ofprimary or secondary education, whom we call ‘dual’; (3) those who were solelysupervisors; and (4) those who were ‘cooperating teachers’ (school teachers that super-vise the student’s internship in the schools). The discourses were then reorganised interms of these categories of teacher educator and having four subcategories in each: thetype of knowledge that is explained or valued; beliefs and values; what is questioned;what is brought into focus concerning the professional practice of the teacher educator
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and the future teacher. Table 1 presents the study participants according to the overallcategories.
Findings
Conceptions, knowledge, values and questionings of teacher educators about theirwork
In terms of findings, the analysis identifies different conceptions of the teaching profes-sion between supervising educators, cooperating teachers, teacher educators who werepreviously teachers in basic education (which corresponds to a dual identity in terms ofBoyd and Harris 2010), and ‘pure’ academics.
Analysis showed that dual teacher educators refer much more to the school and tothe professional practice of the teachers that they aim to train than do those of the aca-demic category. The terms with which they do so are also substantially different. Alongthese lines, the comments of the cooperating teachers focus on the professional abilitiesof the primary teachers, with few references to knowledge, beliefs, values and problem-atic issues. That of the supervisors reveals their mediating role between the places oftheory (the institution of higher education) and of practice (the school context).
On the type of knowledge that is explained or valued, the dual teacher educatorsrefer, above all to: the knowledge that results from post-graduate courses and itsrelevance to the subject matter of teaching; knowledge of the educational sciences; theself-training perspective; lifelong learning; and the dimension of the projects and thereflexivity of knowledge related to the school context and realities:
We have to train ourselves, to qualify ourselves; it is constant and permanent scientificupdating that will make us good professionals. (Interviewee 8)
Understanding the utility of the educational sciences (…) always from a problem-solvingpoint of view. (I7)
The experience shared by school teachers in training is very important – the informationabout the work in schools, conversing, incorporating and transforming that into commonreflection is absolutely determinant. (I14)
Above all, the academic teacher educators bring out research as professional upgradingand updating, and the importance of attending post-graduate courses voluntarily and asan obligation. Reflections on practice result, fundamentally, from academic teachereducators’ relationship with future teachers, and are expressed in terms of the theory–practice relationship:
I try to get interaction between me and the students so that the theoretical information willbe constructed during the lesson. (I1)
Table 1. Participants’ categorisation.
Category Age range Years of service range
Five academic teacher educators Between 25 and 50 years old Between 1 and 25 yearsSix dual teacher educators Between 45 and 60 years old Between 10 and 40 yearsThree supervisors Between 25 and 40 years old Between 5 and 10 yearsFive cooperating teachers Between 30 and 40 years old Between 10 and 15 years
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There’s no practice without theory, but no theory floats in the air. (I3)
The supervisors bring out, above all, the project aspect of research, its praxeologicaldimension, and its impact on contexts of action, specifically in terms of research-action:
The research I do is rooted in the study of practice. (I9)
The lifelong learning perspective and the importance of the relationship of theory topractice are also underlined. The statements of the cooperating teachers bring one toconsider the perspective of a knowledge network in which the ‘interns’ are seen as theirpartners, and the practice of teaching has a vital role.
On beliefs and values, all four groups of teacher educators identified regularities anddivergences. As regular occurrences among the dual and academic teacher educators,the personal, social and civil aspects of training stand out:
Training autonomous people with the capacity to work. (I12)
Valuing the other. (I13)
Freedom to think. (I8)
The capacity to question things and to be self-critical, but in a constructive sense. (IA6)
Flexible, ready to discuss things, receptive to new ideas, capable of global responses thatpermit a link between the local and the global. (I7)
Among the dual teacher educators, the supervisors and the cooperating teachers, theregularities are connected with beliefs and values relative to the aspect of education as ahelping profession:
We have to develop the human beings so that later they may be good teachers. (I10)
Taking into account the needs of the trainees and of the school context (…) generosity.(I11)
Interactive professions. (I2)
Spirit of sacrifice. (I18)
We find, too, particularities that need to be considered. Thus, the academic teachereducators highlight values relative to dialogue, to meeting the demands of the job, torigour in the exercise of the profession and to collaborative work:
Institutions will think in a more collective way about themselves (…) people’s willingnessto work together. (I6)
Dual teacher educators are the subgroup that most often refers to beliefs and values thatconcern professionalisation, school education and the profession of the teacher. Talkingabout professionalisation, they draw attention to ‘respect for the terrain, for practices,
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and for what they bring to the training course (…) We have to train people who have aflexible spirit, who adapt to new realities’ and ‘Being a teacher educator is to make acommitment to yourself and to the surrounding social fabric’ (I8).
As for school education, beliefs and values point to a school for everyone and forwork, but also as a place for fun and to be happy. The teaching profession is referred toas a vocation, a work of great complexity, implication and seriousness:
The pedagogical act is done with people, has to be framed in the social setting, and is anact of complexity. (I5)
Teachers provide an excellent service, are competent and strict. (I10)
Supervisors focus above all on pragmatism and professionalism with values. Finally, thecooperating teachers underline the social importance of primary school teachers.
Among all categories of teacher educators, questioning refers to the alterations thatThe Bologna Process brought to the curriculum, and implied the teaching practicecomponents only developed in the second cycle of training – the master’s degree:
I don’t view the reduction in contact hours favourably. (I1)
They reach the master’s degree very badly prepared. (I7)
Sometimes they feel very insecure because they’ve had very little pedagogical practice. (I9)
They start their internship late. (I17)
The changes provoked by the Bologna Process are at the heart of the questions of allcategories of teacher educators, although they draw attention to different aspects of thesechanges. Those of the academic category essentially question the characteristics of thenew students:
I note that the students reach us with fewer research skills, with fewer organisational skills,and less able to work independently of the teacher. (I4)
The dual teacher educators reveal a more reflective, wide-ranging and (self-) criticalviewpoint:
The teachers themselves are in trouble with the autonomous work, with monitoring it. (I10)
This business of contact hours and autonomous work is a fallacy, put on to serve the inter-ests of cost-cutting economists. (I8)
We need a more solid basic training, less compartmentalised. (I5)
Before the beginning of Bologna there should have been more debate, more reflection.(I13)
The supervisors question the aspects of the Bologna Process that altered theprofessionalisation:
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Lack of training for the professional profile in the Licenciatura (the three-year first degree). (I11)
The cooperating teachers question the practical aspect of the training:
The analysis of the practice is compartmentalised – the science teacher comes along, thenthe math teacher comes along … (I16)
In differential terms, the absence of questioning must be noted around aspects relativeto teaching in primary education, and to the profile of the teacher being trained. Theacademic teacher educators, whose views can be seen as a counterpoint to the rest ofthe categories of teacher educator, centre a lot of their questioning on those aspects. Thedual teacher educators, though, worry about school justice and difficulties with the the-ory–practice relationship:
Some students in the internship can create stigmas over some school pupils. (I14)
Here there’s no intrusion of pedagogical practice on the dynamic of the lessons. (I7)
Here you don’t have any chance of diving into the school atmosphere. (I10)
The supervisors question the fact that ‘The meeting of the cultures of higher educationand of the schools never was or is easy’ (I9), and admit that students have difficulties in‘transforming the academic subject knowledge into professional knowledge’ (I2).
The cooperating teachers are centred on the problems of the pedagogical practice ofthe future teachers:
They lack enough practice. The battle has been lost. They don’t have depth of thought tothink for themselves. (I15)
On the professional activity of the teacher educators and of the teachers, the analysisof the interviews follows the tendency of the previous discussion. It also allows us todifferentiate the academic teacher educator from the other categories in terms of allusionto professionalism in basic education, which is almost absent in the academic teachereducator but frequent and emphasised in the rest. References to professionalism in basiceducation by the dual teacher educators, supervisors and cooperating teachers take usback to the concept of the helping professional:
The training to help to be better people. (I10)
A teacher has got to have firmness in one hand and affection in the other. (I13)
I think that in this case generosity will be the central axis. (I2)
We must be prepared for the problems of the pupils. (I19)
Make the school a space of freedom for those children to experience things that they neverexperienced before. (I13)
Curiously, it is also, above all, in teacher educators of those categories in which onefinds most references to the aspect of ‘helping’ in the professional life of the teacher
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educator. In the case of dual teacher educators and of supervisors, this often translatesinto a mixing of the professional practice of the teacher educator and the teacher:
Supervision is helping. (I11)
Accompanying the students, being available, giving them guidelines. (I7)
Refining this notion of accompanying the students even more so that they can develop theirautonomy. (I10)
For dual teacher educators, being a teacher educator is more of a mediational,interactive and cooperative profession, where questions of an ethical and praxiologicalnature cut across all dimensions of the work:
I interact with all my colleagues and there’s mutual recognition. (I10)
Partnership and support of colleagues. (I14)
It’s fascinating – we learn from the context, from the pupils, from challenges that they con-front us with. (I5)
Being available to integrate them into the reality of school, to make this connection. (I8)
The ideal teacher is the one who doesn’t teach anything but from whom the pupils learneverything. (I13)
In the discourse of the supervisors, the mediational aspect of the teacher educator’sprofessional activity assumes considerable importance, highlighting such concepts asreflection, a critical sense and the relationship between theory and practice:
An analysis grounded in reality and ending by transforming it. (I2)
Respect for the territory, for its practices, for what they bring to the training. (I11)
The first (priority) will be to get pleasure (out of the job), and the second to make a linkbetween theory and practice. (I9)
Curiously, the cooperating teachers emphasise the fact that they do not just consti-tute a ‘help, integration into the practical side (of classroom and school), (they) put willand direction’ into the trainees on teaching practice, but also learn with them:
Now the stage is yours. Give ’em a bit of freedom. It ends up being a cooperative task(…) we learn too. (I17)
And they renovate their own practice:
Having new blood is always rejuvenating; it spices up the lesson. (I19)
As we have already seen in the case of academic teacher educators, the focus isabove all: on the professional activity of the teacher educator; and on basic educationconcentrating in only the most general aspects of professional activity – the holistic
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education of children, the importance of pedagogic differentiation and of a close educa-tional relationship. Although we found a few references to teacher educator as a helpingprofession:
Transmission of knowledge, giving the student the chance to grow both as a person and asa future worker with job skills. (I3)
Being a teacher educator is, moreover, a scientifically-informed professional role:
(There are) gains for the students from the post-graduate courses that the teacher educatorstake. (I1)
It has a technique: Pedagogical and didactic skills. (I4)
It is dialogic: It gives pride of place to interpersonal relationships, creating communica-tion strategies in the classroom. (I12)
It is ethical: Working with attitudes that give responsibility at various levels for theindividual or collective work that they do in each subject. (I6),
And it provides: The teacher as model. (I12)
Being a teacher educator and being a teacher: professional activities andmediations
Analysis suggests that the teacher educators’ conceptions denote professional identitieswith different characteristics according to their past or to current links to the context ofteaching practice in basic education. It is hardly surprising that happens; the fact is thatwhen we take into account what is common and what is specific in these identities, wecan clarify some implications of those conceptions for the professionalisation of primaryteachers. These findings enable us to identify and highlight two kinds of mediationidentities between the institution of higher education and the school, represented by thedual teacher educators and by the supervisors. In fact, the ideas that are expressed, andthe sort of knowledge that is valued by these teacher educators are revealing of situatedidentities (Hewitt 1991) made up by contextual and biographical aspects. These are pro-duced on both the field of teacher education and the field of school education. For thatreason, those identities make it possible to create mediation phenomena, explicit andimplicit, between the two institutions.
The ‘help’ dimension is to be seen as an important aspect of the ideas of the teachereducators, according to both the professionalism that they intend to teach and their ownprofessional career. This is more significant in those teacher educators with schoolteaching experience. It raises some considerations of possible effects in terms of thatwhich Murray and Male (2005) regard as a second-order education. Following Murrayand Male (2005), we argue that the work of the teacher educator is aimed at introducingthe students to practices and discourses which are, simultaneously, relative to schoolteaching and to teacher education. The meanings and representations that constitute theidentity of those professionals condition the type of knowledge that shapes second-ordereducation, and the relationship that it institutionalises in its transmission. Therefore, weinfer that those teacher educators shape their second-order teaching with reference to thecharacteristics of the helping profession that they identify – both in the professionalism
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to be taught and in their own professional practice. Analysing the aspects that are underthe heading of ‘help’, we find that the professional, to be trained, has, essentially, moral,relational and communicational qualities. These also stand out as the essential charac-teristics of the teacher educators. This convergence, between what they think about themain characteristics of teacher educators and of the future school teachers, is at the coreof their identity. This enables us to consider that, beyond revealing mediational identi-ties, the dual teacher educators and the supervisors also form what Zeichner (2010a)calls ‘hybrid educators’-their professional identities are constituted by references to lifeexperience in the context of school education and teacher education.
Nonetheless, the dimension of critical analysis of the practice, referred to by Fish(1998, 3) as one of the essential competencies that must be taken in consideration aboutthe helping professions, is not considered in the perspectives of those teacher educators.This competency ‘produces a critical appreciation of the practice [that] involves thepractitioner in the investigation of his or her own work’ (Fish 1998, 3) and could be amain resource to deal with the problems that affect the daily life of the schools and thequality of the students’ education.
We suggest that the impact of the global neoliberal policies in education, especiallyin the last decade, and the austerity policies in Portugal in the recent years, have intensi-fied the difficulties of building a democratic school education and a school where all thestudents can have success. On the contrary, the increase in the number of students perclass, the managerialism forms of government of the schools, the accountability schoolpractices and the drastic reductions of the education resources are changing the condi-tions of the professional teachers’ identity construction in unknown ways. For that rea-son, the critical appreciation of the practice is an unavoidable competency which mustbe introduced in teacher education.
Also, the aspects that are currently regarded as big challenges for teachers and tothe organisation of school education, and that are a factor in professional angst (Derouet1993; Correia, Matos, and Canário 2002), as well as the ‘identity crisis’ in this profes-sional group (Lopes and Ribeiro 2000), are not mentioned in the interviews. The aspectsthat are questioned there would benefit from being linked to the problems in schooleducation. Thus, there are questions such as school justice and the contextualisation inthe school, of the knowledge acquired in initial teacher education. These questions, –found at the heart of the problem of the relationship of theory and practice – can bereflections of (and understood in relation to) the intense sociocultural transformations oflate modernity (Giddens 1992). They can also be reflections of the specific conditionsof teaching in primary education (Pereira and Lopes 2009; Pereira 2010). Profes-sionalism, at that level of education, is characterised, in a particularly intense form, as awork of effective relationships and with highly invisible components for the traditionalmodes of knowledge production. Those modes have established their hegemony overthe curriculum of the initial education of these professionals. The dimension of social-isation and of ‘work on the other’ (Dubet 2002), not being explicitly the object of train-ing, due to its apparent exteriority relative to the cognitive dimension – a centralconcern of school teaching – is introduced into professionalism in order to disrupt.
It can be argued that the sociocultural problems that affect schools today destabilisethe socialisation processes of schooling and of the educational relationships that theycreate. The traditional gap between theory and practice, in initial teacher education, doesnot allow us to comprehend this destabilisation or to construct adequate professionalresponses. This is, in part, because this gap does not envisage forms of mediation thatcontribute to the transformation of the theory into systems of professional action
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(know-how). That impossibility makes ‘reality shock’ (Korthagen 2010a) inevitable, andwith it, gives daily experience of risky interactions.
Despite being sensitive features in initial education, and because of the difficulty ofputting them into practice, the components of personal and social training, collaborativeendeavour, the theory–practice relationship and pedagogy are highlighted by the teachereducators as very important in the profile of the professional trainee. If we consider thenarratives about the professional practice of teaching employed by primary school teach-ers referred to in Pereira (2010), we can identify indications of them in the interviewsanalysed. Thus, the narratives relative to most of the indications are identified withrespect to the professional ‘pedagogue’ and to the professional ‘under construction’, andrefer to all categories of teacher educator in general, but to the professional specialist inthe academic teacher educator. In particular, we do not find any signs of the narrativesof the ‘professional mediator’ and the ‘professional in crisis’. This may show that, inthe conception that teacher educators have of their work, the institutional aspects of theprofession in primary education are not considered. It may also show that the decline ofthe modern schooling institution (Dubet 2002) is not worth linking to the organisationof the initial education of future professionals who will have to try to make theseinstitutions work. It could also signify that by not considering the context of profes-sional practice of primary teachers as a crisis, the aspects that may have produced it arenot the object of explanation and reflection in training. Consequently, the underlyingproblems will not be regarded as topics that are fit for study, explanation or debate inthe training course. We would suggest that avoiding difficult issues will only make itharder for the new teachers to confront a reality that will necessarily demand cognitive,pedagogical and ethical measures from them to combat the unavoidable futurechallenges of the teacher’s work.
Final reflections
We set out in search of the notions that primary education teacher educators had of theirwork, with the intention of understanding the identities that they show us and their rela-tionship to the professional qualities of the future teachers that they are training. Wehave identified four categories of teacher educator: academic, cooperating, dual andsupervisor (the last two being mediational identities). The conceptions of the teachereducators show similarities and divergences in terms of the knowledge that they think isimportant, their beliefs and personal values, the matters that they problematise and theirperformances as professional educators of future teachers. In the case studied, these datahelp us to understand that the identity of the teacher educators is constituted, to a largeextent, by reference to the past and present experience spent in the field of schooleducation; with the exception of academic teacher educator, whose identity seems to benarrowed to their initial teacher education.
In the group of 19 teacher educators that we interviewed, only 5 were of the aca-demic type. It would, thus, be reasonable to anticipate that the relationship of theory topractice might not emerge explicitly as a significant problem. But this was not the case,however. It looks as though the difficulty of transforming academic knowledge into pro-fessional ‘know-how’ that is adequate for the current sociocultural context of the school,remains one of the biggest challenges and problems in initial teacher education. Themediating identities that we identify, we suggest, have a significant role to play increating the possibilities for that transformation.
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It is important to clarify the aspects of the mediation and their relevance to theconstruction of training measures that take into account the institutional experience ofthe school. This can produce new and contextualised knowledge about the forms of lifein teacher education and in school education that enable us to deal with the currentschool education problems. The inadequacy of teacher education to deal with the com-plex and problematic context of school education is related to the forms of knowledgeproduction and teaching in teacher education.
The study suggests that the mediational identities of teacher educators – dual teachereducator and supervisor – have more awareness about the phenomenology of schooleducation, and are more able to consider this phenomenology in the teacher educationpractices and in the educational programmes.
Considering the number of teacher educators interviewed, these results are contextu-alised, and, as so, also limited. Further research would clearly be needed, with a widerscope, in order to examine in greater depth the perceptions that teacher educators haveabout their work and the work of school teachers, considering their identities.
FundingThis work was funded (in part) by National Funds through the FCT – Fundação para a Ciência ea Tecnologia (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) within the strategic project ofCIIE, with the ref. PEst-OE/CED/UI0167/2014.
Notes1. Project developed at the Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação at the
Universidade do Porto, funded by ERDF – European Regional Development Fund throughthe COMPETE Programme (operational programme for competitiveness) and by NationalFunds through the FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (Portuguese Foundationfor Science and Technology), with the ref. PTDC/CPE-CED/113015/2009.
2. Our translation and back translation.3. In this study, the concept of ‘narrative’ refers to public or private stories that we identify and
integrate into our perception and cognition of the world, conditioning the interpretation thatwe put upon the incidents and the social relationships, and guiding our actions and attitudes.These narratives are not restricted to a single statement or part of a text, but are formed fromdifferent texts and discourses, without the logic of the relationship that unites them in a singlenarrative being made explicit in any one of them (Somers and Gibson 1994).
4. See European Ministers of Education 1999.5. Law 43/2007, 22nd September.
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